The Wildlife Society THE BRITISH COLUMBIA CHAPTER - 2019 Conference and Workshop
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The Wildlife Society
THE BRITISH COLUMBIA CHAPTER
2019 Conference and Workshop
BC CONNECTIONS: OUR FUTURE
TOGETHER
March 1-3, 2019
Kelowna, British Columbia
Table of Contents
Welcome to the Inagural BCTWS Conference & Workshop ......... 2
Committees....................................................................................... 3
Conference Sponsors ...................................................................... 4
General Information ......................................................................... 6
Schedule at a Glance ....................................................................... 7
Oral Presentations ......................................................................... 11
Poster Presentations ..................................................................... 29
Attachment 1:
Conservation Affairs Committee Session Info ............................ 32
1
Dear Participants of the Inaugural BCTWS Conference & Workshop,
We listened to your feedback on the Membership Survey, and as a result have built our annual
conference to include many opportunities to meet, interact, and share information with other
wildlife biologists from across the Province, while becoming better informed about current and
changing provincial issues. To capture these concepts, we selected our conference theme
of BC Connections: Our Future Together. We would also like to acknowledge that during our
conference we are gathering on the traditional, ancestral, unceded territory of the
Sylix/Okanagan people.
The idea is to keep the meeting action-packed and intimate so that professional connections
and lasting friendships can be easily made. We have included different forums for sharing and
learning about hot topics across the province, including standard Open-Paper and Poster
Programs and a Rapid-Paper Program. The Rapid-Papers will allow members to quickly
communicate activities important to them, creating greater opportunities to stimulate discussion
during breaks, and allow members to get to know one another and identify opportunities for
collaboration.
Scaling up from personal connections, we are excited to hear the keynote address from Jennifer
Psyllakis Director of Wildlife and Habitat, Ministry of Forests, Lands, Natural Resource
Operations and Rural Development, “Insight & Vision: Navigating a Career in Natural Resource
Management”. We are also looking forward to engaging with the fantastic panel we’ve
assembled to discuss British Columbia’s developing Species-At-Risk legislation. And make sure
you stay till the end when we will have an important discussion on how to have your voice
represented provincially during a Conservation Affairs Committee discussion.
The BCTWS takes the future of British Columbia’s wildlife seriously. We believe the greatest
contribution we can make to secure our legacy is through support of our students and young
professionals. It is clear to me you also share this sentiment, indicated by so many having
readily volunteered to attend our “Speed-Networking Session.”
We have been graciously supported by several fantastic organizations (pages 4-5), so please
remember to thank them for their important contribution to our Chapter. You too can help British
Columbia’s future wildlife students by grossly over-bidding on our silent auction items.
Our intent is for this conference to be fun and engaging, so I hope you brought your positive
energy and plan to enjoy yourselves while simultaneously building a community of forward-
thinking and engaged wildlife biologists. I thank you for your attendance and appreciate you
doing your part to build a lasting and vibrant BC Chapter of The Wildlife Society.
Sincerely,
J. Scott Yaeger
President / 2019 Conference Chair BC Chapter of The Wildlife Society
2
Committees:
BCTWS Executive Team Conference Committee Chairs
• President – Scott Yaeger • Conference Coordination – Scott Yaeger
• President-Elect – Bill Harrower • Communications – Julie Kanya
• Secretary-Treasurer – Tyler Muhly • Fundraising – Myles Lamont
• Student Liaison – Agnes Pelletier • Panel discussion – Bill Harrower
• Director – Ashley Kerik • Paper Program – Bill Harrower
• Director – Pat Baird • Registration – Tyler Muhly
• Past President – Rod Davis • Student Awards – Adam Ford
• Communications Chair – Julie Kanya • Student Conclave and Mentorship –
Eamon Riordan-Short
• Student Liaison – Agnes Pelletier
• Volunteer Coordinator – Cayla Naumann
Special thanks to all the other volunteers that helped with the conference!
Conference Volunteers
Jeff Werner Alex Ritz Shea Carson
Sidhu Gurjot UBCO – Student Chapter
Execs and members
3
We sincerely thank our sponsors for their generous
contributions to help make this conference possible!!
Platinum Sponsors:
4
We sincerely thank our sponsors for their generous
contributions to help make this conference possible!!
Gold Sponsors:
Bronze Sponsors:
5
GENERAL INFORMATION:
Venue:
Royal Anne Hotel
348 Bernard Ave, Kelowna, BC V1Y 6N5
Hotel WIFI password is: rahotel348
Registration:
The registration desk will be located in the hall between meeting rooms. The registration
desk will be open: Friday, March 1st 10:00-12:00, Saturday, March 2nd 8am-830am,
Sunday March 3rd 8am-830am.
Lunch:
Lunch will be served 12:15 – 1:45, Saturday, March 2nd in the Cutters Room. Buffet
lunch is included for all registered participants.
Refreshment Breaks:
Coffee, tea, and snacks will be served in the Cutters Room during all networking
breaks.
Welcome Social and Poster Session:
Please join us for the Welcome Social and Poster Session on Friday March, 1st in the
Cutters Room 16:35 – 18:00. hors d’oeuvres and host/no-host bar included.
Student/Professional Speed Networking Social:
Speed-Networking session for professionals and students held 16:50 – 18:00 Saturday
March, 2nd in the Cutters Room. Hors d’oeuvres and host/no-host bar included
*Pre-registration required.
Students and professionals will have a few minutes to introduce themselves, ask
questions, and have a brief discussion. After ~5 minutes, students will move on to meet
the next professional. Students can ask about graduate school or professional work
(i.e., career paths, recommended experiences and/or expertise, etc.), or talk about
common interests related to wildlife science and conservation. This is an opportunity for
students to meet new contacts and for professionals to mentor and potentially find new
collaborations.
Silent Auction:
Silent auction items will be displayed in the Ballroom during the conference. Participants
are encouraged to bring items to donate for this fundraising auction. Proceeds help to
defray the costs of this and future conferences for students and young professionals
and ensuring maximum participation and professional development opportunities.
Auction bids close Saturday, March 2nd end of day; winners to be listed at registration
desk Sunday March 3rd 8:00am.
6
Schedule at a Glance:
Friday March 1 Saturday March 2 Sunday March 3
08:30 - 09:15 8:30 - 9:05
Rapid-fire talks Rapid-fire talks
Moderator: Joanna van Bommel
09:15 - 09:35 9:05 - 9:30
Morning Activities
Contributed research Contributed research
Moderator: Ashley Kerik
10:00 – Registration presentation presentation
opens 09:35 - 10:05 9:30 - 9:50
Networking Break Networking Breaks
9:50 -10:15
Contributed research
10:30 – 12:00 presentation
Student conclave 10:15-11:20
(Okanagan Ballroom) 10:05 - 12:00 Broad-scale collaboration
& Business Meeting SAR panel discussion discussion
(Similkameen 11:20-11:50 Announce
Ballroom) Awards
11:50-12:00
Closing remarks
12:00 - 13:45 12:00
Lunch 12:00-13:00
Buffet Lunch & Adjournment
13:00-13:20 Team Wildlife Competition
Introductory welcome
Moderator: Janelle Cole
13:20-13:45
Rapid-fire talks
13:45-14:05
Contributed research
presentation
Afternoon Activities
14:05-14:30 13:45 - 14:20
Moderator: Jeff Werner
Rapid-fire talks Rapid-fire talks
14:30-14:50 14:20 -14:45
Contributed research Contributed research
presentation presentation
14:50-15:15 14:45-15:05
Rapid-fire talks Networking Break
15:15 -15:45 15:05 -16:45
Networking Break Conservation Affairs
15:45-16:45 Committee discussion
Keynote address (Attachment 1)
16:45-18:00
16:45 -18:00
Poster session social:
Student/Professional speed
hors d’oeuvres and
networking
host/no-host bar
18:30 -No-host pub
gathering Craft Beer 18:30 No-host pub gathering
Market 257 Bernard (Location TBD); Dinner on
Ave, Kelowna; dinner your own
on your own.
*All general talks will be held in the Ballroom
7Oral Presentations and Schedule of Events:
Friday March 1st
10:00 Registration Open
10:30 - 12:00 Student conclave (Okanagan Ballroom)
10:30 - 12:00 Business Meeting Similkameen Ballroom
12:00 - 13:00 Lunch - On your own
13:00 - 13:20 Introductory Welcome (Scott Yaeger)
Tyler Muhly – Response of wolves to human footprint across boreal Canada
13:20 - 13:45
Jeff Werner – Landscape change & moose nutrition
Rapid-fire
Felix Martinez-Nunez– Little Brown Myotis habitat use in Metro Vancouver
talks
Lorina Keery–Impact of bison reintroductions to Banff National Park
13:45 - 14:05 Tony Button– Interim assessment protocol for moose – assessing and
Contributed managing cumulative effects in British Columbia
research
presentation
Bill Harrower – Using expert knowledge to identify conservation outcomes and
14:05 - 14:30 management options for wolverine (Gulogulo) in the north
Rapid-fire Garth Mowat – Sustainability of wolverine trapping
talks Joanna Burgar - Evaluating camera trap surveys as an effective means of
monitoring remote ungulate populations
Stephen Symes – Guiding avoidance measures for Badger using winter space
use
14:30 - 14:50 Rich Weir – Identifying functional populations of fisher and wolverine for
Contributed conservation and management
research
presentation
Heather Bryan – Variation in grizzly bear growth and body size
Clayton Lamb – Genetic tagging in the Anthropocene: scaling ecology from
14:50 - 15:15 alleles to ecosystems
Rapid-fire Aisha Uduman – Investigating leopard-livestock conflict in Sri Lanka
talks Alexia Constantinou – Impacts of variable retention on mammalian wildlife
Lauren Henson - Anthropogenic and landscape drivers of population genetic
structure in grizzly bears on the central coast of BC
15:15 - 15:45 Networking Break
15:45 - 16:45 Jennifer Psyllakis, “Insight & Vision: Navigating a Career in Natural Resource
Keynote Natural Resource Management”
address
16:45 - 18:00 Poster session social: hors d’oeuvres and host/no-host bar
End day 1 No-host pub gathering Craft Beer Market 257 Bernard Ave, Kelowna; dinner
on your own.
8Saturday March 2
08:00 Registration Open
Emily Sunter – New directions in human-carnivore coexistence research
Tyler Jessen – Contributions of Indigenous Knowledge to Wildlife Ecology and
Evolution
Kate Field –Safeguarding animal welfare via Publication reform
08:30 - 09:15 Scott Yaeger –Targeting decision-makers to conserve fisher habitat
Rapid Fire Eamon Riordan-Short – Wildlife Photography, Citizen-Science, and You
Talks Kyle Artelle – Spatial assessment of grizzly bears and protected areas in the
GBR
Joanna van Bommel – Predictors of human-carnivore conflict on Southern
Vancouver Island
Adam Ford – Averting harmful outcomes in conservation
09:15 - 09:35
Leah Ramsay- “Conservation Status Assessments 101 (or Lists, Bloody
Contributed
Lists)”
research
presentation
09:35 - 10:05 Networking Break
SAR panel discussion, “What everyone ought to know about British Columbia’s
10:05 - 12:00
developing Species-at-Risk legislation” Facilitator: Bill Harrower
12:00- 13:45 Lunch break – Included buffet served on site & Team wildlife competition
Mike Proctor- Re-establishing functional connectivity of grizzly bear
Sultana Majid – Movement ecology of infection risk for California bighorn
sheep
13:45 - 14:20 Cloe Wright –Behavior, demography & environmental change in mule deer of
Rapid Fire southern BC
Talks Lauren Eckert - Indigenous Knowledge and Environmental Assessment in
Canada – implications for wildlife
Nicole Botten - Is the nutritional quality of wildlife forage reduced by the
persistence of glyphosate herbicide in plant tissues?
Shea Carson – Career as a Wildlife Biologist or Zoologist- Why me?
14:25 - 14:45
Contributed Michael Gillingham “Determining factors that affect survival of Moose in
research Central British Columbia”
presentation
14:45 - 15:05 Networking Break
15:05 - 16:20
Conservation “Establishing our Future Conservation Priorities Together”
Affairs Facilitator: Tyler Muhly and BCTWS executive (Attachment 1)
Committee
discussion
16:25 - 16:55 Social (Bar open)
16:55 -18:00 Student/Professional speed networking
18:30 No-host pub gathering (Location TBD); Dinner on your own
9Sunday March 3, 2019
08:00 Registration open. Collect silent auction winnings.
Kristen Mancuso – Overwinter Locations of Yellow-breasted Chats Breeding in
Okanagan
Jennifer Meineke – Biosolid Effects on vole populations and raptor and owl
communities
08:30 - 09:05
Ilona Mihalik –Costly signaling theory sheds light on motivations of big game
Rapid Fire
hunters
Talks
Edward Kroc – Promoting and Protecting Urban Nesters, Migrants, and
Residents
Jesse Zeman – Funding wildlife management
Toby St Clair – Novel methods for bat surveys in Metro Vancouver
09:05 - 09:30
Contributed Robin Naidoo “Recreational impacts on wildlife in the South Chilcotin
research Mountains, BC”
presentation
09:30 - 09:50 Networking Breaks
09:50 - 10:15
Contributed
Erin Tattersall – Large mammal dynamics on a boreal working landscape
research
presentation
Broad-scale collaboration discussion (What do you want from BC TWS? Get
10:15 - 11:20
Involved) Facilitator: Scott Yaeger
11:20 -11:50 Announce Awards
11:50 -12:00 Closing remarks (Scott Yaeger)
12:00 Adjourn
10Oral Presentations (In Alphabetical Order)
Artelle K.A.1, M. L. Bourbonnais, J. D. Reynolds, P. C. Paquet, M. S. Adams, H. M. Bryan, K. A. Field, C. N.
Service, and C. T. Darimont
1
Postdoctoral Fellow University of Victoria, Victoria BC,&Raincoast Conservation Foundation, Sydney BC,
kartelle@gmail.com
Using culturally important focal species to inform conservation: spatial assessment of grizzly bears
and protected areas in the Great Bear Rainforest
The need for conservation that addresses both ecological and cultural dimensions is increasingly being
recognized. We illustrate how species of high cultural importance provide opportunities for addressing
both, focusing on grizzly bears (Ursusarctos horribilis), which have significant cultural and ecological
importance. Specifically, we conducted spatial capture-recapture modeling on data from a non-invasive
monitoring project that spans territories of, and is run in partnership with, the Haíɫzaqv,
Kitasoo/Xai’xais, Wuikinuxv, and Nuxalk First Nations. We characterized the density of grizzly bear
activity centres from 2014-2017 across a 28,500 km2 study boundary and identified hotspots as: 1) areas
with activity centre densities in the 90th percentile, or 2) significant spatial congregations of high activity
centre densities, identified by the Getis-OrdGi* statistic. We found gaps in the overlap between hotspots
and existing protections under of the ‘Great Bear Rainforest Agreement’: over half of 1) male (59%) and
female (52%) upper percentile hotspot area and 2) male (56%) and female (51%) Gi* hotspot area
remain unprotected under current land use designations. These results identify potential conservation
gaps, identify areas where additional protection might provide particular benefit, and more broadly
illustrate the potential benefits from empirical inquiry on the stewardship of culturally important
wildlife.
Botten N.1
1
MSc Candidate, University of Northern British Columbia, Prince George BC,botten@unbc.ca
Is the nutritional quality of wildlife forage reduced by the persistence of glyphosate herbicide in plant
tissues?
Glyphosate, the most widely used herbicide worldwide, is the top choice for use on BC’s forests after
harvesting, to prevent competition for commercially-significant conifers. When glyphosate is sprayed on
forest cut blocks, various factors result in some plants receiving a sublethal dose. Surviving plants may
store and translocate glyphosate molecules within their tissues, and glyphosate may thus persist in plant
tissues for an extended duration of time. I am investigating the duration of glyphosate persistence in
plant tissues, by analyzing the shoot and root tissues of 6 species of perennial forest plants that I
collected last summer in forest cut blocks sprayed with GBH over a period of time ranging from 1 to 12
years ago. Mammals such as moose and bears are known to frequent recently-logged areas in search for
preferred foods. A known chelating agent, glyphosate readily binds to certain metal ions, a property
that may have a negative effect on the bioavailability of key nutrients in glyphosate-containing plants. It
is this effect that glyphosate may have on nutritional quality of wildlife forage that I will be further
investigating. The results of my research will be of use to forest and wildlife managers in the vegetation-
management decision-making process.
11Bryan H. A.1, Bateman, M. Adams, J. Ehlers, T. Levi, G. Mowat, P. Paquet, and C. Darimont
1
Raincoast-Mitacs Postdoctoral Scholar, University of Victoria, Victoria BC, and Raincoast Conservation
Foundation, Sydney BC,heabry@gmail.com
Temporal variation in grizzly bear growth and body size reveals large-scale phenotypic change across
British Columbia
Growth and body size are fundamental life history traits that are shaped by individual and
environmental conditions. Examining variation in growth trajectories over time may therefore provide
insight into the responses of populations to environmental change. Accordingly, we examined temporal
trends in grizzly bear skull size (width and length) using a dataset of bears killed in British Columbia
between 1973 and 2006 (n = 6723). By applying novel incremental growth models, we found that bears
born in 2006 grew faster and reached 95% asymptotic body size (a proxy for age at first reproduction) at
an earlier age compared with bears born in 1973. These findings suggest that large-scale processes
affect bear phenotypes. Our analysis also revealed that bears in warmer climates are larger and grow
faster compared with bears in cooler climates. This trend may reflect the nutritional benefits of living in
warmer climates with higher productivity of herbaceous foods. Collectively, these results provide
insights into the environmental conditions that influence phenotypic traits, which in turn may help
predict the consequences of environmental change on wildlife.
Burgar J.1, J. Fisher, and C. Burton
1
Postdoctoral researcher, University of Victoria, Victoria BC, and University of British Columbia,
Vancouver BC, joburgar@mail.ubc.ca
Evaluating camera trap surveys as an effective means of monitoring remote ungulate populations.
Camera trap surveys are increasingly being used for wildlife monitoring but their effectiveness at
monitoring remote ungulate populations has yet to be determined. To do so we are conducting a multi-
year camera trap study within a caribou range affected by wildfire and anthropogenic disturbance. We
deployed 58 cameras using a 2 factorial design: in/out of wildfire; on/off seismic lines. Half the cameras
were deployed the first field year and the remaining the second field year. We are estimating the
densities of boreal woodland caribou (Rangifertarandus caribou) and moose (Alcesalces) using
hierarchical Bayesian spatial models. Preliminary results suggest inter-annual variability and spatial
segregation of ungulates within the study area. We estimated caribou density using spatial mark-resight
models across three temporal periods and found estimates were similar, with slightly higher densities
during the winter and lower densities during the pre-calving periods. We used spatial count models to
estimate moose densities during the summer period; our estimates were comparable to provincial
estimates. Camera trap surveys can be an effective tool to monitor remote populations, producing
density estimates similar to other survey methods, with the added benefits of capturing inter-annual
variability in density, space-use, and surveying the broader boreal mammal community.
Button T.1
1
Ecosystem Information Specialist, BC Ministry of Environment and Climate Change Strategy, and
Provincial Cumulative Effects Framework Moose Value Team Lead, Victoria BC, Tony.Button@gov.bc.ca
12Interim Assessment Protocol for Moose – Assessing and Managing Cumulative Effects in British
Columbia.
Moose are one of five high-value resources identified for provincial assessment under British Columbia’s
(B.C.) Cumulative Effects Framework (CEF). Moose are a high priority species for the Province, which
has legal authority for its conservation and management. The importance of this species is reflected in
the objectives established for moose through legislation, regulation, and policy. Moose are a
conspicuous and iconic part of British Columbia’s fauna that have environmental, economic, social and
cultural importance. Moose are a wide-ranging species that depend upon multiple, well-connected and
functioning habitat with properly functioning ecosystem processes. As such, moose are susceptible to
cumulative impacts on their habitat and their populations from extensive land use activities and
disturbances. As a species that can tolerate, and may even benefit from, some human activities on the
landscape, moose-human interactions are common and complex. The purpose of the interim protocol is
to provide a standardized, transparent and repeatable method for evaluating cumulative effects on
moose across the province of B.C. The protocol consists of two assessment components: 1) habitat, and
2) population. Results from the assessment provide a systematic and comprehensive approach to
describing, rating, and estimating risk that will assist in guiding and informing strategic responses to
moose management in B.C. It is expected that results from a regional review and validation process will
potentially clarify, standardize and improve the interim protocol.
Carson S.1
1
1079 Raymer Ave, Kelowna BCsheacarson1@gmail.com
A Career as a Wildlife Biologist or Zoologist- Why me?
As a teenager about to graduate high school and make my plunge into adulthood, I am beginning to
experience the common thread of questions about what I plan to do after high school. Up until this year,
I tended to question what career path I wanted to take based on my personal goals and what I believe I
can accomplish. It was not until I became involved in higher level science classes, like biology, that I
found a fascination with the surroundings that our Earth provides for us, especially the animals
contained in them. I recognized my affection towards animals and love for the outdoors to discover a
career path as a Wildlife Biologist or Zoologist. In my opinion, the advantages of working in such a field
are numerous. However, the one that stands out the most for me is the feeling of making a difference in
the fight for the protection of our world’s most beautiful species and explore the many mysteries each
one holds. That is the main reason I currently strive towards a more conservation-based job in this field.
I look forward to conversations with you all to solidify my choice.
Constantinou A.1
1
University of British Columbia, Vancouver BC,alexia.constantinou@rogers.com
How do variable retention forest harvesting methods affect terrestrial mammals in interior BC?
Forest harvesting is part of the economic backbone of British Columbia, but the widespread use of
clearcutting can be problematic for wildlife. Terrestrial mammal species that depend on forest cover and
13structural diversity face a homogenized landscape after harvesting. In the face of increasing forest
disturbances and climate change, effects of natural resources harvesting on mammals must be
evaluated. Scientists and managers must collaborate to determine best practices for industry and
conservation of wildlife communities. Partial harvest methods may be the key to mitigating the effects
of clearcut harvesting on biodiversity and to combining ecological and economic goals in managed
landscapes. As part of ongoing MSc research, I will use wildlife camera traps and small mammal live
trapping to determine the effects of a gradient of four different forest harvesting treatments on
terrestrial mammal species: clearcut, 60% canopy retention, 30% canopy retention and seed tree
retention. The study areas also span a latitudinal gradient from the Kootenays to north-central BC,
which allows for analysis of variation in response to harvesting treatments across climates. This research
will impact forest management as it pertains to wildlife habitat across the province.
Eckert L.1, N. Ban, C. Owens, F. Moola, C. Darimont
1
Doctoral Student, University of Victoria, Victoria BC,eckertleckert@gmail.com
Indigenous Knowledge and Environmental Assessment in Canada – implications for wildlife
Large industrial projects often fragment wildlife habitat and increase human-caused mortality. These
impacts are common in Canada, despite formal Environmental Assessment (EA). EA, a western
environmental decision-making process, affects landscapes and human well-being via ruling on if and
how development proposals proceed. For millennia pre-colonization, and today, Indigenous peoples use
Indigenous Knowledge (IK) to inform environmental decision-making. Via observation and culturally-
transmitted learning, Indigenous peoples use IK to establish landscape-scale management strategies.
Scholarship has examined the interaction and tensions between these EA paradigms, often criticizing the
ability of EA to engage meaningfully with IK. In 2018, the Canadian government proposed Bill C-69 to
amend the 2012 EA Act. Addressing this opportunity, we explore obstacles at the interface of IK and EA
via a literature review and qualitative analyses. Our results identify obstacles to improving relationships
between IK and EA, some of which are surmountable (e.g. failures to engage in best practices, alongside
financial, temporal, and resource limitations, etc.), whereas others are substantial (e.g. knowledge
incompatibilities, histories and presence of colonization, asymmetry in power structures, etc.). Drawing
on this synthesis, we summarize recommendations towards authentic incorporation of IK into EA in
ways that support landscapes for wildlife alongside Indigenous rights and self-determination.
Field K.A.1, P. C. Paquet, K.Artelle, G. Proulx, R. K. Brook, C. T. Darimont
1
MSc Student, University of Victoria, Victoria BC, andRaincoast Conservation Fellow, Sydney BC,
fieldkate2@gmail.com
Publication reform to safeguard wildlife from researcher harm.
Despite abundant focus on responsible care of laboratory animals, we present an evidence-based
argument that inattention to the maltreatment of wildlife constitutes an ethical blind spot in
contemporary animal research. We begin by reviewing significant shortcomings in legal and institutional
oversight, arguing for the relatively rapid and transformational potential of editorial oversight at
journals in preventing harm to vertebrates studied in the field and outside the direct supervision of
institutions. Our analysis of 206 journals suggests that Animal Care (AC) policies are either absent (34%),
weak, incoherent, or neglected by researchers. Presence of AC guidelines was positively associated with
impact factor and animal welfare legislation in the country of origin, and negatively associated with
14open access status. Straightforward changes to animal care policies in journals could provide a practical,
effective, and rapidly imposed safeguard against unnecessary suffering. The ARROW (Animal Research:
Reporting on Wildlife) guidelines we propose here, coupled with strong enforcement, could result in
significant changes to how animals involved in wildlife research are treated. The research process would
also benefit. Sound science requires animal subjects to be physically, physiologically, and behaviorally
unharmed. Accordingly, publication of methods that contravenes animal welfare principles risks
perpetuating inhumane approaches and bad science.
Ford A.T.1, A. H. Ali, S. R. Colla, S. J. Cooke, C. T. Lamb, J. Pittman, D.Shiffman, and N. J Singh
1
Assistant Professor, UBC-Okanagan, Kelowna BC,adam.ford@ubc.ca
Averting harmful outcomes in conservation.
Conservation relies on cooperation among different interest groups and the effective and appropriate
use of evidence to make decisions that have positive outcomes for both people and biodiversity.
Negative outcomes are likely to occur when these two dimensions are ignored or misunderstood,
leading to direct harm to populations and indirectly to conservation via alienated partnerships, wasted
resources, confused public, and delegitimized evidence. We document case studies where a failed
appreciation for cooperation, evidence, or both have eroded efforts to conserve wildlife populations.
Averting harmful conservation requires greater adherence to processes that elevate the role of evidence
in decision making and that place collective, long-term benefits for biodiversity over the short-term
gains of individuals or groups.
Gillingham M.P1., and M. M. Mumma
1
Professor, University of Northern British Columbia, Prince George BC, michael@unbc.ca
Determining factors that affect survival of Moose in Central British Columbia
Moose (Alcesalces) and their habitat are valued by many British Columbians and management actions
should be science-based. Over the last decade, some moose populations in interior BC have declined by
50–70% while others are stable or increasing. Declines coincided with mountain pine beetle
(Dendroctonusponderosae) outbreaks and related salvage harvesting and road building — landscape
changes that could influence the distribution and abundance of moose, predators and hunters. In 2013,
FLNRO initiated a 5-year, provincially coordinated program during which 446 cow moose were collared
across 6 study areas involving many partners. Mortalities (121) resulted from predation (wolf [42%],
bear [7%], cougar [4%], unknown [3%]), apparent starvation (14%), human harvest (13%), health-related
(6%), accidents (4%) and unknown causes (7%). We used selection of collared moose to identify
meaningful thresholds for moose response to time since burn and time since clearcutting. We are using
a survival modelling approach employing landscape, forest structure, and anthropogenic features to
identify key factors that affect moose survival. We are also contrasting habitat selection between cow
moose that lived and died during the study. When combined these analyses are identifying key
management levers for moose in central BC.
Harrower W.L.1,2 and T. S. Jung3,4
1
Research Associate, High-Country Wildlife Ltd. Brentwood Bay BC and University of British Columbia,
Vancouver BC,harrower@shaw.ca
15Using expert knowledge to identify conservation outcomes and management options for wolverine
(Gulogulo)
In 2017 wolverine (Gulogulo) were listed in the federal Species at Risk Act as a species of Special Concern
across Canada. As such, a management plan that addresses threats to wolverine must be developed
within three years of legal listing. However, limited information exists to guide conservation or mitigate
human activities that affect wolverine. To address this knowledge gap we surveyed wolverine biologists,
managers and local users for their perspectives on wolverine population status, threats, and
recommended management actions. Participating scientists and resource managers believe climate
change is the greatest threat to local wolverine followed closely by habitat loss and disturbance from
recreationist. Changes in the duration and depth of the snowpack was identified as the single greatest
threat to wolverines and the alteration of harvest quotas and use of harvest reserves as the most effect
management tools. In contrast, local respondents, mostly trappers and indigenous people from the
Yukon see wolverine populations as stable and trappers as good stewards of the resource. Threats
identified by local people focus more on prey populations and habitat loss and were averse to changing
access to public lands or trapping regulations. Threats to wolverine populations are perceived as limited
to development and local in scope. Our surveys highlight a key difference in perceptions of threats and
solutions to wolverine management. Both groups list climate change as a key threat but differ in the
mechanism by which climate change will impact wolverine. Understanding the role of abiotic (snowpack
and temperature) and biotic (predators and prey) factors is key to determining what habitat
requirements and conservation actions will be most appropriate.
Henson L.1, N.Balkenhol, R.Gustas, M. Adams, A. Vik Stronen, B.VonHoldt, B. Koop, C. Darimont
1
hensonlh@gmail.com
Anthropogenic and landscape drivers of population genetic structure in grizzly bears on the central
coast of BC
Large-scale patterns of genetic variation can enable investigation into how well landscapes – in the deep
and recent past – have facilitated animal movement and mating. Among the potential drivers of
population genetic structure, historical human activities are rarely considered. Additionally, the
movements of large, wide-ranging carnivores are often thought to be influenced by only the most
disruptive of landscape features. In collaboration with five First Nations, we genotyped 22 microsatellite
loci from noninvasively collected hair samples of grizzly bears over a 23,500km2 area of the central coast
of British Columbia. We used the population genetics software STRUCTURE to characterize patterns of
genetic differentiation. Surprisingly, we identified three well-differentiated groups. To gain insight into
the role of potential drivers, we created resistance surfaces using Circuitscape, which incorporated past
and present human use and settlement patterns, in addition to disturbance and landscape barriers. We
assessed the explanatory power of these surfaces using Commonality Analysis. Water barriers and the
spatial demarcation of human language families contributed most to explained variation. The
identification of differentiated subpopulations and the factors that mediate this differentiation not only
provides insight into past and present ecological conditions but also management of populations into
the future.
16Jessen T.1,2 N. Ban3 , C. Darimont
1
University of Victoria, Victoria, BC & Raincoast Conservation Foundation Sydney BC,
tjessen1213@gmail.com
Contributions of Indigenous Knowledge to Wildlife Ecology and Evolution: synthesis, prospects, and
guidance
Incorporating diverse knowledge systems leads to richer understanding of wildlife ecology and
evolution, providing scholarly and applied value. Here we synthesize the growing body of work on the
contributions of Indigenous Knowledge (IK). IK is place-based knowledge accumulated
intergenerationally within a cultural context, often augmented with contemporary observations and
experiences. This potent source of information can provide insight into population trends, habitat use,
species interactions, population genetic structure, and more. Such insight emerges from long periods of
direct observation and interactions with wildlife (spanning generations) that offer new hypotheses and
unique information transmitted through oral history, spatially-explicit experiences, field work, and
interviews. We review the primary methods used to engage IK, highlighting complementarities and
differences with science. Despite the value of IK to wildlife science, researchers often lack training and
experience to engage with IK in a culturally-sensitive manner. Cultural sensitivity is warranted because
of past and present harms scientists impose(d) on Indigenous peoples and the potential for IK to be
subsumed inappropriately into western scientific- and management paradigms. Attending to these
promises and pitfalls, we offer illustrative examples from the literature, emergent properties from our
synthesis, and guiding principles to support respectful interaction between IK Holders and wildlife
scientists.
Keery L., M.Hebblewhite, K. Heuer, E. Merrill
1
MSc Student, Royal Roads University, Victoria BC, lorinakeery@gmail.com
Evaluating the impact of reintroduced bison in Banff National Park
Plains bison have been absent from Banff National Park (BNP) since its establishment. Reintroducing
bison to BNP is an important step to restore the full diversity of species and natural processes in the
Park’s ecosystem. The reintroduction of a dominant ungulate is expected to have a significant impact on
the ecosystem through grazing and physical disturbance. My research assessed what impact
reintroduced bison had in the 18 ha soft-release pasture system. I examined a) bison diet in relation to
forage availability b) forage selection patterns and c) how bison select for and use different landcover
types. I also monitored the impact bison had on vegetation using a before-after control impact (BACI)
experimental design. Data were collected in 2016 and 2017, before and after the bison were
reintroduced. When bison grazed naturally, grasses consisted of 87% of their diet with forbs
representing a minor component of their diet (0.4%). Consistent browsing on shrubs was observed
throughout the year, comprising 12% of bison diet. Browsing consisted primarily of Salix spp (7%) with
minimal browsing observed on other shrub species. The results of this study will help Parks Canada
managers develop monitoring programs and anticipate bison grazing impacts when the bison are free
roaming.
17Kroc E.1, L. K. Blight, W. Cao
1
Research Associate, University of British Columbia, Vancouver BC, ed.kroc@ubc.ca
The Urban Bird: Promoting and Protecting Urban Nesters, Migrants, and Residents
Violet-green Swallows migrate from Central America to breed in the wood siding of city structures.
White-crowned Sparrows winter in BC and come to nest in the bushes beside our bus stops. Great Blue
Herons and Bald Eagles nest in our city parks, Pelagic and Double-crested Cormorants nest beneath our
bridges, and Glaucous-winged Gulls live year-round and nest atop our rooftops. Whether they occur in
native habitat or the city, birds and their nests are protected by law. Each of these examples (and
others) speak to the need to develop ecologically responsible building codes, construction schedules,
and city bylaws. There is also a need to educate both the general public and local governments about
how our avian neighbours use our cities. We use recent and ongoing research in Vancouver and Victoria,
to explore the urban life of these species and make recommendations about what can be done to
protect and promote their urban populations while minimizing human-wildlife conflict. As some of these
species face the loss of their traditional habitats (notably, many waterbirds of coastal southwest BC), the
need to study and protect their habitats in the urban environment is an urgent one.
Lamb C.T.,A. T. Ford, M. F. Proctor, J. A. Royle, G. Mowat, and S. Boutin
1
Doctoral Candidate, University of Alberta, Edmonton, ctlamb@ualberta.ca
Genetic tagging in the Anthropocene: scaling ecology from alleles to ecosystems.
The Anthropocene is an era of marked human impact on the world. Quantifying these impacts has
become central to understanding the dynamics of coupled human-natural systems, resource-dependent
livelihoods, and biodiversity conservation. Ecologists are facing growing pressure to quantify the size,
distribution, and trajectory of wild populations in a cost-effective and socially-acceptable manner.
Genetic tagging, combined with modern computational and genetic analyses, is an under-utilized tool to
meet this demand, especially for wide-ranging, elusive, sensitive, and low-density species. Genetic
tagging studies are now revealing unprecedented insight into the mechanisms that control the density,
trajectory, connectivity and patterns of human-wildlife conflict for populations over vast spatial scales.
Here we outline the application of, and ecological inferences from, new analytical techniques applied to
genetically-tagged individuals, contrast this approach with conventional methods, and describe how
genetic tagging can be better applied to address outstanding questions in ecology. We provide example
analyses using a long-term genetic tagging dataset of grizzly bears in the Canadian Rockies. The genetic
tagging toolbox is a powerful and overlooked ensemble that ecologists and conservation biologists can
leverage to generate evidence and meet the challenges of the Anthropocene.
Majid S.1 and A. T. Ford1
1
MSc. Student, University of British Columbia Okanagan, sultanamajid@gmail.com
The movement ecology of infection risk for California bighorn sheep (Oviscanadensiscalifornia) in the
South Okanagan, British Columbia.
18Parasites influence animal behavior, population dynamics, and ecosystem processes. Parasite
transmission is tied to the host animal’s movement, which is influenced by changes in the landscape. In
the Okanagan Valley of British Columbia, California bighorn sheep (Oviscanadensiscalifornia)
populations have declined by 60% following an infestation of Psoroptisovis mites in 2011. The mites are
transmitted through individuals and the environment, leading to debilitating skin diseases. Mite
infection is currently contained to a sheep subpopulation in the west side of the valley due to landscape
barriers, but transmission risk to the east subpopulation is a significant concern. We will be conducting
two analyses: habitat connectivity and landscape change scenario simulation. Using GPS tracking data of
75 sheep from 2015 – 2019 (45 west- infected; 30 east-uninfected), we will compare habitat selection
and identify areas of contact risk between infected and uninfected subpopulations. The habitat selection
data will populate an agent-based model simulating the spread of mite infection under different
landscape change scenarios: increased connectivity (i.e., wildlife overpass) and new infection point
sources (i.e., domestic sheep operations). Understanding the link between connectivity and disease
exposure will help wildlife managers design effective mitigation measures, critical for conserving sheep
populations in the future.
Mancuso K. 1, M. Bezener, K. E. Hodges, C. A. Bishop
1
The University of British Columbia Okanagan, kmancuso88@gmail.com
Migration and Overwintering Locations for Yellow-breasted Chats Breeding in the South Okanagan
Valley of British Columbia.
Western Yellow-breasted Chats (Icteriavirensauricollis) are a species at risk the northern limit of their
breeding range in the dry interior of the south Okanagan Valley of British Columbia. This small
population is listed as Endangered in Canada due to historic loss and fragmentation of their lowland
riparian nesting habitat. To further understand the movement patterns of this population, we deployed
individual tracking devices on the backs of adult male birds to determine their migration route and
overwintering areas. Results to date show British Columbia chats follow the Pacific flyway enroute to
wintering areas in western Mexico. Our project will compare these results with those from chats
breeding in northern Calififrnia. Additional research in progress on this population (and more southerly
populations) include an examination of stress levels and heavy metal contamination. A better
understanding of the range-wide ecology and potential threats to this Endangered peripheral breeding
population will help guide conservation efforts to ensure long-term population viability.
Martinez-Nunez, F.1, C. Palmer, K. Routledge
1
Hemmera Burnaby, BC.tstclair@hemmera.com
Presence of Little Brown Myotis(Myotislucifugus) Positively Associated with Trees and Negatively
Associated with Artificial Light within Waterfront Sites in Metro Vancouver.
Anthropogenic activities can influence bat presence and distribution. We assessed the influence of
human development and activity levels (artificial light and noise) on little brown myotis
(Myotislucifugus), a bat species listed as Endangered under the Canadian Species at Risk Act. We
surveyed 14 sites adjacent to freshwater (Fraser River) and marine (Burrard Inlet) environments within
Metro Vancouver to examine these factors. We selected sites along a gradient of habitat disturbance
19and anthropogenic activity levels (e.g., modified vegetation, light, noise). Time-constrained (15 minute)
nocturnal surveys were conducted at each site using an Echo Meter Touch microphone and sound and
light meters over three nights in each of July and September 2016. Little brown myotis was the most
prevalent and widely distributed bat across the study area with detections recorded at 11/14 sites
(79%). Stepwise regression models (GLM) found little brown myotis presence was positively associated
with trees (>20 cm DBH) and negatively associated with ambient light.Little brown myotis was detected
more often within fresh water than marine sites and was detected more frequently during July surveys
(i.e., maternity period) as compared to September(i.e., migration/pre-hibernation period). Noise levels
were not significantly related to the presence of little brown myotis.
Meineke J.K.1, K. E. Hodges, and F. I. Doyle
1
University of British Columbia Okanagan.jennifer.meineke@ubc.ca
Effects of biosolids on vole population ecology and the raptor and owl community.
Grasslands around the world are becoming degraded due to human causes. In North America’s interior
Pacific Northwest, more than 90% of semi-arid grasslands are in need of restoration. In British Columbia,
grasslands cover only about 1% of the landmass, yet 20% of species listed as “at risk” of extinction in
British Columbia occupy grasslands. Grassland restoration is therefore important to managing imperiled
species. Biosolids (post-treatment sewage) are being used to restore grasslands in some areas. These
grasslands appear to support high densities of insects and small mammal prey, potentially enhancing
predator populations of owls and raptors. To further this research, I will be studying vole populations at
the OK Ranch, a cattle ranch near Clinton, British Columbia. I will quantify differences in vole
populations on untreated pastures and pastures with biosolids applied. I will also study raptor and owl
populations at the ranch, specifically comparing the diets of different species in a biosolids-influenced
ecosystem. This research will expand our knowledge about how biosolids can be used in ecological
restoration and wildlife conservation. Through this project, I am hoping to discover if biosolids can be
used to help restore wildlife populations on degraded grasslands.
Mihalik I.1, A. W. Bateman, and C. T. Darimont
1
ilonammillie@gmail.com
Big game hunters pay more to target larger-bodied carnivores: insight from costly signalling theory.
Human hunters often target species that require resource investment disproportionate to associated
nutritional rewards. Costly signalling theory may provide an explanation if human hunters target species
that impose high costs, thereby signalling to potential mates or competitors the underlying physical and
cognitive qualities that permit the hunters to absorb such costly behaviour. If costly signalling is relevant
to contemporary hunters, and if prices for guided hunts reflect desirability, we would expect hunters to
pay more to hunt taxa with higher associated costs (e.g. high failure risk, risk of injury). Accordingly, we
hypothesized that prices would be higher for taxa that are larger-bodied, rarer, carnivorous, or
described as dangerous or difficult to hunt. In a data set on 721 guided hunts for fifteen North American
big-game species, prices listed on the internet increased with body size (from approximately $550
USD/day to $1800 USD/day across the observed range of body mass) in carnivores. We did not find a
signal of rarity or perceived danger or difficulty. If larger-bodied carnivores are generally more desirable
20to hunters due to perceived benefits of costly signalling, then conservation and management strategies
should consider not only the ecology of the hunted but also the motivations of hunters.
Mowat, G.1, A. P. Clevenger, A. Kortello, D. Hausleitner, M. Barrueto, L. Smit, C. Lamb, B. Dorsey, and P.
K. Ott.
1
Ministry of Forests, Lands, Natural Resource Operations and Rural Development, Nelson BC.
Garth.Mowat@gov.bc.ca
The sustainability of wolverine trapping mortality in southern Canada
There is considerable conservation concern for wolverines throughout their range in North America.
Previous researchers used population models and observed estimates of survival and reproduction to
infer that current trapping rates strongly limit population growth, except perhaps in the far north where
kill rates appear lower. Assessing the sustainability of trapping empirically requires both demographic
and abundance data which are expensive to acquire and hence usually only achievable for small
populations which makes generalization risky. We surveyed wolverines over a large area of southern
British Columbia (BC) and Alberta and used spatial capture-recapture models (secr) to estimate density
and then calculated trapping kill rates using provincial fur harvest data. Wolverine density
averaged2/1000 km2 and was positively related to spring snow cover and negatively related to road
density. Observed annual trapping mortality was >8.4%/year. This level of mortality is unlikely to be
sustainable except in rare cased where movement rates are high among sub-populations and sizable un-
trapped refuges exist. Our results suggest current conservation risk to wolverine is high because our
study area was fragmented by both human and natural barriers and few large refuges exist. We
recommend wolverine mortality be reduced by at least 50% throughout southern BC and Alberta to
reduce conservation risk and promote population recovery. Uncertainty in the trapping data created
considerable conservation risk and we suggest BC and Alberta adopt a more certain mortality recording
system for this species.
Naidoo R.1 and C. Burton
1
World Wildlife Fund and University of British Columbia,Robin.Naidoo@wwfus.org
Recreational impacts on wildlife in the South Chilcotin Mountains, BC
The South Chilcotin Mountains Provincial Park and adjacent areas are notable for their diversity of large
wildlife species, including predators such as grizzly bear, wolverine, and cougar, and large ungulates
such as moose, mule deer, and mountain goat. Industrial activities like logging and mining have long
operated on the landscape, while more recently, recreational activities, particularly mountain biking,
have increased. The relative impacts of industrial versus recreational activities remain largely unknown,
which hinders development of management plans that account for cumulative impacts on wildlife.
Here, we use camera traps (n=61) and statistical analyses to untangle the relative contributions of land-
use/land cover and recreational activities on several large wildlife species in the South Chilcotins.
Cameras operated from May-September 2018, recording use of trails and logging roads by wildlife and
people. We developed spatial data layers that reflected land-use and habitat covariates at and around
camera traps. We used occupancy analyses to show that some species, such as grizzly bears, were more
sensitive to human recreational activities than to land-use type, while others, such as mule deer and
21black bear, showed the opposite pattern. Our results can help park and resource managers balance the
needs of people and wildlife in this region.
Proctor, M.1, W. Kasworm, G.MacHutchon, G.Sanders, J. Barber, C. Lamb, N. Newhouse, H. Locke, C.
Servheen
Re-establishing functional connectivity in a threatened BC grizzly bear population
1
Trans-border Grizzly Bear Project, PO Box 606 Kalso, BC, V0G 1M0, CANADA, mproctor@neteidea.com
Recovering threatened wildlife populations and reversing population fragmentation are 2 conservation
goals that are pressing but elusive. We have been researching conservation issues and implementing a
comprehensive program to recover several small isolated and threatened populations of grizzly bears
for over a decade in the trans-border region of southern Canada and NW USA. We found conflict-related
mortality significantly contributed to their threatened status by causing population declines,
fragmentation, and decreased habitat effectiveness. Our conservation program included strategic
private land purchases to reduce human densities in wildlife corridors, efforts to secure bear attractants,
and non-lethal management of conflict bears and more. We radio collar and use non-lethal
management on potential conflict bears and have a ~84% success rate on females. We identified the
most important backcountry foraging habitats for protection with motorized access controls to reduce
conflicts and mortality and provide habitat security to reproductive females. The composite effects of
working across these arenas has resulted in a significant reduction in human-caused mortality and
increased connectivity, habitat effectiveness, and reproduction resulting in an improved conservation
status of several now-recovering threatened populations. Several challenges remain including a plethora
of offspring from females living adjacent to agricultural areas.
Ramsay L.R.1
1
Zoologist, Conservation Data Centre, Victoria BC, leah.ramsay@gov.bc.ca
Conservation Status Assessments 101 (or Lists, Bloody Lists)
Have you ever wondered how something gets labelled Red, Blue, Imperilled, Endangered, S3, Yellow,
Secure or any other of the many descriptors for the status of wildlife and ecosystems in British
Columbia? Wonder no more. I will go through the criteria and method that has been adopted by the B.C.
Conservation Data Centre to assess species and ecosystems in B.C.. This method was developed through
NatureServe and is used across North and Latin America. We have been using versions in B.C. since 1991
and the latest iteration since 2012. It is also used to complete the General Status assessments across
Canada. There are methodological and criteria overlaps with IUCN and COSEWIC, the other big
assessment names that will be touched on. A complete assessment relies on data from many sources
that is as current as possible. Having the connections open and identified with people working on the
ground in many capacities is important.
Riordan-Short E.1
221
University of British Columbia– Okanagan, Kelowna BC, eamonriordanshort@gmail.com
Wildlife Photography, Citizen-Science, and You.
Recent technological innovations, particularly widespread access to high-resolution cameras and online
species databases like eBird and iNaturalist, have facilitated the generation of massive open data
collections. The increasing popularity of these platforms among recreational users gives them potential
to be an effective tool for wildlife education, outreach, and data collection. The scientific value of
citizen-generated data has been a divisive topic of discussion, but ongoing developments in data
validation and management continue to advance citizen-science as an inclusive and innovative approach
to wildlife data and community-driven questions. This approach necessitates a discussion on collection
methods, data quality, and wildlife ethics.
St. Clair C.T.1, J. Hobbs, J. Randall
1
Hemmera,Burnaby, BC.tstclair@hemmera.com
Challenges and Insights in Assessing Long-term Population Trends of Coastal Western Screech-owl
(Megascopskennicottiikennicottii).
Monitoring population trends is challenging and requires cooperation among stake-holders, particularly
for rare and difficult to detect species. The coastal subspecies of western screech owl
(Megascopskennicottii[WSOW]) appeared to be declining in British Columbia; however, lacking a long-
term monitoring plan, this was difficult to confirm. We compiled existing records for WSOW from
government, industry, and independently funded efforts and used occupancy modeling to assess
historical population trends and provide recommendations for long-term monitoring. Results suggest
that WSOW populations had declined substantially since 2000, particularly between 2005 and 2008.
Estimates of current occupancy and detection probability within suitable habitat were low (10-20% and
30-40%, respectively). Consequently, we determined that the effort necessary to detect long-term
trends was not likely feasible. Alternative objectives for future monitoring were recommended: modest
survey efforts where historical data is available for comparison; surveys in habitats with the potential to
support healthier WSOW populations (e.g., Hypermaritime, low productivity, mature forests). Follow-up
surveys within such habitat in northern and western Vancouver Island found much higher occupancy
rates (36-92%: MFLNRO, B. Schroeder, G. Monty). These results provide preliminary indications that, in
some areas, healthier populations of WSOW may persist and provide new opportunities for long-term
monitoring within BC.
Sunter, E.J.1 and A.T. Ford
1
University of British ColumbiaOkanagan Kelowna BC, emily.sunter@gmail.com
New directions in human-carnivore coexistence research
In landscapes where carnivore persistence is a management objective, coexistence may mean that
human-carnivore interactions are not always preventable. Past research has largely focused on conflict
interactions, leaving a significant knowledge gap in our understanding of coexistence beyond conflict. I
will discuss this knowledge gap and explain how analysing the distribution of incidents (i.e., conflict;
physical attacks, property damage, carnivore consumption of human food) and sightings (i.e., animal,
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