VIRGIN ISLANDS NATIONAL PARK VIRGIN ISLANDS CORAL REEF NATIONAL MONUMENT - A Resource Assessment
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®
VIRGIN ISLANDS NATIONAL PARK March 2008
VIRGIN ISLANDS CORAL REEF NATIONAL MONUMENT
A Resource Assessment
®
Center for State of the Parks
More than a century ago, Congress established Yellowstone as the
world’s first national park. That single act was the beginning of a
CONTENTS
remarkable and ongoing effort to protect this nation’s natural,
historical, and cultural heritage.
Today, Americans are learning that national park designation REPORT SUMMARY 1
alone cannot provide full resource protection. Many parks are
compromised by development of adjacent lands, air and water pollu- VIRGIN ISLAND S AT A
tion, invasive plants and animals, and rapid increases in motorized
GLANCE 3
recreation. Park officials often lack adequate information on the
status of and trends in conditions of critical resources.
The National Parks Conservation Association initiated the State of RATINGS 4
the Parks® program in 2000 to assess the condition of natural and
cultural resources in the parks, and determine how well equipped the RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
National Park Service is to protect the parks—its stewardship capac- HIGHLIGHTS 9
ity. The goal is to provide information that will help policymakers,
the public, and the National Park Service improve conditions in
KEY F INDINGS 10
national parks, celebrate successes as models for other parks, and
ensure a lasting legacy for future generations.
For more information about the methodology and research used THE VIRGIN ISLAND S
in preparing this report and to learn more about the Center for State ASSESSMENT
of the Parks®, visit www.npca.org/stateoftheparks or contact: NPCA,
NATURAL RESOURCES 12
Center for State of the Parks®, P.O. Box 737, Fort Collins, CO 80522;
A Sanctuary, Above and Beneath
Phone: 970.493.2545; E-mail: stateoftheparks@npca.org.
the Sea
Since 1919, the National Parks Conservation Association has been CULTURAL RESOURCES 28
the leading voice of the American people in protecting and enhanc- Comprehensive Resource
ing our National Park System. NPCA, its members, and partners work Identification, Documentation,
together to protect the park system and preserve our nation’s natural, Protection, and Treatment Needed
historical, and cultural heritage for generations to come.
STEWARDSHIP CAPACITY 38
* More than 340,000 members
* 22 regional and field offices
* 35,000 activists APPENDI X:
METHODOLOGY 44
A special note of appreciation goes to those whose generous grants
and donations made the report possible: Dorothy Canter, Ben and
Ruth Hammett, and anonymous donors.
COVER PHOTO: KELLY O'ROURKE
REPORT SUMMARY
ELIZABETH MEYERS
1
Virgin Islands National Park / Virgin Islands Coral Reef National Monument
Few experiences compare to snorkeling through millions of tourists annually. Verdant islands and
tranquil turquoise waters, gliding effortlessly Located on St. John, Virgin Islands National turquoise waters draw
hundreds of thou-
among colorful fish, sea turtles, and spectacular Park was established in 1956 and comprises
sands of visitors to
coral formations; or walking along a warm, more than half the mountainous island’s land Virgin Islands National
white sand beach at sunset, swaying palms area. The park includes most of the north shore Park each year.
whispering in the evening breeze. Visions like and most of the central and southeast portions
this draw tourists to the Caribbean Islands, and of the island, including 7,259 acres of terrestrial
the U.S. Virgin Islands are no exception. St. and shoreline habitat and 5,650 acres of adja-
John, St. Thomas, and St. Croix, the three main cent submerged lands (off-shore underwater
islands of the U.S. Virgin Islands group, draw habitat, added to the park in 1962). The park
KYLE BRYNER
2
Virgin Islands National Park / Virgin Islands Coral Reef National Monument
The remains of also includes Hassel Island, located in Charlotte Park was designated as an International
hundreds of 18th- Amalie harbor on St. Thomas, which was added Biosphere Reserve by the United Nations
century plantation
in 1978. In 2001, Virgin Islands Coral Reef Education, Scientific, and Cultural Organization
structures are found
throughout Virgin National Monument was established to protect (UNESCO). The park was one of the first
Islands National Park. an additional 12,708 acres of submerged lands protected areas to receive this designation in the
The park lacks suffi- and associated marine resources around the United States. Of the hundreds of UNESCO
cient funds to locate, island. In sum, the Park Service owns and oper- biosphere reserves worldwide, it is one of only
document, and main-
ates nearly 57 percent of the land area of St. 30 containing both marine and terrestrial
tain all of them,
which means that John and more than 18,000 acres of offshore ecosystems. It provides vital habitat for 138 bird
nearly all are at risk underwater habitat. species, 400 reef-associated fish species, 17
of deteriorating. The park and monument offer protection to species of whales and dolphins, more than 230
unique features in St. John’s marine areas. Sea species of invertebrates, up to 13 reptile species,
turtles, fish, conchs, and lobsters rely on coral and a variety of corals and sponges. Many of the
reefs and seagrass beds as habitat. Virgin Islands species within the park’s and monument’s
National Park also protects some of the last borders, both underwater and terrestrial, are
remaining native tropical dry rain forest in the federally listed as endangered or threatened.
Caribbean. In 1976, Virgin Islands National The abundance and diversity of the park
units’ cultural resources rival that of their VIRGIN ISLANDS NATIONAL PARK AND
natural resources and include prehistoric
archaeological sites, hundreds of historic struc- VIRGIN ISLANDS CORAL REEF NATIONAL
tures, offshore shipwrecks, and museum collec- MONUMENT AT A GLANCE
tions that encompass artifacts dating as far back
as 840 BC. The Virgin Islands have been inhab- • The present economy of the U.S. Virgin Islands is based on
ited for at least 3,000 years, beginning with tourism. More than 2 million people, 64 percent from the
hunter-gathers of the Archaic Period. United States, visit annually. According to Park Service esti-
Settlements continued throughout prehistory mates, more than 677,000 people visited Virgin Islands
and ended with the Taino, the pre-Columbian National Park in 2006. Many come for the isolation in a popular
culture present when Columbus explored the island setting: Virgin Islands National Park boasts some of the
New World. When Europeans arrived, the most secluded and undeveloped beaches in the Caribbean. 3
Virgin Islands became a melting pot, inhabited More than 20 hiking trails wind through the mountainous park,
Virgin Islands National Park / Virgin Islands Coral Reef National Monument
by people who came from around the world to and scenic overlooks along roadways offer visitors spectacular
make a new life on the islands. These colonial views of sparkling water and white sand beaches.
settlements date from the 17th century through
• Forty-four percent of Virgin Islands National Park and 100
the 19th century. Visitors can explore the ruins
percent of Virgin Islands Coral Reef National Monument are
of hundreds of historic structures to get a sense
marine environments. Visitors can explore the seascapes by
of this history.
snorkeling and diving among more than 400 reef fish species.
Recognizing the significance of the natural
Trunk Bay boasts a self-guided, 255-yard snorkeling trail,
and cultural resources found within Virgin
marked with underwater signs identifying coral reef organisms.
Islands National Park and Virgin Islands Coral
Reef National Monument, NPCA’s Center for • Hurricane Hole on the east end of St. John may be the most
State of the Parks® assessed the current condi- pristine of the remnant mangrove habitats left in the U.S. Virgin
tions of these resources. Although the park and Islands (more than half of all mangroves in the U.S. Virgin
monument are two units of the National Park Islands have been destroyed—by a combination of develop-
System, their resources are intertwined and ment and natural forces—during the past 50 years). Mangroves
managed by the same staff, so they were provide vital ecological services: They filter sediment, serve as
assessed as a single unit. Center for State of the nursery areas for many coral reef fish species, and provide
Parks® researchers interviewed park staff, exam- nesting and roosting sites for birds.
ined resource conditions on the ground,
• Virgin Islands National Park is home to hundreds of historic
consulted Park Service experts, and reviewed
structures, including plantations, factories, fortifications,
available publications and documents.
schools, and thousands of house sites that were inhabited by
Researchers then analyzed this data using the
enslaved workers on the island.
Center for State of the Parks® comprehensive
methodology, in order to arrive at numerical • The waters of Virgin Islands Coral Reef National Monument
scores for natural and cultural resource condi- and Virgin Islands National Park may harbor the remains of
tions (see “Appendix”). The following report some of the 28 ships known to have wrecked in the vicinity of
describes Virgin Islands National Park and St. John between 1713 and 1916. In 2006, the park archaeolo-
Virgin Islands Coral Reef National Monument’s gist and a fellow researcher discovered shipwreck sites that
diverse natural and cultural resources, summa- require analysis and documentation, both to preserve their
rizes current conditions of those resources, illu- integrity and to advance knowledge of the maritime history of
minates resource threats, and describes some of St. John and the West Indies.
the ways resource managers are working to
improve resource conditions.
Note: When interpreting the scores for resource conditions, recognize that critical information upon which the ratings are based is not
always available. This limits data interpretation to some extent. For Virgin Islands National Park and Virgin Islands Coral Reef National
Monument, 68 percent of the information associated with the natural resource methods was available while 90 percent of the cultural
resource information was available.
RESOURCE CATEGORY CURRENT
NATURAL RESOURCES
Overall conditions 73 FAIR
Environmental and Biotic Measures 77
4 Biotic Impacts and Stressors 70
Virgin Islands National Park / Virgin Islands Coral Reef National Monument
Air 87
Water 82
Soils 80
Ecosystems Measures 68
Species Composition and Condition 67
Ecosystem Extent and Function 72
R AT I N G S S C A L E
CRITICAL POOR FA I R GOOD EXCELLENT
CULTURAL RESOURCES
Overall conditions 55 POOR
Cultural Landscapes 37
Ethnography (Peoples and Cultures) 35
Historic Structures 46
Archaeology 73
Museum Collection and Archive 68
History 53
R AT I N G S S C A L E
CRITICAL POOR FA I R GOOD EXCELLENT
The findings in this report do not necessarily reflect past or current park management. Many factors that affect resource conditions are a result
of both human and natural influences over long periods of time, in many cases pre-dating the park’s creation. The intent of the Center for State
of the Parks® is to document the present status of park resources and determine which actions can be taken to protect them into the future.
RATINGS identified and documented. To preserve some
Current overall conditions of the known of these structures, the park needs funds to
natural resources in Virgin Islands National support a crew of masons and other skilled
Park and Virgin Islands Coral Reef National craftsmen trained in historic preservation. The
Monument rated a “fair” score of 73 out of 100. park used to have four masons on staff, but
Non-native species, visitor damage, and habitat these positions were cut as a result of funding
fragmentation from the development of inhold- shortfalls.
ings are major concerns. Natural disturbances The parks need storage space to safely
and disease are also factors that threaten natural accommodate irreplaceable artifacts, and they
resources in the parks. must find the staff and funds to protect archae-
Land clearing and other agricultural practices ological sites from erosion and damage caused
of the colonial plantation system forever by trail clearing and increased visitation. 5
changed the natural landscape of St. John, intro- Numerous reports and studies have yet to
Virgin Islands National Park / Virgin Islands Coral Reef National Monument
ducing cultural features such as walls, terraces, receive funding, including historic resource
roads, and non-native plants. Natural distur- studies, a cultural landscape inventory, and
bances, including hurricanes and drought, have ethnographic studies. All of this work is time-
sensitive, but perhaps the most urgent are the The windmill at the
also shaped the parks in the past, and continue
Annaberg Sugar
to threaten the island’s ecosystem. Overfishing, ethnographic studies. Oral histories of people Plantation is one of
as well as anchor damage to reefs and seagrass who have ties to park resources must be gath- the park’s best-
beds, has hurt fishery resources. Boats are also a ered before the opportunities are lost forever. preserved structures.
leading source of pollution in these fragile
KELLY O’ROURKE
marine environments. Tourists who swim,
snorkel, and dive also inadvertently degrade reef
health by stepping on, kicking, or otherwise
damaging fragile coral and other reef organ-
isms. Non-native wild goats, hogs, donkeys,
rats, and cats have roamed the island for more
than a century, preying on sea turtle eggs, native
plants, lizards, and birds. Animal grazing erodes
the landscape and increases sediment in park
waters, which in turn reduces water quality. The
park does not have funds to hire staff dedicated
to controlling non-native species; instead, the
park relies on contractors as funds allow.
Overall conditions of the known cultural
resources in Virgin Islands National Park and
Virgin Islands Coral Reef National Monument
rated 55 out of a possible 100, indicating “poor”
conditions. With just one full-time cultural
resources staff member, one term curator, and
no funds to support research and preservation
projects, hundreds of historic structures
languish as dense tropical vegetation grows
around and destroys them. Many are being
reduced to rubble before they can be properly
Virgin Islands National Park / Virgin Islands Coral Reef National Monument
6
NATIONAL PARK SERVICE
Virgin Islands National Park / Virgin Islands Coral Reef National Monument
7
AN ISOLATED PARADISE ON A About 1,400 acres within the park are owned
POPULAR ISLAND by private interests and the Virgin Islands
St. John, with nearly 50 miles of shoreline, is government. The Park Service must make
surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean to the north purchases or trade to acquire these private
and the Caribbean Sea to the south. Located lands, known as “inholdings,” that are scattered
near the northeastern corner of the Caribbean throughout the park. These inholdings include
plate, St. John is the smallest of the three inhab- large parcels or clusters of parcels throughout
ited U.S. Virgin Islands. The island is situated the park, which are often subdivided and sold
about 70 miles east of Puerto Rico and measures for development. Recently, the Trust for Public
roughly nine miles long and five miles wide. Land, a conservation group, acquired 419 acres
Together, the U.S. Virgin Islands and British on Maho Bay. These lands are now safe from
8 Virgin Islands constitute the eastern extent of development, and they will be transferred to the
the Greater Antilles, part of the Antilles Island Park Service as funds become available in the
Virgin Islands National Park / Virgin Islands Coral Reef National Monument
Arc that separates the Caribbean Sea from the next few years.
Atlantic Ocean. In 2001, Virgin Islands Coral Reef National
Virgin Islands National Park was established Monument was established by a presidential
in 1956 as a result of a land donation to the proclamation to protect an additional 12,708
federal government from Laurence Rockefeller acres of submerged lands around St. John. This
and the Jackson Hole Preserve Corporation. In newly protected area is a “no-take” zone, which
1952, Rockefeller began purchasing more than means that fishing and other harvesting are not
half of the land on St. John with the intent of allowed, with the exception of bait-fish harvest-
preserving the majority as parkland and devel- ing at Hurricane Hole and blue-runner harvest-
oping a restored sugar plantation/resort on a ing that uses a rod and line.
portion of Caneel Bay. The Caneel Bay area, The climate of Virgin Islands National Park
currently maintained as an exclusive resort, is is temperate year-round, with mild, dry
privately operated. winters and warm, humid summers. Rain
Virgin Islands
KELLY O’ROURKE
National Park boasts
some of the most
secluded and unde-
veloped beaches in
the Caribbean.
During the busiest
months of the year,
however, beaches
are packed with
thousands of people
each day, which
strains park facilities
and can result in
resource damage.generally falls in brief showers lasting only a RESOURCE MANAGEMENT HIGHLIGHTS
few minutes, though storms can be severe.
Hurricane season extends from June through • Mooring Buoy and Marker Buoy Installation. Improper boat
November, and at least 12 major hurricanes anchoring and groundings damage coral reefs and seagrass.
and tropical storms have passed over St. John To minimize this damage, the Park Service has instituted
since the mid-20th century. Seven moderate or anchoring restrictions, installed a mooring buoy system, and
severe droughts have also occurred on the deployed marker buoys to warn boaters of shallow coral and
island during the 1900s. rocky areas.
The present economy of the U.S. Virgin
• Air Quality Monitoring. Virgin Islands National Park is
Islands is based on tourism, with the majority
involved in several air quality monitoring initiatives, including
of visitors coming from the United States.
Beginning in the 1950s, St. Thomas became a
the Interagency Monitoring of Protected Visual Environments 9
(IMPROVE) program, which focuses on visibility; the Clean Air
popular destination for Caribbean cruise ships
Virgin Islands National Park / Virgin Islands Coral Reef National Monument
Status and Trends Network (CASTNET); and the National
that sent passengers to St. John for day trips.
Atmospheric Deposition (NADP) and National Trends Network
Visitors to Virgin Islands National Park and
(NTN), which focus on dry and wet deposition of pollutants,
Virgin Islands Coral Reef National Monument
respectively.
are treated to some of the most isolated and
pristine beaches in the busy Caribbean. • Ongoing Research. Park staff are engaged in a host of inter-
Opportunities to swim among and observe disciplinary research projects that focus on coral disease, sedi-
coral seascapes by snorkeling and diving are mentation rates, fisheries population biology, and watershed
unparalleled. Local residents have adapted to delineation, to name several. Partnerships with universities, the
the development that tourism has brought with Sierra Club, and Elderhostel help the park take on cultural
it. The island—which once harbored fewer than resource projects and research that would not be possible
800 people living mostly in two-room wooden otherwise because of budgetary shortfalls.
cottages without indoor plumbing, electricity,
• Danish Colonial Architecture Archive. The park is using
or telephones—has undergone a dramatic
three-dimensional mapping to document crumbling historic
transformation. Today, a permanent population
structures, thanks to a partnership with the engineering
of about 4,200, with a median household
department of the University of Maine. Architecture within the
income of $32,482, lives on the island, with
park is being documented in a digital archive that allows users
most residents in Cruz Bay.
to view structures in three dimensions.
Virgin Islands National Park and Virgin
Islands Coral Reef National Monument are • GIS Database. The park is working with students from
refuges, not only for countless species of Syracuse University to develop a geographic information
wildlife, but also for human visitors who want systems (GIS) database that includes the locations of historic
to experience the Caribbean in its natural state. properties such as archaeological sites, historic structures, and
The park contains some of the last remaining shipwrecks.
native tropical dry forest in the Caribbean, the
• Research Partnership with Danish University. Danish settlers
only area of this forest type protected by the
colonized the Virgin Islands in the late 17th and early 18th
United States. Ten other terrestrial and shoreline
centuries. Today, most of the park’s written history (AD 1665-
vegetation types occur on the island, which is
1917) resides in Denmark. Park staff are working with the
surrounded by miles of protected marine
history department of the University of Copenhagen to locate
habitat. The park and monument constitute a
the first settlement sites and other lost plantations using
true paradise amid a well-trafficked area, where
historic research and ground surveys.
people, plants, and animals can find refuge and
sustenance.KEY FINDINGS ings and careless anchoring. Coral
diseases are also of concern and have
killed corals in and around the park and
• Private lands, known as inholdings, are
monument.
scattered throughout Virgin Islands
National Park. Many of these inholdings • Browsing, grazing, and predation by non-
have been subdivided, resulting in further native wild goats, sheep, hogs, cats, rats,
forest fragmentation and development and mongooses threaten the survival of
around historic sites. This development native plants and animals and harm
has destroyed historic landscapes and natural communities and processes. The
historic and prehistoric archaeological presence of non-native Cuban tree frogs
10 sites. Intact forests are important habitat on St. John also concerns biologists. This
for migratory birds, and fragmenting species preys on other frogs and can out-
Virgin Islands National Park / Virgin Islands Coral Reef National Monument
these areas could have drastic conse- compete native species for limited food
quences for birds that spend winters in supplies.
the park. The Park Service works with
• Historic destruction of the natural vegeta-
nonprofit organizations such as the Trust
tion on St. John has been extensive,
for Public Land and Friends of Virgin
encompassing nearly 90 percent of the
Islands National Park to acquire inhold-
island. As a result, some native and
ings, but high real estate prices make this
endemic plant species have become
difficult.
extinct or nearly extinct. Additionally, the
• Marine ecosystems within the parks face introduction of invasive plants also may
a variety of threats. Natural disturbances have contributed to the demise of some
such as hurricanes and drought have of St. John’s native plants. Today, intro-
harmed mangroves, coral reefs, and duced invasive species can be found in
seagrass beds, while visitors are responsi- most communities across the island,
ble for damage caused by boat ground- particularly near historic structures and in
Thick vegetation
ELIZABETH MEYERS
grows quickly on St.
John, covering
historic structures
and causing them to
crumble.recently disturbed open areas such as inventory will include an overall entry for
roadsides and construction sites. The the entire park as well as individual inven-
Park Service is currently considering inva- tories for each identified cultural land-
sive species management options for scape. This information is needed to
Virgin Islands National Park. guide further cultural landscape research
and to begin to understand historic struc-
• One permanent employee (the staff
tures in the context of their surroundings.
archaeologist/cultural resource manager)
currently handles all cultural resource • Poaching of building materials from
issues within the two parks. In fact, the historic sites is a problem within the park,
parks’ cultural resources budget is so but without enough staff and funds to
limited that paying this employee’s salary survey and protect endangered sites, this 11
leaves no funds for projects and research. illegal activity is likely to continue. In addi-
Virgin Islands National Park / Virgin Islands Coral Reef National Monument
Because of the threat of vandalism and tion, without baseline cultural resource
environmental factors (beach erosion, studies, staff do not know the extent of the
hurricanes, and dense vegetation) that park’s cultural resources and cannot gauge
are threatening cultural resources— the severity of the poaching problem.
including sites that have yet to be identi-
• Traditional use studies, oral histories, and
fied and documented—staff are needed
in-depth ethnographies are needed to
to continue documenting and assessing
help Virgin Islands National Park staff
sites, conduct the required archaeologi-
better understand groups of people
cal mitigation and research where threats
whose lifeways are traditionally associ-
are identified, reduce encroaching vege-
ated with park resources. These studies
tation, and stabilize historic structures.
must be done before older island resi-
Additional full-time cultural resource staff
dents pass away, but funding shortfalls
positions (such as archaeological techni-
prevent the park from gathering even
cians, a historic architect, a preservation
baseline information.
specialist, and historic masons) are
needed to address the growing needs of • Currently, the park is using an outdated,
neglected sites in the parks. temporary storage facility to house its
museum collection and archive. Between
• Virgin Islands National Park has identified
2002 and 2006, the park worked to
400 historic structures that should be listed
update this facility to increase its storage
on the park’s List of Classified Structures;
capacity and bring it up to established
currently only 236 of these structures are
standards. Despite these efforts, the
listed. Dense vegetation threatens nearly
building is corroding and is not designed
all of the sites. The park risks losing irre-
to protect the collections from severe
placeable Virgin Islands history as struc-
weather. Acquiring adequate storage
tures are reduced to rubble before they
space is critical as the park continues to
are identified and documented.
recover threatened resources that must
• Virgin Islands National Park may contain be stored.
as many as 100 cultural landscapes, but
without funds to complete a cultural land-
scape inventory, these important park
resources remain undocumented. TheTHE VIRGIN ISLANDS ASSESSMENT
CAROLINE ROGERS
12
Virgin Islands National Park / Virgin Islands Coral Reef National Monument
Virgin Islands NATURAL RESOURCES— park resources, ongoing forest recovery from
National Park and A SANCTUARY, ABOVE AND clear-cutting events of the sugar planting era,
Virgin Islands Coral
BENEATH THE SEA invasive species effects, land development, and
Reef National
Monument provide The assessment rated the overall condition of the occurrence of natural disturbances such as
habitats for a multi- natural resources at Virgin Islands National Park hurricanes and drought. All have negatively
tude of species, and Virgin Islands Coral Reef National affected the parks’ ecosystems.
including spotted Monument 73 out of 100, which ranks park
eagle rays.
resources in “fair” condition. Prominent factors
influencing the ratings are a continuous rise in
park visitation and associated disturbances toPAST AND CURRENT LAND USE ON ST. source of sediment runoff to the marine envi-
JOHN—HUMAN FOOTPRINTS ON AN ronment. Re-opening and paving some of the
ISLAND ECOSYSTEM defunct cart roads would certainly contribute to
Native peoples in the Virgin Islands were all but forest fragmentation, non-native plant spread,
driven to extinction by the Spanish in the 16th and increased erosion as well.
century, as explorers sought out new territories Virgin Islands National Park is hugely
for colonial expansion. In the 17th and early popular with vacationing tourists. Visitation to
18th centuries, Denmark colonized St. Thomas the park has increased from about 130,000 in
and St. John. Forests on the islands were the early 1970s to more than a half-million visi-
cleared and land was terraced for the produc- tors annually. Many guests spend their time in
tion of sugar cane. This and other crops, such as or near the water, where carelessness can result
cotton, tobacco, and indigo, were grown using in severe damage to park resources. Swimmers, 13
labor provided by enslaved peoples, and a snorkelers, and divers can hurt underwater
Virgin Islands National Park / Virgin Islands Coral Reef National Monument
plantation system began to develop on the communities by stepping on, kicking, picking
islands. By 1780, the majority of St. John was up, and otherwise disturbing or killing fragile
under cultivation. It is estimated that about 90 corals and reef organisms.
percent of the island was cleared for planta- Boat groundings and anchors can break
tions during the 1700s. corals and tear up seagrass beds, which are
The plantation system began to erode in important food sources for wildlife like sea
1848, when slavery was abolished in the Danish turtles. In 1998, a single anchor drop from a
West Indies. The breaking point for most cruise ship destroyed more than 3,200 square
remaining plantations occurred in 1867 when a feet of reef. Monitoring at this site has revealed
major hurricane and an earthquake prompted no significant recovery of hard coral since the
many plantation owners to abandon their land. incident. In 1987, a survey of 186 boats revealed Boat groundings and
Island populations declined, and cultivated that 32 percent were anchored in seagrass beds anchoring can
damage fragile
land began to revert to natural vegetation. Only and 14 percent in coral communities. To mini-
underwater ecosys-
a few plantations lasted into the 20th century. mize damage, the Park Service has instituted tems such as coral
With the establishment of Virgin Islands anchoring restrictions and installed a mooring reefs and seagrass
National Park, the Park Service undertook the buoy system and marker buoys to warn boaters beds. The park has
task of mitigating the effects of almost 250 years of shallow coral and rocky areas. Private dona- markers to warn
boaters of shallow
of cultivation while at the same time assuming tions helped fund the installation of 215
areas and anchoring
the responsibility of preserving and interpreting mooring buoys in the national park in 1999 restrictions to mini-
significant cultural landscapes. and 17 moorings (not counting storm moor- mize damage.
When steep hillsides on St. John were cleared
RAFE BOULON
for agriculture, the result was both the loss of
native species and the spread of non-native
plants such as Brazilian pepper (Schinus tere-
binthifolius), tan tan (Leucaena leucocephala), and
limeberry (Triphasia trifolia), as well as increased
soil erosion. Numerous paved and unpaved
roads run through and adjacent to park lands,
including old Danish cart roads that date back
to the plantation era. Roads can sometimes
block the dispersal of plants, animals, and other
organisms, and unpaved roads are a significantings) in the national monument in 2004. are privately owned. In recent years, many
Mooring buoys and size limits on vessels of these parcels have been subdivided and
allowed in park waters have resulted in less pres- developed. For example, there were 261 parcels
sure on reefs, but in some areas there is little in 1991 and about 322 parcels in 1992. The
coral left to protect. Park Service works with nonprofit organizations
Visitors on land can also negatively affect the such as the Trust for Public Land and Friends of
park’s natural resources. Some beaches within Virgin Islands National Park to acquire inhold-
the park are extremely busy at certain times of ings, but high real estate prices make this diffi-
the year; visitors damage vegetation and create cult. When inholdings are developed, ecological
social trails by taking shortcuts to trails, parking communities are fragmented, native vegetation
areas, and beaches. Some visitors illegally is cleared, and non-native ornamental species
14 remove plant material for crafts, home gardens, are often planted.
and to create vistas, threatening park forests. But Activities in surrounding waters also affect
Virgin Islands National Park / Virgin Islands Coral Reef National Monument
overall, visitor effects on land are minor when park resources. Commercial and recreational
compared to those on marine systems. Limiting fishing, cruise ship traffic, and development on
visitation in particularly sensitive areas may be nearby islands can harm marine populations,
necessary in the future. water quality, and coral reef health.
Additional threats related to increased
human visitation on St. John include sewage, VIRGIN ISLANDS MARINE HABITAT—
fuel, and other waste from boats, soil erosion as AN UNDERWATER HOME TO MANY
a result of development, septic tank seepage, The seagrass beds, coral reefs, and hardbottom
and an increase in trash production. All trash on areas in and adjacent to Virgin Islands National
St. John is compacted and removed to a landfill Park and Virgin Islands Coral Reef National
on St. Thomas. Waste disposal space is at a Monument are important marine habitat. More
premium in the Virgin Islands; all landfills are than 400 reef-associated or inshore-ranging
near or over capacity. A recycling program pelagic species are found in the nearshore
should be developed and implemented in the waters surrounding St. John. The two most
park, as well as in “gateway communities” such important herbivorous fish families on
as Cruz Bay, St. John. If recycling is not an Caribbean reefs are parrot fish (Scaridae) and
option in the immediate future, a glass crusher surgeonfish (Acanthuridae). Both of these fami-
would help to conserve waste disposal space in lies face strong fishing pressure in waters
the short run. around the U.S. Virgin Islands, but they are
Adjacent land use greatly influences ecosys- protected from commercial fishing within the
tems in the park and monument. While park parks. Aggregating fish predators—large, carniv-
lands account for more than 50 percent of the orous fish that are solitary hunters—also repre-
island of St. John, about 5 percent of the island sent an important component of the reef
is owned by the Virgin Islands government. The ecosystem. The term “aggregating” refers to the
remaining portion of the island is private land, fact that these species must gather in large
currently undeveloped or used for residential or groups to effectively reproduce. Examples of
light commercial activity. In the last 40 years, these fish species include snappers (Lutjanidae)
residential and tourism-related development and groupers or sea bass (Serranidae).
has rapidly increased on privately held lands. For many fish species in the region, coral
Park staff are particularly concerned about reefs provide shelter from predators, a source of
development of inholdings. About 1,400 acres of food, and a place to spawn. Juvenile fishes of
land within V irgin Islands National Park many species (such as the great barracuda andK. BOULON
Underwater habitats
at the park and
monument harbor
countless marine
organisms, including
this octopus.
15
Virgin Islands National Park / Virgin Islands Coral Reef National Monument
gray snapper) find shelter amid red mangrove Harvestable invertebrate species include the
prop roots. Some species, such as the bucktooth Caribbean spiny lobster (Panulirus argus), queen
parrotfish (Sparisoma radians) and fringed file- conch (Strombus gigas), and whelk (Cittarium
fish (Monocanthus ciliatus) live their entire lives pica). These species may be fished, with restric-
in seagrass beds. Other species use the seagrass tions, within the national park, but not within
beds as nurseries or for nocturnal feeding. Even the national monument.
habitats dominated by gorgonians (types of Marine mammal abundances and distribu-
coral), sand, or algae are essential for some tions in U.S. territorial waters of the Caribbean
fishes, including the scrawled filefish (Aluterus are poorly understood. At least 17 species of
scriptus), which feeds on gorgonians; the spotted whales and dolphins have been reported in the
snake eel (Ophichtus ophis), which lives in sand; region of the parks, including the federally
and the chalk bass (Serranus tortugarum), which listed endangered humpback whale (Megaptera
lives on the algal plain. novaeangliae). Marine areas surrounding the
A wide variety of marine invertebrates is also island provide both feeding and reproductive
found in the waters of Virgin Islands National grounds for some migrating mammal species,
Park and Virgin Island Coral Reef National while others do not migrate, but feed and repro-
Monument. This diverse group of organisms duce in northwestern Caribbean waters
includes sponges and a host of reef-building throughout the year.
and non-reef-building corals. Other marine Two federally listed sea turtles are commonly
invertebrate community members include found in park and monument waters. The
annelid worms, mollusks, and arthropods. hawksbill sea turtle (Eretmochelys imbricate)requires coral reefs for food and refuge. Peak variety of causes, including natural disturbance
nesting season on park beaches occurs from July and human activities.
through November, although nesting activity Hurricanes have affected coral reefs around
may take place any month of the year. Green sea the parks since the islands formed, and they
turtles (Chelonia mydas) are found in seagrass have caused significant damage. At long-term
beds in park waters, though they rarely nest on monitoring sites around St. John, coral cover
St. John’s beaches. The federally listed dropped from about 30 percent to 8-18
leatherback sea turtle (Dermochelys coriacea) percent following Hurricane Hugo in 1989.
may also be found in waters surrounding the Studies have shown that no substantial recov-
park and monument. ery in total coral cover has occurred to date,
although corals are reproducing. In September
16 CORAL REEFS—FRAGILE SYSTEMS IN 1995, two hurricanes (Luis and Marilyn) hit
DANGER the U.S. Virgin Islands within a ten-day
Virgin Islands National Park / Virgin Islands Coral Reef National Monument
In the summer of 2006, two coral species found period. Reefs on the south side of St. John
in Virgin Islands National Park and Virgin suffered severe damage. Although damage was
Islands Coral Reef National Monument were visible at Great Lameshur Bay, the percentage
federally listed as threatened under the of live coral cover along permanent study
Endangered Species Act (ESA). Staghorn coral areas did not decrease, due perhaps to the
(Acropora cervicornis) and elkhorn coral (A. uneven nature of hurricane damage or
palmata) are the first coral species to be listed because so little coral remained to be
under the ESA, an accomplishment of great damaged. In some bays on the north shore of
significance for coral reef conservation. Elkhorn St. John, coral colonies suffered extensive
coral is one of the primary reef-building corals physical damage from boats that had broken
Coral bleaching and usually creates shallow reefs responsible for loose and been dragged across the reef. Large
occurs when benefi- breaking ocean waves and diminishing coastal coral colonies, some perhaps more than 100
cial algae that live
erosion. Significant decline in this important years old, were split into pieces by boat keels,
inside coral tissue are
lost due to rising species can be blamed on damage from hurri- an example of the powerful, combined effect
water temperatures canes and boat groundings. A federal listing is of natural and human disturbance.
and/or ultraviolet an important step towards protecting the Hurricanes in 1989, 1995, and 1999 also
radiation from the species from further loss. caused major “blow-outs,” or scoured depres-
sun. Corals may
The delicate coral reef systems in park and sions, in the seagrass beds within the park and
recover from bleach-
ing episodes, or they monument waters are of special concern. They monument. Long-term monitoring of Great
may die. have been altered and have suffered from a Lameshur Bay seagrass communities has
demonstrated that hurricanes produce fluctua-
CAROLINE ROGERS
tions in both seagrass density and community
structure. Following Hurricane Hugo, park
managers saw no significant seagrass recovery
for five years. Hurricanes in 1995 and 1996
again reduced seagrass densities.
Another serious cause of reef loss and
degradation is disease, which has caused exten-
sive coral death on reefs in and around the
park and monument. Black band disease,
which primarily infects major reef-building
corals such as boulder star coral (MontastraeaCAROLINE ROGERS
17
Virgin Islands National Park / Virgin Islands Coral Reef National Monument
annularis) and symmetrical brain coral anyone associated it yet with pollution or any With funding from
(Diploria strigosa), has been documented in other human activity. the Disney Wildlife
Conservation Fund,
park waters, but it is not as prevalent or In July 1997, conspicuous white patches of
researchers from the
damaging as white band disease or plague type dead tissue began to appear on corals in several U.S. Geological
II. From the mid-1970s to mid-1980s, white bays around St. John. Analysis confirmed the Survey are working to
band disease killed large stands of elkhorn presence of Sphingamonas, the pathogen associ- quantify coral disease
coral in the Caribbean, including the waters ated with plague type II, the most severe coral along long-term
study transects
off St. John. In 1984, the disease was found at disease that has been observed around St John.
established by the
seven sites off the north shore of the island, In some affected areas the disease killed entire Park Service.
although it was not prevalent. Elkhorn and colonies, and no recovery of diseased portions
staghorn corals, both federally listed as threat- has been noted on individual colonies moni-
ened, are the most vulnerable to white band tored around the island. Monthly surveys have
disease, which generally kills the colonies it documented new incidence of disease on
infects, although occasional patches do Tektite Reef (Lameshur Bay area) every month
survive. To date, the cause of the disease since December 1997. Depending on the site,
remains a mystery: No one has been able to disease covers 3 to 58 percent of the coral.
clearly link a pathogen to the disease, nor has While the actual loss of coral to disease eachmonth is small, the cumulative effects have led unpaved roads across the island, the resulting
to a significant decline in the percentage of erosion and sedimentation from runoff can
total live coral cover. smother coral colonies and reduce the amount
Coral bleaching is also a grave concern. of light available for photosynthesis. Data on
Bleaching occurs when beneficial algae (zooxan- coral growth rates in Hawksnest Bay have
thellae) that live inside coral tissue are lost, shown short-term declines associated with
leaving the tissue transparent and revealing the increased runoff from upland development.
white coral skeleton beneath. It is a response to Extensive bulldozing and clearing of vegetation
rising water temperature and/or ultraviolet radi- in the upper Hawksnest Bay watershed threaten
ation from the sun and has been linked to the recovery of elkhorn coral on nearshore
global climate change. Bleached coral colonies fringing reefs. In general, the effects of hurri-
18 may recover in some instances, or parts of the canes, disease, and damage from boats appear
colonies may die. Coral colonies in park waters to have caused more reef degradation around St.
Virgin Islands National Park / Virgin Islands Coral Reef National Monument
bleached in 1987, 1990, 1998, and 2005. In John than sedimentation; however, scientists
2005, corals within Virgin Islands National Park believe that chronic sedimentation significantly
and Buck Island Reef National Monument in St. damages reef communities.
Croix endured the most severe bleaching event
recorded to date in the U.S. Virgin Islands. FISHERIES—THREATENED BY
Ninety percent of coral cover bleached at six OVERFISHING AND HABITAT
long-term monitoring sites within these two DEGRADATION
parks. Many corals began to recover from the Commercial fishing occurs around the Virgin
bleaching episode only to be afflicted by Islands and in the surrounding region, but it is
disease. Of more than 460 elkhorn colonies that not allowed in Virgin Islands National Park. In
are being monitored at four reefs in Virgin contrast, recreational fishing of most species is
Islands National Park, about 45 percent allowed within national park waters with few
bleached, 13 percent died partially, and 8 limits or exceptions.
percent died completely. Recent analyses of Analyses of fisheries have shown a change in
coral cover show high rates of cover loss from the relative abundance of reef fish species, a
the 2005 episode. Preliminary calculations of change in the species composition, a decrease in
coral loss between September 2005 and July the numbers of many fish species, and a
2006 show an average cover loss at all moni- decrease in the size of fish in the waters around
tored sites of almost 49 percent. Of the four St. John. Since 1992, the U.S. Geological
reefs sampled, Tektite Reef experienced the Survey–Biological Resource Division has coor-
greatest cover loss at 54.3 percent. Further data dinated an assessment of the effects of fishing
and information on the causes and extent of on reef fish, monitoring their populations at
this recent disease episode are not yet available, selected sites. The goal is to determine trends in
but the findings are currently being prepared for species composition, abundance, and size of
publication. fish, as well as effectiveness of park fishing
Development on lands adjacent to the park restrictions.
also harms coral communities. Runoff from Results of the assessment indicate that fish
land development activities on St John is one of traps significantly reduce the numbers of fish,
the biggest threats to water quality and habitat change the relative abundances of species, and
in shallow nearshore areas. The island terrain is decrease the mean sizes of individuals on St.
steep and receives brief bouts of intense precip- John reefs. Larger species such as groupers and
itation. Coupled with the high number of snappers have all but disappeared, and thosethat are caught are below size at sexual matu- PARK PLANTS—STILL RECOVERING
rity, indicating that overfishing is occurring. FROM PREVIOUS LAND USE
When this happens, the number and size of St. John is home to 747 species of vascular
the spawning-age adults are reduced to a point plants, of which 642 are native to the island.
that the population does not have the repro- Nearly every species on St. John is also found on
ductive capacity to replenish itself. other Virgin Islands, with the exception of three
Populations of reef fish inside and outside endemic flowering plants: Earhart’s stopper
Virgin Islands National Park are not signifi- (Eugenia earhartii); marron bacora (Solanum
cantly different, suggesting that park regula- conocarpum); and Woodbury’s stingingbush
tions, which only ban commercial fishing, are (Machaonia woodburyana).
not protecting the resource. However, these Historic destruction of the natural vegetation
findings pre-date the establishment of Virgin on St. John has been extensive, encompassing 19
Islands Coral Reef National Monument, where nearly 90 percent of the island. The first 130
Virgin Islands National Park / Virgin Islands Coral Reef National Monument
no fishing of any kind is allowed. Park staff years of colonization were particularly harsh on
hope that future studies will provide evidence the vegetative communities of St. John due to
that full protection contributes to improve- extensive clearing for agriculture. As a result,
ments in fish populations. some native and endemic plant species have
Natural island events can also directly kill become extinct or nearly extinct, their popula-
fish and degrade marine habitats. When tions reduced to a few individuals. Examples
Hurricane Hugo swept through the Virgin include marron bacora, pepino (S. mucrona-
Islands in September 1989, the total abundance tum), cowhage cherry (Malpighia infestissima),
of fishes and number of species on two St. John Woodbury’s stingingbush, and woolly nipple
reefs decreased significantly for two to three cactus (Mammillaria nivosa). Additionally, the
months after the storm. introduction of invasive plants such as Brazilian
CAROLINE ROGERS
Large carnivorous fish
such as the Nassau
grouper (Epinephelus
striatus) are impor-
tant residents of coral
reef communities.
Studies by the U.S.
Geological Survey
indicate that species
such as this are being
overfished in the
waters around St.
John. Park staff hope
that fishing bans
within the national
monument will help
species recover.RAFE BOULON
National Park. A draft environmental impact
statement, released in September 2006, evalu-
ates the potential environmental consequences
of the proposed options.
Two federally listed endangered species of
plants occur in the park: St. Thomas prickly-ash
(Zanthoxylum thomasianum) and Thomas’
lidflower (Calyptranthes thomasiana). Recent
surveys of both species show them to be stable
within the park.
20 PARK WILDLIFE—BATS, BIRDS, FROGS,
AND SLUGS CONTRIBUTE TO DIVERSE
Virgin Islands National Park / Virgin Islands Coral Reef National Monument
TERRESTRIAL COMMUNITIES
St. John’s only native mammals are six species
of bats: red fig-eating bat (Stenoderma rufum),
greater bulldog bat (Noctilio leporinus), Jamaican
fruit-eating bat (Artibeus jamaicensis), Antillean
fruit-eating bat (Brachyphylla cavernarum),
velvety free-tailed bat (Molossus molossus), and
Brazilian free-tailed bat (Tadarida brasiliensis).
The red fig-eating bat, greater bulldog bat, and
Antillean fruit-eating bat are protected under
the Virgin Islands Endangered and Indigenous
Species Act of 1990. Because they are important
pollinators for many native plants, as well as
important seed dispersers for fruit-bearing trees
and shrubs, they are regarded as keystone
species—crucial members of the ecosystems
Marron bacora is one pepper, tan tan, and limeberry may have they inhabit.
of three species of contributed to the demise of some of St. John’s Birds abound in Virgin Islands National
vascular plants found
native plants. Park. In the U.S. Virgin Islands as a whole, docu-
only on St. John—
nowhere else in the The present vegetation of St. John shows mented birds include 39 seabird, 23 waterfowl,
world. Historic differing degrees of regeneration, ranging from 23 marshbird, and 37 shorebird species. At least
destruction of the recently disturbed to late secondary succes- 59 species of migratory Nearctic landbirds
island’s vegetation sional forests. Existing vegetative cover contains (birds from North America, Greenland, or the
and the introduction
numerous introduced plants that have become Mexican highlands) have also been recorded in
of non-native plants
and animals have established in dense stands or, more commonly, the U.S. Virgin Islands; many of them use the
caused some native are intermixed with native species. Introduced mature intact forests of St. John as overwinter-
species such as invasive species can be found in most commu- ing grounds. Federally listed bird species found
marron bacora to in the U.S. Virgin Islands include the endan-
nities across the island, particularly near historic
become nearly
extinct. structures and in recently disturbed, open areas gered brown pelican (Pelecanus occidentalis) and
such as roadsides and construction sites. The piping plover (Charadrius melodus), as well as
Park Service is currently considering invasive the threatened roseate tern (Sterna dougallii).
species management options for Virgin Islands Although wildlife poaching is an illegal activ-ity, the poaching of brown pelican and roseate frog (E. cochranae), it was found in every habitat
tern eggs may be a problem in some remote type across the island. Researchers have
areas of the park. In addition, disturbance by concluded that amphibian populations in the
human visitation to offshore cays where the park are doing well, though they are concerned
birds nest results in low egg production, death about the presence of the non-native Cuban tree
of chicks to sun exposure, or even abandon- frog (Osteopilus septentrionalis), a species that
ment of the entire nesting colony. Decreases in preys on other frogs and competes with other
baitfish populations due to overfishing may species for limited food supplies. Researchers
limit nesting populations and affect the breed- from the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) have
ing and fledging success of these birds. predicted that the Cuban tree frog population
Human poaching and disturbance are only will continue to grow and spread across the
two threats faced by bird species on St. John. island. Three species of Anolis lizards (Anolis 21
Habitat loss continues to leave migratory bird stratulus, A. cristatellus and A. pulchellus) can be
Virgin Islands National Park / Virgin Islands Coral Reef National Monument
species vulnerable. Mangrove and salt pond found throughout the park and are the most
wetlands serve as vital habitat for winter-resi- common reptiles seen. The green iguana
dent birds, and their loss and degradation (Iguana iguana), house gecko (Hemidactylus
caused by local development threaten migratory frenatus), and red-footed tortoise (Geochelone
birds. Fragmentation and clearing of intact carbonaria) are all introduced species, but
forests also harms birds. according to the USGS survey report, they do
Virgin Islands National Park is home to not appear to be having negative effects on
many terrestrial reptile and amphibian species. native flora or fauna.
The Antillean frog (Eleutherodactylus antillensis) Not surprisingly, the dominant terrestrial life
was the most common amphibian detected forms in Virgin Islands National Park are inver-
during surveys, and along with the whistling tebrate fauna, including a wide range of tropical
K. BOULON
Many seabird species
nest at Virgin Islands
National Park. Human
visitation to nesting
areas disturbs some
species and can even
result in the death of
chicks.Non-native feral hogs
CARRIE STENGEL
eat native plants,
compete with native
species for food, and
create trails and
compact soils. The
park has been
working to reduce
populations of hogs
and other non-native
animals since 2002.
22
Virgin Islands National Park / Virgin Islands Coral Reef National Monument
snails, slugs, crabs, spiders, scorpions, topsoil that erodes during grazing travels
centipedes, millipedes, and insects. In 1987, downslope and degrades coral reefs found in
232 species of invertebrates representing 124 the waters below the cliffs.
families were identified on the island. Herbivory and direct disturbance to vegeta-
tion (trampling, crushing, and uprooting) by
NON-NATIVE MAMMALS—GOATS, goats, sheep, wild hogs, and donkeys negatively
SHEEP, DONKEYS, HOGS, AND OTHER affect protected plant species within Virgin
ANIMALS DEGRADE ISLAND Islands National Park. Because numerous
COMMUNITIES threatened and endangered plant species have
Wild, non-native goats, sheep, donkeys, and small populations to begin with, even relatively
hogs cause major damage to park resources. small impacts can have a large detrimental effect
Goat and sheep herds are capable of denuding on the total floral composition of the island.
large areas of all vegetation, including trees Non-native grazers consume the two federally
(through bark stripping) and cacti. The most listed plant species found on St. John: the St.
fragile forest community—the dry forest in Thomas prickly-ash and Thomas’ lidflower.
the southeastern portion of the island—may They also eat marron bacora, a rare plant found
not be able to recover from such damage only on St. John. Marron bacora was proposed
because it has few plant species and few indi- for listing under the Endangered Species Act in
viduals of those species left. Unfortunately for 1998, but in 2006 the U.S. Fish and Wildlife
the dry forest community, goats prefer the Service (USFWS) announced that the plant did
steep, semi-barren cliffs that dominate this not warrant protection under the law. The non-
area. In addition to plant damage, precious native animals also forage on seedlings of threeYou can also read
