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1
Towards Ending
Child Marriage
Global trends and
profiles of progress
© UNICEF/UN0358059/Mawa
Towards Ending
Child Marriage
Global trends and profiles of progress
© United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), Division of ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Data, Analytics, Planning and Monitoring, October 2021 The preparation of this publication was led by Claudia
Cappa (Data and Analytics Section, UNICEF Headquarters),
Permission is required to reproduce any part of this with inputs from Colleen Murray (Data and Analytics
publication. Permission will be freely granted to Section, UNICEF Headquarters), Lisa Fleming (independent
educational or non-profit organizations. consultant) and Nankali Maksud (Child Protection Section,
UNICEF Headquarters). Isabel Jijon (independent
To request permission or for any other information on this consultant) was involved in fact-checking.
publication, please contact:
The report was edited by Lois Jensen and designed by
UNICEF Data and Analytics Section Elwa Design Studio (independent consultants).
Division of Data, Analytics, Planning and Monitoring
3 United Nations Plaza, New York, NY 10017, USA
Telephone: +1 212 326 7000
Email: data@unicef.org
All reasonable precautions have been taken by UNICEF
to verify the information contained in this publication.
For any data updates subsequent to release, please visit
.
Suggested citation: United Nations Children’s Fund,
Towards Ending Child Marriage: Global trends and profiles
of progress, UNICEF, New York, 2021.
04 5
05
Contents
Towards Ending Child Marriage: Global trends and profiles of progress
Contents 01. Introduction 11
02. Global and regional overview 12
03. Understanding trends
Economic development and poverty reduction
18
20
Access to education 22
Labour force participation 24
Improvements in reproductive health 26
Legal protections 28
04. Profiles of progress
Bangladesh
30
32
Ethiopia 36
India 40
Indonesia 44
Armenia 48
Eswatini 52
Maldives 56
Rwanda 60
Tunisia 64
05. Towards ending child marriage 68
06. Technical notes 70
07. References 72
© UNICEF/UN0281307/Tadesse
6
06 7
07
Key messages
Towards Ending Child Marriage: Global trends and profiles of progress
Key
• Child marriage is a harmful practice detrimental to girls’ well-
being and in violation of their rights
messages
• It is becoming less common. Still, it affects 650 million girls
and women around the world, and global progress is not fast
enough to achieve the Sustainable Development Goal (SDG)
target of eliminating child marriage by 2030
• The amount of progress has varied substantially across
different contexts
• Progress is possible under the right conditions – with
significant shifts in the well-being of society, the status of
women and the provision of key services over the course of
several decades
• Opportunities for girls are fundamental to success. Child
marriage becomes a less attractive option when productive
alternatives are available to girls
• Reductions in child marriage are possible in a variety of
settings, among countries with both high and low levels.
What’s more, several countries show that progress can be made
equitably, with girls from the poorest households benefiting
alongside those from the richest households
• Gains made must not be lost. Poverty reduction, access to
education and labour force participation are key to ending child
marriage. We can’t afford to lose gains in these areas, especially
given the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic
• The SDGs are deeply interconnected. Progress on target 5.3
(eliminating child marriage) is dependent on progress in other areas,
especially education, employment and poverty reduction
© UNICEF/UN062033/Vishwanathan
08 9
09
Personal profiles
Towards Ending Child Marriage: Global trends and profiles of progress
Though child marriage is
an age-old tradition, the
practice is becoming less Rima Bera is high-spirited
common. Over the past enough to face threats from
decade, the proportion of her community for reporting
on and preventing child
young women globally
marriages. She looks forward
who were married as Kushma Kumari did not see child to continuing her good work.
children decreased by 15 marriage and child labour as rights
per cent, from nearly 1 violations until she joined the Child
© UNICEF/UN0331600/Das
in 4 to 1 in 5. This means Reporters Programme. Kushma was
that, over the last 10 one of the reporters selected to
“I want to tell the world that we
years, the marriages of anchor the Child Reporters YouTube
girls are capable of doing many
some 25 million girls series. She dreams of becoming a
things that you thought we
have been averted. doctor and working in the Indian Army. The Brahmanbaria team cheers
after winning the Championship couldn’t. … We have the right to
© UNICEF/UNI207690/Katragadda
Football Tournament, part of a work and to education, the right
The girls shown here to be protected from violence,
series of initiatives to empower
are among those who girls through sports and to end the right to vote, the right to be
were able to avoid early child marriage. protected from early marriage and
marriage or are taking the right of choice when it comes
a stand against this
© UNICEF/UN0482228/Satu
to choosing the right partner.”
“I’m not ready to get married yet. I’m
harmful practice. Their Ahed
interested in the idea and I even have
stories are reminders of a suitor. But first I prefer to dedicate
© UNICEF/UNI394983/El-Noaimi
the potential that opens myself to my future and my dreams
up when girls are free to of owning my own business. I want Moriom Banu has been
pursue their ambitions to open a boutique where women can standing up against child
and uphold their rights. buy textiles and clothes.” marriage and supporting the
Azima right to education for girls
© UNICEF/UNI328117/Haro in her community. Here she
shares her experiences with
other young activists and
solution providers during an
interactive session.
© UNICEF/UN0240038/Hajra
Tseganesh Dansa wants to go to Bira is a volunteer who is
university and make her parents creating awareness on the
proud. She is happy that her dangers of child marriage
parents support her education Halima [name changed to protect in her village.
and made sure she didn’t get her identity] escaped being married
married at a young age. off by her father. Together with six © UNICEF/UN0388655/Panjwani
© UNICEF/UN0410875/Ayene
other girls, she sought refuge at a
police station. Through community
dialogues, her father has now become
an advocate against child marriage and
has signed an agreement to keep his
daughters in school.
© UNICEF/UNI377869/Bongyereirwe
10 11
Introduction
Towards Ending Child Marriage: Global trends and profiles of progress
01.
Introduction
Child marriage is widely recognized reducing the prevalence of child about what may help prevent early
as a violation of human rights and a marriage has been made over the marriage,4 knowledge in this area is
hindrance to national development. past 25 years, but within the last still largely based on relatively small-
The practice can have lasting decade, progress appears to have scale and time-limited research
deleterious consequences slowed. In Latin America and the studies and programme evaluations.
on the health, well-being and Caribbean, levels of child marriage For the most part, studies point
rights of millions of girls. In fact, today are as high as they were 25 to root causes and exacerbating
evidence suggests that it is closely years ago. In contrast, a girl’s risk factors that contribute to child
associated with lower educational of marrying in childhood in South marriage.5 In addition, research has
attainment, early pregnancies, Asia has declined by more than focused primarily on drivers at the
intimate partner violence, maternal one third, from nearly 50 per cent individual and household levels,6
and child mortality, increased rates a decade ago to 28 per cent today, while the knowledge base of
of sexually transmitted infections, largely driven by rapid progress in macro-level factors at the societal
intergenerational poverty, and the India. Increasingly, however, the level remains fragmented.7
disempowerment of married girls.1 global burden of child marriage is
In committing to the Sustainable shifting from South Asia to sub- The analysis presented in this report
Development Goals (SDGs), the Saharan Africa, where levels of child looks at historical trends, with a
international community has marriage have declined at a modest focus on selected countries that
vowed to end the practice of child rate. Still, progress has been have recorded significant declines
marriage by 2030. observed in parts of the region. in child marriage prevalence. It
In Ethiopia, once among the top offers an overview of changes in
Globally, more than half a billion five countries for child marriage in the practice together with a review
girls and women alive today were sub-Saharan Africa, prevalence has of other shifts that have occurred
married in childhood. The highest dropped by one third since 2006. in these countries in terms of
rates of child marriage are found in girls’ access to education and
sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, Understanding the breadth and employment opportunities, as well
where 34 per cent and 28 per cent depth of the factors that trigger child as economic development and
of young women, respectively, marriage or prevent its occurrence poverty reduction.
were married in childhood. Recent is important to further reducing
data indicate that the prevalence and ultimately ending this harmful The publication features global
of child marriage is generally in practice. Over the past decades, and regional estimates, as well as
decline, but there is substantial a growing body of research has country profiles, spanning a period
heterogeneity in rates of reduction fostered such an understanding.2 of nearly 30 years. Its findings
across and within regions and Empirical and theoretical evidence are intended to raise awareness
countries, with some high- offers explanations for the origins of the conditions that need to be
prevalence areas seeing stagnating and persistence of child marriage,3 in place to promote the societal
progress and even increases. and has informed efforts to end the transformations that would lead to
practice. Despite these advances a rapid drop in the prevalence of
In the Middle East and North in child marriage research, gaps child marriage.
Africa, substantial progress in remain. While evidence is growing
© UNICEF/UN0212922/Noorani
02. Global and regional overview
12 Sub-Saharan Africa stands out as the region with the highest prevalence of child marriage 13
FIGURE 3 Percentage of women aged 20 to 24 years who were first married or in union before age 18
Global and regional overview
Towards Ending Child Marriage: Global trends and profiles of progress
Global average Population-weighted regional average
100
Approximately 650 million girls and women alive today were married before their 18th birthday
90
FIGURE 1 Percentage distribution of girls and women of all ages who were first married or in union before age 18
80
Middle East and Other regions
70
North Africa
4 3
60
Eastern Europe
5
and Central Asia
50
Latin America 9 40
and the
Caribbean
30
Eastern 47 South Asia
9 20
and Southern
Africa
10
9 0
Western and East Asia and Eastern Europe Middle East and Latin America South Asia Eastern and Central and
Central Africa the Pacific and Central Asia North Africa and the Caribbean Southern Africa Western Africa
13
East Asia and the Pacific Notes: Each dot represents a country. The global estimate is based on a subset of 98 countries covering 79 per cent of the global population of women aged 20 to 24 years. Regional
estimates represent data covering at least 50 per cent of the regional population. Data coverage was insufficient to calculate regional estimates for Western Europe and North America.
Notes: The global estimate is based on a subset of 98 countries covering 79 per cent of the global population of girls and women of all ages. Due to rounding, numbers do not add up to 100.
Child marriage is most prevalent in low-income countries. Still, high rates can be found in high-income nations
One in three of the world’s child brides live in India FIGURE 4 Percentage of women aged 20 to 24 years who were first married or in union before age 18 and gross national income (GNI) per capita
FIGURE 2 Percentage distribution of girls and women of all ages who were first married or in union before age 18 (current US$)
Mexico, Islamic Republic Democratic Republic of the Congo, 100
Low income
Lower-middle income
Upper-middle income
High income
of Iran and Egypt Turkey and United Republic of Tanzania
90
Brazil, Pakistan 3
and Ethiopia 4 80
9 70
60
35 India
Bangladesh,
Indonesia 14 50
and Nigeria
40
30
20
35 10
0
Rest of the world 1,045 4,125 12,735 20,000
Sources: The data on child marriage that appear in all the charts in this chapter are from UNICEF global databases, 2021, based on Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS), Multiple Notes: Each dot represents a country, with the pink dots representing population-weighted averages. Low-income countries had a GNI per capita in 2020 of $1,045 or less. GNI per
Indicator Cluster Surveys (MICS), and other nationally representative household surveys, 2010-2020. Demographic data are from the United Nations Department of Economic and Social capita was between $1,046 and $4,125 for lower-middle-income countries, between $4,126 and $12,735 for upper-middle-income countries, and $12,736 or more for high-income coun-
Affairs, Population Division, World Population Prospects: The 2020 revision (DVD Edition). Data on gross national income (GNI) per capita are from World Bank, 2021. Data on the Human tries. Calculations used the World Bank Atlas method. The population-weighted estimates represent data covering at least 50 per cent of the population. Data coverage was insufficient
Development Index (HDI) are from the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), 2021. to calculate an estimate for high-income countries.
14 While child marriage is more common in low-income countries, 86 per cent of the child marriage burden Child marriage in situations of fragility is nearly two times higher than the world average 15
is found in middle-income countries FIGURE 7 Percentage of women aged 20 to 24 years who were first married or in union before age 18, worldwide and in countries with high levels of
Global and regional overview
Towards Ending Child Marriage: Global trends and profiles of progress
FIGURE 5 Percentage distribution of girls and women of all ages who were first married or in union before age 18, by national income group institutional and social fragility
Upper-middle
income
21 35
Fragile
High income
1
Low income 13 65 Lower-middle
income World 19
Notes: According to the Revised Classification of Fragility and Conflict Situations for World Bank Group Engagement, fragile countries are defined as those with one or more of the
following: (a) the weakest institutional and policy environment (as measured using a set of 16 criteria grouped into four clusters: economic management, structural policies, policies
for social inclusion and equity, and public sector management and institutions), (b) the presence of a UN peacekeeping operation, since this reflects a decision by the international
community that a significant investment is needed to maintain peace and stability, or (c) flight across borders of 2,000 or more per 100,000 population, who are internationally regarded
Notes: Low-income countries had a GNI per capita in 2020 of $1,045 or less. GNI per capita was between $1,046 and $4,125 for lower-middle-income countries, between $4,126 and as refugees in need of international protection, as this signals a major political or security crisis.
$12,735 for upper-middle-income countries, and $12,736 or more for high-income countries. Calculations used the World Bank Atlas method.
Overall, countries with higher levels of human development have lower levels of child marriage. Still, low Child marriage has declined across most regions in the last 25 years, with accelerated progress in certain
rates of child marriage can be found even in countries with low human development high-prevalence regions over the past decade
FIGURE 6 Percentage of women aged 20 to 24 years who were first married or in union before age 18 and countries’ Human Development Index (HDI) FIGURE 8 Percentage of women aged 20 to 24 years who were first married or in union before age 18
100
Low HDI
Medium HDI
High HDI
Very high HDI
West and Eastern and Latin America Middle East and Eastern Europe East Asia and
South Asia Central Africa Southern Africa and the Caribbean North Africa and Central Asia the Pacific World
90
100
80
90
70 80
60 70
60
50
50
40
40
30
30
20
20
10 10
0 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1995 2010 2020 1995 2010 2020 1995 2010 2020 1995 2010 2020 1995 2010 2020 1995 2010 2020 1995 2010 2020 1995 2010 2020
Notes: Each dot represents a country, with the pink dots representing population-weighted averages. Countries are grouped into four categories according to the 2019 HDI, which
links measures of education, health and income. The ranges are: very high (0.800 or greater), high (0.700-0.799), medium (0.550-0.699) and low (less than 0.550). The population- Notes: Estimates are based on a subset of 98 countries covering 79 per cent of the global population of women aged 20 to 24 years. Regional estimates represent data covering at least
weighted estimates represent data covering at least 50 per cent of the population. Data coverage was insufficient to calculate an estimate for countries with very high levels of human 50 per cent of the regional population. Data coverage was insufficient to calculate regional estimates for Western Europe and North America.
development.
© UNICEF/UN0439923/Boro
16 The gap in child marriage prevalence between the richest and poorest households has widened in most 17
parts of the world
Global and regional overview
Towards Ending Child Marriage: Global trends and profiles of progress
FIGURE 9 Percentage of women aged 20 to 24 years who were first married or in union before age 18
Poorest Richest
West and Eastern and Middle East and Latin America Eastern Europe
South Asia World
Central Africa Southern Africa North Africa and the Caribbean and Central Asia
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1995 2020 1995 2020 1995 2020 1995 2020 1995 2020 1995 2020 1995 2020
Notes: Estimates are based on a subset of 105 countries covering 58 per cent of the global population of women aged 20 to 24 years. Regional aggregates are based on at least
50 per cent population coverage. Data were insufficient to calculate regional averages for East Asia and the Pacific, North America and Western Europe.
While the majority of countries have decreasing rates of child marriage, approximately half have
experienced increasing inequity
FIGURE 10 Percentage change in the overall prevalence of child marriage among women aged 20 to 24 years, and percentage change in the prevalence of
child marriage among women aged 20 to 24 years from the poorest quintile versus women aged 20 to 24 years from the richest quintile over
the past 25 years
Decreasing Increasing 100 Increasing Increasing
child marriage inequity child marriage inequity
Change in child marriage (overall)
0
-100 100
Decreasing Decreasing -100 Increasing Decreasing
child marriage inequity Change in child marriage (richest/poorest) child marriage inequity
Note: Each dot represents a country.
18 19
Understanding trends
Towards Ending Child Marriage: Global trends and profiles of progress
03.
Understanding trends
What drives progress in Risk factors for child marriage enable families to invest in their © UNICEF/UN0482314/
reducing child marriage? are commonly studied at the daughters’ futures through
Insights can be gleaned individual level, and drivers of education and to cope with shocks
from examining change are often evaluated in terms without resorting to child marriage. stable, often skilled work in the In considering the impact of these is supported by the robust
of programmatic effectiveness. These parallels are not surprising, formal sector that is correlated various socioeconomic factors on relationship found between the
how child marriage
However, a body of literature also but they do underscore the with a reduction in child marriage, child marriage, it is also important prevalence of child marriage and
patterns correlate with
exists on societal, macro-level magnitude and breadth of gains that likely because it provides a more to reflect on the possibility of the adolescent fertility rate. In
broader demographic,
factors related to the practice, can be made when improvements promising pathway for girls. interactions between individual and many contexts, child marriage
legal, economic and
including economic development in these related sectors are societal variables. This is evident in is a driver of early pregnancy; in
development trends. and poverty reduction, access to achieved at the societal level. Keeping girls in school is often the relationship between education others, including in parts of Latin
education, and women’s access to cited as one of the best ways to and the labour market, for example. America and the Caribbean as
the labour market. These factors While the relationships among these prevent child marriage. Decisions It has been established that well as certain African countries,
are closely aligned with established factors and child marriage are largely about removing a girl from school increases in the perceived value of unintended pregnancies may
risk and protective factors for intuitive, the available data and and marrying her off at a young age education at the household level drive child marriages. Even in
child marriage at the individual literature reveal important nuances. are often made at the same time. (thus reducing the risk of early such contexts, however, most
or household level. For example, This hypothesis is supported by marriage and taking girls out of adolescent pregnancies occur
evidence shows that individual girls Within the area of economic the relationship we see between school) are more likely when labour within an early union. Looking at
with lower educational attainment development, factors that impact rates of out-of-school girls and child market opportunities are available. the use of modern contraception
are typically at higher risk of child child marriage are multifaceted. marriage prevalence. In countries This relationship is also likely to by unmarried girls aged 15 to 19
marriage than their more educated For example, alleviating the most with high rates of girls out of play out at the macro level, where can reveal insights into the effect
peers. Similarly, countries with severe levels of poverty may not be school, we see correspondingly an increasingly educated population on child marriage of reducing
higher levels of education also have sufficient to reduce child marriage, high rates of child marriage. The can drive innovation and create unintended pregnancies. Increased
lower levels of child marriage. since more basic needs are likely to effect appears to be strongest entrepreneurial opportunities use of modern contraception
be addressed before resources are for girls of lower-secondary and as well as draw in opportunities among this demographic group
The links between poverty and child invested in girls’ futures. Inequality upper-secondary school age, for skilled work, thus creating shows a modest corresponding
marriage are also well established is also important to consider, since reflecting the fact that most girls productive career pathways for decrease in the rate of child
and can be mutually reinforcing. equitable economic development are married soon after they hit young people. marriage.
Child marriage is most common will do more to reach the portions puberty or in their later teenage
among the poorest segments of society most affected by child years. A strong relationship is also Two additional factors that are often Finally, while it is well known
of society and its prevalence is marriage than aggregate progress found between child marriage and studied in relation to child marriage that setting the minimum age
highest in low-income countries. driven by gains only at the top. school completion rates. However, are adolescent pregnancy and a at marriage at or above 18 can
At the same time, high rates of the data indicate a more robust country’s legal age at marriage. make a crucial difference in
child marriage negatively affect The relationship between child relationship between primary/lower Neither aspect, however, has a progress against child marriage,
a country’s economic growth marriage and labour force secondary completion rates and straightforward association with the existence of loopholes, the
and ability to eradicate poverty participation is also complex. The child marriage compared to upper- child marriage, and their ability to absence of sanctions and the
through their impact on fertility availability of any type of work for secondary completion rates. This drive the practice has many caveats. fact that many marriages may
and population growth, maternal women is not sufficient to reduce may be because upper-secondary still occur illegally weaken the
and child health and women’s child marriage, particularly if most completion rates are relatively Child marriage is both a cause effectiveness of legislation as a
potential earnings and productivity. of the work is in the informal sector. low across sub-Saharan Africa and and consequence of adolescent driver of change.
Conversely, rising national incomes Rather, it is the availability of more South Asia. pregnancy. This premise20 Economic development including household poverty, region saw rapid economic growth, While most regions have made progress in reducing poverty over the past several decades, per capita 21
and poverty reduction are factored in. This implies that with a 3.5-fold increase in GDP GDP has stagnated or declined in sub-Saharan Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean, and the Middle
Understanding trends
improvements in macroeconomic per capita, with extreme poverty East and North Africa
Towards Ending Child Marriage: Global trends and profiles of progress
Harmful practices are often wealth are indeed associated with dropping to 2 per cent in 2013.
a feature of poor economic FIGURE 11.a Percentage of population living on less than $1.90 a day (2011 purchasing power parity)
reductions in the prevalence of However, from 2015 to 2018 the
development, which is well child marriage. Still, the benefits extreme poverty rate tripled, with
Eastern Europe Middle East Latin America East Asia and Sub-Saharan Low- and
known to produce a cascade of of economic growth are often conflicts in the region largely and Central Asia and North Africa and the Caribbean the Pacific
South Asia
Africa middle-income
social risks for children.8 Typically, experienced unevenly across driving the increase.11 100 countries
limited wealth is a decisive factor populations, reinforcing the need
in encouraging families to marry for social protection to ensure that Sub-Saharan Africa has seen 90
their children off at a young age. the most vulnerable are reached. steady economic growth and has
80
Studies show that the countries succeeded in reducing poverty in
with low gross domestic product Up until the COVID-19 pandemic, recent years. Poverty levels remain 70
(GDP) per capita are also those in the world had made unprecedented high relative to other regions,
which children are most at risk for progress against poverty, reducing however, with more than 40 per 60
child marriage.9 At the same time, the number of people living in cent of the population living in
economic development and better extreme poverty by more than extreme poverty, circumstances 50
infrastructure have been shown to 1.2 billion over the past quarter that often drive parents to marry off
40
reduce the practice.10 An analysis century. South Asia has made the their daughters during childhood.12
of several South Asian countries most rapid progress, lifting 33 per Additionally, in the last 10 years, 30
found that regional growth in cent of its population – over 200 given rapid population growth, the
economic activity significantly million people – out of extreme GDP per capita in sub-Saharan 20
reduced the likelihood of child poverty. The Middle East and North Africa has stagnated and continues
marriage. The effect of growth Africa was the one region that to be low relative to other regions 10
holds even after other economic experienced an increase in extreme of the world.
0
and demographic indicators, poverty. From 1990 to 2014, this 1990 2000 2010 2018 1990 2000 2010 2018 1990 2000 2010 2018 1990 2000 2010 2018 1990 2000 2010 2018 1990 2000 2010 2018 1990 2000 2010 2018
Source: World Bank, 2021.
FIGURE 11.b GDP per capita (current US$)
Latin America Eastern Europe East Asia and Middle East Sub-Saharan Low- and
South Asia middle-income
and the Caribbean and Central Asia the Pacific and North Africa Africa
10,000 countries
9,000
8,000
7,000
6,000
5,000
4,000
3,000
2,000
1,000
0
1990 2000 2010 2019 1990 2000 2010 2019 1990 2000 2010 2019 1990 2000 2010 2019 1990 2000 2010 2019 1990 2000 2010 2019 1990 2000 2010 2019
© UNICEF/UNI275776/Younis
Source: World Bank and Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), 2021.22 Access to education and skills they need to become saw significant improvements, 23
empowered adults. It is widely and its progress is even more
Understanding trends
Education is widely recognized acknowledged that the benefits of impressive when considered
Towards Ending Child Marriage: Global trends and profiles of progress
as the most significant factor secondary education for girls are against the backdrop of its rapid
in delaying the age of marriage significant.16 For example, research population growth.18 Progress
for girls.13 Research suggests suggests that while, in some has, however, been slower at the
schooling may be protective areas, primary school completion secondary level, and the gap in
against early marriage for several can be protective against child female educational achievements
reasons. In many countries, marriage, attending school during between sub-Saharan Africa and
schooling and marriage are viewed early adolescence is significant in other regions remains wide.
as incompatible activities: Girls are reducing the practice.17
often forced to leave school upon Across all regions, the proportion
marriage, and many parents are Regions that have had greater of girls of upper-secondary age
unwilling to delay marriage so their success against child marriage who are out of school remains high
daughters can attain a higher level have also made faster progress and upper-secondary completion
of education.14 Better quality and in improving education for girls. rates are low, particularly in regions
higher education may make the South Asia experienced the most that have a high prevalence of
returns on investment in girls more dramatic progress in increasing child marriage. Approximately half
apparent and justifiable for both female completion rates and of girls in this age group in South
parents and society.15 bringing more girls into the Asia, and two thirds in sub-Saharan
educational system. That region Africa, are out of school. Similarly,
Primary education lays the exceeds the low- and middle- only 38 per cent of girls in South
foundation for a lifetime of learning, income country average for both Asia and 26 per cent of girls in
while secondary education provides primary- and lower-secondary-level sub-Saharan Africa complete upper-
children with the knowledge indicators. Sub-Saharan Africa also secondary school.
© UNICEF/UNI316614/Bongyereirwe
Today, more girls are in school than ever before And more girls are successfully completing primary and secondary education
FIGURE 12 Percentage of girls out of school, by level FIGURE 13 Percentage of girls who successfully completed their education, by level
1990/2000 2019 1990 2019
Low- and middle- Low- and middle-
Primary Lower secondary Upper secondary Primary Lower secondary Upper secondary
income countries income countries
100
100
90
90
80
80
70
70
60
60
50
50
40
40
30
30
20
20
10
10
0
0
Eastern Europe and Central Asia
East Asia and the Pacific
Latin America and the Caribbean
Middle East and North Africa
South Asia
Sub-Saharan Africa
Eastern Europe and Central Asia
East Asia and the Pacific
Latin America and the Caribbean
Middle East and North Africa
South Asia
Sub-Saharan Africa
Eastern Europe and Central Asia
East Asia and the Pacific
Latin America and the Caribbean
Middle East and North Africa
South Asia
Sub-Saharan Africa
Primary
Lower secondary
Upper secondary
South Asia
Eastern Europe and Central Asia
East Asia and the Pacific
Latin America and the Caribbean
Middle East and North Africa
Sub-Saharan Africa
Eastern Europe and Central Asia
East Asia and the Pacific
Latin America and the Caribbean
Middle East and North Africa
South Asia
Sub-Saharan Africa
Eastern Europe and Central Asia
East Asia and the Pacific
Latin America and the Caribbean
Middle East and North Africa
South Asia
Sub-Saharan Africa
Primary
Lower secondary
Upper secondary
Notes: Lower-secondary data are only available since 2000. Trend data are not available for upper-secondary education. Note: Trend data are not available for upper-secondary education.
Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2020. Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2020.24 Labour force participation declined across low-and-middle- women are often forced to take Globally, female employment rates in low- and middle-income countries have declined slightly, but the 25
income countries – from 50 per risky and unappealing jobs to gender gap has remained constant
Access to employment and
Understanding trends
cent to 43 per cent over the past ensure they can satisfy their
Towards Ending Child Marriage: Global trends and profiles of progress
FIGURE 14 Employment-to-population ratio for girls and women and boys and men aged 15 years and older
participation in the labour market three decades. The gender gap, household’s basic needs.
are associated with an increase however, has remained constant, Boys and men Girls and women
in women’s empowerment, the with the male employment-to- While female labour force
enhancement of their position in population ratio also decreasing participation is declining globally, on Sub-Saharan East Asia and Eastern Europe Latin America South Asia Middle East Low- and middle-
Africa the Pacific and Central Asia and the Caribbean and North Africa income countries
society and the household, and by 7 per cent over the same average, an increase in the quality 100
other improved life outcomes, period. In some instances, falling of work has been observed across
including delayed age at marriage.19 participation rates are the result of all regions, with a shift towards 90
Evidence suggests that improved improved educational attainment wage and salaried jobs. These 80
employment opportunities may and the ensuing reduction in youth trends may reflect two opposing
raise the cost of dropping out participation rates.25 This is good forces. First, a large proportion 70
of school, in addition to allowing news, but the positive effect may of women at the bottom of the 60
young women to build an be limited by the extent to which income distribution, who previously
economic base to lift themselves these countries can create jobs worked in unappealing jobs, are 50
and future generations out of that leverage these enhanced skill pulling out of the labour market as 40
poverty, addressing two of the sets, a trend seen in South Asia. their households become more
primary drivers of early marriage.20 On the other hand, higher female affluent. Second, educated women 30
employment-participation rates, are increasingly accessing more 20
However, not all types of such as those seen in sub-Saharan lucrative jobs. These jobs reward
employment are equally protective Africa, can be the result of a lack of higher educational attainment 10
against child marriage, with other livelihood opportunities and and are associated with delayed
0
participation in the informal labour limited social protection coverage marriage.26 As expected, 1991 2019 1991 2019 1991 2019 1991 2019 1991 2019 1991 2019 1991 2019
sector potentially increasing (such as childcare benefits, social regions with higher rates of
the risk of child marriage.21 To pensions or unemployment female wage and salaried workers Source: International Labour Organization (ILO), 2021.
understand this risk, it is important provisions). In the absence of continue to have the lowest rates
to consider not only the proportion decent work and social protection, of child marriage.
of wage and salaried workers
among employed women and A trend away from vulnerable employment and towards wage and salaried work for women can be seen
girls, but also the proportion in most regions
of those working in vulnerable FIGURE 15 Proportion of vulnerable employment among girls and women aged 15 years and older as a percentage of female employment and proportion
of wage and salaried female workers aged 15 years and older as a percentage of female employment
jobs. Vulnerable employment is
typically represented by poorly Vulnerable Wage
compensated, time- and labour-
intensive activities, such as Sub-Saharan East Asia and Middle East Latin America Eastern Europe Low- and middle-
South Asia the Pacific and North Africa and the Caribbean and Central Asia
Africa income countries
agricultural work, which often 100
lack sufficient social protections.22
Women tend to work outside the 90
formal economy since they are 80
disproportionately responsible
for care and household work. 70
They often have less time to
60
devote to a job outside the
home, making informal and often 50
vulnerable employment a more
40
accessible option.23 Research
shows that participation in this 30
type of employment, especially
20
among adolescents, increases the
likelihood of dropping out of school 10
and, ultimately, child marriage.24
0
1991 2019 1991 2019 1991 2019 1991 2019 1991 2019 1991 2019 1991 2019
On average, the female
© UNICEF/UN0469340/Dejongh
employment-to-population ratio has Source: International Labour Organization, 2021.26 Improvements in Available data show improvements significant drop in adolescent All regions have seen a significant reduction in adolescent fertility except East Asia and the Pacific, 27
reproductive health in maternal and reproductive health fertility with a 77 per cent decline, where the fertility rate was already low
Understanding trends
across all regions. Adolescent from 103 births to 23 births per
Towards Ending Child Marriage: Global trends and profiles of progress
FIGURE 16 Births per 1,000 girls aged 15 to 19 years
Delaying childbearing is a crucial fertility and maternal mortality 1,000 girls, reaching the levels
starting point for improving have declined while, at the of East Asia and the Pacific and
maternal health, as well as same time, access to modern Europe and Central Asia today. Sub-Saharan Africa 1990 2018
improving women’s lives more contraception has increased.
broadly, including delaying the All regions also experienced at
South Asia 1990 2018
age at marriage. Early pregnancy Regions that experienced the least a 24 per cent increase in
is one of the main drivers of child most significant declines in access to modern contraception
Latin America
marriage in countries where pre- child marriage also saw the among adolescents from 1995 to and the Caribbean 1990 2018
marital sex is common.27 Every most marked reductions in the 2020. However, the adolescent
year, an estimated 21 million adolescent fertility rate. All regions demand for family planning Middle East and
1990 2018
girls aged 15 to 19 years become saw at least a 30 per cent drop in satisfied by modern methods North Africa
pregnant in low- and middle- adolescent fertility, except East did not exceed 75 per cent in
Eastern Europe 1990 2018
income regions, and approximately Asia and the Pacific, where the any region in 2020. More than and Central Asia
12 million of them give birth.28 fertility rate was already low at half of adolescent demand for
Evidence shows that one of the 30 births per 1,000 girls in 1990. modern contraception is still East Asia and
the Pacific 1990 2018
most effective ways to prevent By 2018, the fertility rate declined unmet in regions with the highest
unintended pregnancy is to use modestly to 22 births per 1,000 prevalence of child marriage.
modern forms of contraception.29 girls. South Asia saw the most
Low- and middle-
income countries 1990 2018
150 100 50 0
Source: United Nations Population Division (UNPD), 2019.
Adolescent demand for family planning satisfied by modern methods has increased in all regions
over the past 25 years
FIGURE 17 Percentage of girls aged 15 to 19 years who have their need for family planning satisfied by modern methods
Sub-Saharan Middle East East Asia and Latin America Eastern Europe Low- and middle-
South Asia Africa and North Africa the Pacific and the Caribbean and Central Asia income countries
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1995 2010 2020 1995 2010 2020 1995 2010 2020 1995 2010 2020 1995 2010 2020 1995 2010 2020 1995 2010 2020
© UNICEF/UN0388814/Panjwani
Source: United Nations Population Division, 2020.28 29
Understanding trends
Towards Ending Child Marriage: Global trends and profiles of progress
© UNICEF/UN0276245/Boro
Legal protections as parental consent, religious/ judicial/religious loopholes (15 per that closed that loophole to 67 per that have made child marriage have made child marriage illegal
customary law, pregnancy or court cent). Still, more than half of low- cent. South Asia also advanced in illegal under all circumstances (13 under general law, the proportion
Establishing legislation that sets a approval) that allow girls to marry and middle-income countries have closing loopholes, but it also has per cent). While all countries in of countries with legal loopholes is
minimum age for marriage at 18 before the legal age.33 Moreover, at least one loophole, and only the lowest proportion of countries Latin America and the Caribbean close to rates in South Asia.
is recognized as essential to while national laws against child 1 in 3 countries have closed all
eliminating child marriage.30 marriage are important, they loopholes, making marriage before
Legislative provisions can are not sufficient for ending the the age of 18 for girls illegal under
encourage government follow-
Countries across all regions closed legal loopholes that allow marriage of girls under age 18. Still, more
practice. Even after accounting any circumstances.
progress is needed
through and provide levers for for exceptions to the legal age
civil society advocates to hold at marriage with parental or From 1995 to 2018, the regions of FIGURE 18 Proportion of low- and middle-income countries in which marriage for girls under the age of 18 is illegal under general law, is illegal except with
leaders accountable to national and judicial consent, a global study Europe and Central Asia, the Middle parental consent, is illegal with exceptions for judicial consent or religious reasons, and with all exceptions considered
international commitments. found that 7.5 million girls marry East and North Africa, South Asia
In most countries, child marriage illegally each year.34 The fact that, and sub-Saharan Africa made the Illegal under general law Illegal except with parental consent Illegal with judicial and religious exceptions All exceptions considered
is prohibited by national law. Indeed, in many countries, there are no most progress in raising the legal
Eastern Europe Middle East Sub-Saharan East Asia and Latin America Low- and middle-
most countries have adopted 18 legal sanctions for child marriage, age at marriage for girls and closing and Central Asia and North Africa South Asia Africa the Pacific and the Caribbean income countries
years as the legal age at marriage such as a fine or prison sentences, loopholes. Surprisingly, Europe 100
for girls, and in some countries may compound the issue. Where and Central Asia was among the
90
the age is higher.31 Countries that no sanctions exist, the law may regions with the lowest proportion
consistently protect the rights of be less effective in acting as a of countries (42 per cent) with 80
girls by setting their legal minimum deterrent to the practice.35 laws outlawing marriage of a girl
70
age at marriage, their legal minimum before age 18, under that region’s
age at marriage with parental Legal protections throughout the 1995 general law. However, by 60
consent, and their legal minimum world have improved significantly. 2018, 94 per cent of countries in
50
age of sexual consent at 18 or From 1995 to 2018, the proportion Europe and Central Asia had made
older had rates of child marriage of low- and middle-income child marriage illegal under general 40
that were 40 per cent lower countries in which the marriage law, and the majority (69 per cent)
30
than countries where these laws of a girl before the age of 18 had closed the parental consent
contradicted one another.32 Such years was illegal under general loophole. Countries in the Middle 20
associations point to the crucial law increased from 78 per cent to East and North Africa also made
difference that legislation can make 10
93 per cent, a 15 per cent rise. A significant progress, with 43 per
in progress against child marriage. moderately greater increase was cent changing their child marriage 0
seen in the proportion of countries 1995 2018 1995 2018 1995 2018 1995 2018 1995 2018 1995 2018 1995 2018
laws to make marriage before age
While this is good news, in theory, that closed the parental consent 18 with parental consent illegal, Notes: The data presented here cover a subset of 106 low- and middle-income countries. Data for judicial and religious exceptions are only available from 2000.
there are often loopholes (such loophole (23 per cent) and closed raising the proportion of countries Source: World Bank, Women, Business and the Law, 2021.30 31
Profiles of progress
Towards Ending Child Marriage: Global trends and profiles of progress
04.
Profiles of progress
Progress against child Decades ago, child marriage was close to the elimination of child
marriage can be assessed the norm in Bangladesh, Ethiopia marriage. In these countries,
in different ways. Nine and India, with the majority of girls levels have continued to decline,
countries are profiled marrying before the age of 18. with the practice becoming
Today, these countries are among rare. While it is common for
here, each of which has
those that have seen the steepest progress to slow as countries
made strides in reducing
declines in the prevalence of child approach the last mile (since
levels of child marriage.
marriage worldwide, representing this usually entails reaching the
a substantial decrease in the most vulnerable segments of
risk for individual girls as well the population), these countries
as a significant reduction in the show that continued progress
number of girls marrying each year. towards elimination is possible.
Significant progress has also been At the global level, we see that
achieved by Indonesia, where the the most progress against child
practice is half as common today marriage has been enjoyed by
as it was at the beginning of the girls from wealthier backgrounds,
1990s. Prevalence in these four with often minimal benefit to the
countries still remains high. So, poorest girls. These five countries
despite dramatic progress, there is are therefore noteworthy for the
more work to be done before the equitable progress they have
practice is eliminated. made in reducing child marriage,
meaning that levels have declined
Armenia, Eswatini, the Maldives, among not just the richest but also
Rwanda and Tunisia are coming the poorest segments of society.
This is not an exhaustive presentation of countries that have made
progress in reducing child marriage, but a selection of examples, driven
by data availability. For each country, the following pages present: an
overview of trends in child marriage; data on how common the practice
is, who is most affected, and how it has changed over time; and a review
of other socioeconomic shifts that have occurred in these countries over
the same period in terms of girls’ access to education and employment
opportunities, as well as economic development and poverty reduction.
© UNICEF/UNI337373/TesfayeBangladesh
32 Bangladesh has seen a steep decline in extreme poverty and a rise in GPD per capita 33
FIGURE 21 GDP per capita (current US$) and percentage of the population living on less than $1.90 a day (2011 purchasing power parity)
Profiles of progress: Bangladesh
Towards Ending Child Marriage: Global trends and profiles of progress
Legal age at marriage is 18 years old, with exceptions
Bangladesh Low- and middle-income countries
Bangladesh has seen a marked decrease in the practice of child marriage, experiencing one of the GDP per capita Extreme poverty
10,000 50
largest absolute declines globally for marriage before age 18. It has also experienced one of the
largest absolute declines in marriage before age 15. 9,000
8,000 40
The prevalence of child marriage dropped from close to 80 per cent in 1994 to just over 50 per cent in 2019
FIGURE 19 Percentage of women aged 20 to 24 years who were first married or in union before age 18 7,000
100
6,000 30
90
79
80 5,000
72
69
70 64
57 4,000 20
60
51
50 3,000
40
2,000 10
30
20 1,000
10
0 0
0 1990 2000 2010 2019 1990 2000 2010 2019 1991 1995 2005 2016 1991 1995 2005 2016
1994 1999 2004 2009 2014 2019
Declines in child marriage have been observed across richer and poorer segments of society and are The economic profile of child brides has remained relatively unchanged over time
particularly noteworthy among the least educated FIGURE 22 Percentage distribution of women aged 20 to 24 years who were first married or in union before age 18, by wealth quintile
FIGURE 20 Percentage of women aged 20 to 24 years who were first married or in union before age 18, by wealth quintile and education
Poorest
Poor
1994 2019
Middle
Wealth quintile Education Richer
100 Richest 18 19
90 85 18
83 84 82 83
80 76 20
70 67
62
60 69 65
63 61
1994 2019
60 22
50 19
51 22
50
40
38 21
30 26
20 20
23
10 22
0
Poorest Poor Middle Richer Richest No education Primary Secondary Higher
Note: Due to rounding, numbers for 2019 do not add up to 100.34 Bangladesh has seen significant improvements in girls’ education, with primary- and lower-secondary- The female labour force participation rate has only seen modest increases over the last three decades, but 35
level completion rates catching up to the low- and middle-income country average more Bangladeshi women have wage and salaried jobs than ever before
Profiles of progress: Bangladesh
Towards Ending Child Marriage: Global trends and profiles of progress
FIGURE 23 Percentage of girls out of school and percentage of girls who successfully completed their education, by level FIGURE 25 Proportion of vulnerable employment among girls and women aged 15 years and older as a percentage of female employment, proportion of
wage and salaried female workers aged 15 years and older as a percentage of female employment, and employment-to-population ratio for
girls and women aged 15 years and older
Bangladesh Low- and middle-income countries
Out of school Completion rates Bangladesh Low- and middle-income countries
Primary Lower secondary Upper secondary Primary Lower secondary Upper secondary
Vulnerable employment Wage and salaried employment Employment-to-population ratio
100 100
100 100 100
90 90
90 90 90
80 80
80 80 80
70 70
70 70 70
60 60
60 60 60
50 50
50 50 50
40 40
40 40 40
30 30
30 30 30
20 20
10 10
20 20 20
0 0 10 10 10
2006 2019 2006 2019 2006 2019 2000 2019 2000 2019 2000 2019
0 0 0
1991 2019 1991 2019 1991 2019
Note: Values for upper-secondary education are not available for low- and middle-income countries.
The majority of child brides in 1994 had no education; by 2019, the majority had attended at least
secondary school
FIGURE 24 Percentage distribution of women aged 20 to 24 years who were first married or in union before age 18, by highest education level attended
No education
Primary
Secondary
2
Higher
16
5
15
22
1994 2019
51
© UNICEF/UN0482167/Satu
31
58
Data sources: The analysis on trends in child marriage is based on the prevalence of the practice as measured in the DHS 1993-1994, 1996-1997, 1999-2000, 2004, 2007, 2011 and
2014, and MICS 2006, 2012-2013 and 2019. Data on GDP per capita are from the World Bank and OECD, 2021. Data on poverty are from the World Bank, 2021. Data on education are
from the UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2020. Data on labour are from the ILO, 2021. Information on legal age at marriage was obtained from the World Bank, 2021. More details on
methods and data sources can be found in the technical notes.Ethiopia
36 While many Ethiopians still live in extreme poverty, the share has dropped significantly, and the 37
country’s GDP per capita has nearly tripled in the last three decades
Profiles of progress: Ethiopia
Towards Ending Child Marriage: Global trends and profiles of progress
FIGURE 28 GDP per capita (current US$) and percentage of the population living on less than $1.90 a day (2011 purchasing power parity)
Legal age at marriage is 18 years, with exceptions
Ethiopia Low- and middle-income countries
Ethiopia’s progress in reducing the prevalence of child marriage is one of the strongest among GDP per capita Extreme poverty
10,000 100
countries in Eastern and Southern Africa. Levels have declined in the past 25 years, with accelerating
progress since 2006.
9,000 90
Four in 10 young women were married in childhood in 2016 compared with 7 in 10 in 1991 8,000 80
FIGURE 26 Percentage of women aged 20 to 24 years who were first married or in union before age 18
7,000 70
100
90 6,000 60
80
69 5,000 50
70 63 61
59
4,000 40
60
49
50
40 3,000 30
40
2,000 20
30
20
1,000 10
10
0 0
0 1990 2000 2010 2019 1990 2000 2010 2019 1995 2004 2010 2015 1995 2004 2010 2015
1991 1996 2001 2006 2011 2016
Progress in child marriage has mostly benefited the richest and more educated girls Child brides in 2016 were slightly poorer that those in 1991
FIGURE 27 Percentage of women aged 20 to 24 years who were first married or in union before age 18, by wealth quintile and education FIGURE 29 Percentage distribution of women aged 20 to 24 years who were first married or in union before age 18, by wealth quintile
1991 2016 Poorest
Poor
Wealth quintile Education
100 Middle
Richer
90
16
Richest 20
77 13
80 74
71 71 24
69
70
60 57 68 58
16
58
50 53 1991 2016
50 21
40
43
30 35
20 25 25
20 21
19
10
13
(6)
0 19
Poorest Poor Middle Richer Richest No education Primary Secondary Higher
Notes: The value for ‘higher education’ for 1991 was suppressed because of the small number of observations. Values in parentheses are based on 25 to 49 observations. Note: Due to rounding, numbers do not add up to 100.38 In the past 20 years, Ethiopia has made marked progress in education, particularly in lowering the The last 30 years saw a slight decline in vulnerable employment and a small increase in wage employment 39
percentage of girls out of school across all age groups; still, much more progress is needed and the employment-to-population ratio
Profiles of progress: Ethiopia
Towards Ending Child Marriage: Global trends and profiles of progress
FIGURE 30 Percentage of girls out of school and percentage of girls who successfully completed their education, by level FIGURE 32 Proportion of vulnerable employment as a percentage of female employment, proportion of wage and salaried female workers as a percentage
of female employment, and employment-to-population ratio for girls and women aged 15 years and older
Ethiopia Low- and middle-income countries
Ethiopia Low- and middle-income countries
Out of school Completion rates
Vulnerable employment Wage and salaried employment Employment-to-population ratio
Primary Lower secondary Upper secondary Primary Lower secondary Upper secondary
100 100 100 100 100
90 90 90 90 90
80 80 80 80 80
70 70 70 70 70
60 60 60 60 60
50 50
50 50 50
40 40
40 40 40
30 30
30 30 30
20 20
20 20 20
10 10
10 10 10
0 0
2000 2016 2000 2016 2000 2016 2000 2016 2000 2016 2000 2016 0 0 0
1991 2019 1991 2019 1991 2019
Note: Values for upper-secondary education are not available for low- and middle-income countries.
Less than half of child brides in 2016 had no education compared with 84 per cent 25 years ago
FIGURE 31 Percentage distribution of women aged 20 to 24 years who were first married or in union before age 18, by highest education level attended
No education
Primary
1
Secondary
14
Higher
2
6
46
1991 2016
46
© UNICEF/UN0281305/Tadesse
84
Data sources: The analysis on trends in child marriage is based on the prevalence of the practice as measured in the DHS 2000, 2005, 2011 and 2016. Data on GDP per capita are
from the World Bank and OECD, 2021. Data on poverty are from the World Bank, 2021. Data on education are from the UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2020. Data on labour are
from the ILO, 2021. Information on legal age at marriage was obtained from the World Bank, 2021. More details on methods and data sources can be found in the technical notes.
Note: Due to rounding, numbers for 1991 do not add up to 100.You can also read
