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The rise of affectivism
Research over the past decades has demonstrated the explanatory power of emotions, feelings, motivations,
moods, and other affective processes when trying to understand and predict how we think and behave. In this
consensus article, we ask: has the increasingly recognized impact of affective phenomena ushered in a new era,
the era of affectivism?
Daniel Dukes, Kathryn Abrams, Ralph Adolphs, Mohammed E. Ahmed, Andrew Beatty,
Kent C. Berridge, Susan Broomhall, Tobias Brosch, Joseph J. Campos, Zanna Clay, Fabrice Clément,
William A. Cunningham, Antonio Damasio, Hanna Damasio, Justin D’Arms, Jane W. Davidson,
Beatrice de Gelder, Julien Deonna, Ronnie de Sousa, Paul Ekman, Phoebe C. Ellsworth, Ernst Fehr,
Agneta Fischer, Ad Foolen, Ute Frevert, Didier Grandjean, Jonathan Gratch, Leslie Greenberg,
Patricia Greenspan, James J. Gross, Eran Halperin, Arvid Kappas, Dacher Keltner, Brian Knutson,
David Konstan, Mariska E. Kret, Joseph E. LeDoux, Jennifer S. Lerner, Robert W. Levenson,
George Loewenstein, Antony S. R. Manstead, Terry A. Maroney, Agnes Moors, Paula Niedenthal,
Brian Parkinson, Ioannis Pavlidis, Catherine Pelachaud, Seth D. Pollak, Gilles Pourtois,
Birgitt Roettger-Roessler, James A. Russell, Disa Sauter, Andrea Scarantino, Klaus R. Scherer,
Peter Stearns, Jan E. Stets, Christine Tappolet, Fabrice Teroni, Jeanne Tsai, Jonathan Turner,
Carien Van Reekum, Patrik Vuilleumier, Tim Wharton and David Sander
T
he behavioural and cognitive sciences predictions as a consequence. Indeed, so continuously evaluate events around
have faced perennial challenges of profound have the repercussions for our us and how our central and peripheral
incorporating emotions, feelings, shared models of human behaviour become nervous systems allow the emergence of
motivations, moods, and other affective that we can now ask whether we have expressions, physiological arousal and
processes into models of human behaviour moved beyond the eras of behaviourism and bodily reactions, action tendencies, and
and the human mind. Such processes have cognitivism, into the era of affectivism. felt subjective experiences. Nonetheless, it
long been marginalised or ignored, typically seems that affective processes are typically
on the basis that they were irrational, Characterizing affectivism understood to relate to the notion of (dis)
un-measurable, or simply unenlightening. One of the leaders of the “cognitive (r) pleasure or valence, to not necessarily
However, it has become increasingly difficult evolution” described how “behaviorism be consciously felt, and to mobilize the
to deny that these processes are not only faded because of its failure to solve basic organism to deal with events that may
linked to our well-being, but also shape questions about human thought and be important to that organism. In any
our behaviour and drive key cognitive action”5, p. 339. Indeed, although elements case, scientific study is beset by questions
mechanisms such as attention, learning, of behaviourism continued to influence of terminology: persistent difficulties
memory, and decision-making. cognitivist thinking, cognitivism represented in formally defining ‘cognition’6 did not
Fertile ground for addressing these a rejection of some of the central tenets of prevent the transition from behaviourism
challenges lies in the writings of the ancient behaviourism. By contrast, the affective to cognitivism, and the fact that there is no
Greeks and of eminent scholars such as sciences supplement cognitivism rather consensus concerning a formal definition
Descartes, Hume, Darwin, Wundt, and than supplant it. In fact, if cognitivism of other important constructs, such as
James, to name but a few. The most recent is conceived of as an approach in which intelligence, religion, culture, and even
seeds were sown in the 1960s, allowing the inclusion of cognitive processes in life, does not preclude fruitful scientific
an unprecedented, multidisciplinary models of behaviour, mind, and brain study of them.
interest in affective processes to take root increases the power to explain not only Indeed, in spite of these questions of
around 20 years later. Research on such cognitive phenomena but also behaviour, definition of some of its core phenomena,
processes has positively blossomed since then affectivism would be the approach in the affective sciences have already led to
then, as growing numbers of dedicated which the inclusion of affective processes a better understanding of how we acquire
researchers, departments, research centres, in such models not only explains affective knowledge of the objects, concepts,
journals, and societies contribute to the phenomena but, critically, further enhances and people around us, as well as how
affective sciences—a highly integrative the power to explain cognition and we determine the value of those things.
endeavour that spans disciplines, methods, behaviour (Fig. 1a). Importantly, emotions do not just shape
and theories1–4. By reaping the fruits of The definition of affective processes, how we interpret the world, but also
these cumulative advances, we are now either as a whole or individually, is subject shape which aspects of the world need our
able to understand and account for more to debate. For example, questions continue attention and which can safely be ignored:
of the variability in the available data and concerning how definitions of emotion emotions are not just about what is, but
formulate more powerful and precise should accommodate the fact that we also about what matters.
Nature Human Behaviour | www.nature.com/nathumbehavcomment
a b
Behaviourism Cognitivism Affectivism? Emotion research funding
15
12
NIMH budget
share (%)
Core topics in the cognitive sciences
Core topics in the affective sciences
Adaptation Attention Emotion 9
Core topics in behaviourism
6
Classical Decision-making Empathy
conditioning 3
Executive functions Feeling 0
Extinction
Language Mood 1985 1988 1991 1994 1997 2000 2003 2006 2009 2012 2015 2018
Habits c
Learning Motivation Emotion content in behaviour research
Instrumental 10
Publication volume
conditioning Memory Preferences 8
share (%)
Reinforcement Perception Stress 6
4
Stimulus–response Reasoning Well-being
2
(...) (...) (...) 0
1980 1984 1988 1992 1996 2000 2004 2008 2012 2016
d e
Emotion content in memory research Emotion content in attention research
12 12
Publication volume
Publication volume
share (%)
share (%)
8 8
4 4
0 0
1980 1984 1988 1992 1996 2000 2004 2008 2012 2016 1980 1984 1988 1992 1996 2000 2004 2008 2012 2016
f g
Emotion content in perception research Emotion content in decision-making research
Publication volume
Publication volume
6 6
share (%)
share (%)
4 4
2 2
0 0
1980 1984 1988 1992 1996 2000 2004 2008 2012 2016 1980 1984 1988 1992 1996 2000 2004 2008 2012 2016
Fig. 1 | The scope and increasing impact of the affective sciences. a, Does the increasing research focus on affective processes and on their explanatory
power mean we are now in the era of affectivism? The circular arrows represent how the study of the processes within each box improves our understanding
of the core mechanisms typically investigated in behaviourism and in the cognitive and affective sciences, respectively. The bidirectional arrows between the
boxes represent the idea that the mechanisms described in one box are important to understanding those described in the other boxes. b, The relative increase
of NIMH funding spent on research on emotion since 1985. c, The extent to which publications with considerable emotion content grew faster than those
concerning behaviour without emotion content since 1980. d–g, The increasing prominence of publications involving emotion as a percentage of publications
in the respective area of inquiry on core cognitive mechanisms such as (d) memory, (e) attention, (f) perception, and (g) decision-making. The reference
list focuses on Handbook-type publications to represent the depth and breadth of the affective sciences across many academic fields. For a list containing
some books and papers that have either helped shape the field in many disciplines in the affective sciences or that have the potential to do so, please see the
suggested reading list in the Supplementary Information.
Developing affective sciences One key example is affective emotions in the decision-making process.
The recent and transformative influence of neuroscience. While the term itself Neuroscientific advances also played a key
the affective sciences on scholarly discourse emerged only in the 1990s, previous role in popularising emotion research for the
about human mind and behaviour is apparent ground-breaking studies of the emotional public at large, as the first functional MRI
in the evolution of funding (Fig. 1b) and brain—in particular of the amygdala and pictures in the 1990s seemed to cement the
publications (Fig. 1c), even in areas related to its role in emotional learning—had set the status of human emotion as an objective,
central cognitive mechanisms, e.g., memory, stage for this field to emerge7. Studies began measurable, and scientifically accessible
attention, perception, and decision-making to reveal the brain circuitry responsible phenomenon. In terms of the origins of our
(Fig. 1d–g). Particularly in psychology since for many affective phenomena in animals affective lives, studies of young children
the 1980s, the tight relationship between and humans, including threat detection began and continue to highlight the critical
affect, cognition, and behaviour has been and anxiety reactions, homeostatic feelings role of emotion and motivation in human
revealed in ongoing research topics such as and motivations, sexual and affiliative development8, and advances in comparative
emotional intelligence, emotion regulation, reactions, reward wanting and liking, affective science are providing new insights
addiction, decision-making, and social and addictions. Innovative studies of into the evolutionary and ethological
interaction. But several other disciplines also people with brain damage highlighted the bases of affective processes in humans and
began paying increasing attention to affective interdependence of cognitive and affective non-human animals9.
phenomena around the same time, and the processes, the distinction between emotions In the clinical domain, long-established
burgeoning interest continues. and feelings, and the essential role of classification models of mental health and
Nature Human Behaviour | www.nature.com/nathumbehavcomment
processes into their theoretical and
Box 1 | The growing influence of the affective sciences in socially relevant domains
empirical models of investment behaviour,
medical decision-making, bargaining,
These examples are taken from core • In research on climate change and issues in political economy such as
disciplines in the social sciences (including mitigation, investigators have begun voting behaviour. Anthropology, too, has
law, education, environmental research, to focus on the importance of affective begun to focus on the cultural modelling
and conflict and reconciliation research). processes for signalling the urgency of human affective processes, highlighting
• Legal scholars are increasingly chal- of the situation and for motivating the intercultural variety of emotion
lenging the incomplete behavioural collective remedial action, both for repertoires, while research in sociology has
and cognitive assumptions inherent private citizens and governmental complemented this approach with a focus
in legal theory and practice, care- organizations. on intracultural plurality and the role of
fully considering the role of affective • In research on violent international emotions in social collectives15. Indeed,
processes in legal-decision making, conflict, purely ideological or rational most anthropologists and sociologists now
and acknowledging how laws and legal utility-based considerations for group recognise the significance of emotions in
rules reflect and create cultural scripts and political actions are now out- human behaviour and study emotional
of how people ought to feel. dated—they are no longer considered interactions at the micro-level (individuals
• In education research, links between within the limited scope of what is or small groups), the meso-level (social
well-being and education are increas- good (conciliatory) versus what is bad institutions), and the macro-level (social
ingly uncovered, resulting in changes (aggressive)—as research now takes structures such as class, age, or gender).
in policy and the continuing rise into account a more diverse scope of Emotions are considered fundamental social
in the number of socio-emotional distinct emotions and possible conse- phenomena, forming the basis for many
learning programs. quent behaviours. kinds of social activities and interactions
and playing an essential role in socialisation
processes, such as affective social learning.
Thus, just as cognition and behaviour can
illness based largely on lists of behavioural the affective sciences. In recent decades, serve both social and non-social functions,
manifestations and cognitive disturbances philosophy has seen emotion, affect, so too can affect.
have recently been challenged by a new feelings, and related notions become The influence of affective sciences is
diagnostic system, proposed by the National central explanatory tools, alongside belief also growing in socially relevant domains,
Institute of Mental Health (NIMH). The new and desire, in theories of mind and in shaping research and public attention
system relies heavily on emotion-related accounts of moral and evaluative thought accordingly (Box 1). Other key disciplines
constructs, including arousal and and behaviour12. In the field of history, in which emotions and feelings are being
positive- and negative-valence systems10. several research centres dedicated to taken more seriously as objects of research
Similarly, neuropsychological assessment, emotions have been established in the past include the political sciences, public policy,
intervention, and rehabilitation after brain decade, mapping how emotions themselves communication, literature, and the arts.
damage or disease have traditionally focused have been conceptualised and expressed
on cognitive functions (e.g., language, differently over time and across cultures A relevant and timely question
perception, and memory), but have in recent and highlighting the influence of emotions Scientists typically neglect what they
years begun to take affective domains more as determinants of historical action cannot measure in order to reduce noise
seriously, as has the psychotherapeutic and thought13. in their data and better attend to their
treatment of many mental health problems. Researchers have also begun to pay more object of study: behaviourism neglected
These advances represent key shifts in attention to affective processes in general the central role of cognitive and affective
fundamental conceptions of mental linguistics, analysing, for example, how processes; cognitivism neglected the role of
well-being, illustrating how research on emotions are referred to in the languages affective processes. While the behavioural
affective processes benefits from and of the world via the diverse emotion and the cognitive sciences remain essential
influences advances elsewhere. lexica14. In terms of cultural comparisons, to the study of the mind, brain, and
A similar illustration can be found in there are emotion words that do not seem behaviour, given that emotions are often
affective computing. Since its launch in to have equivalent words in English, held to involve both cognitive aspects and
the 1990s11, the development of artificial such as amae, a Japanese emotion word behavioural tendencies, an era of affectivism
intelligence and social robotics has led to which means something like desiring to can be seen as a potential natural successor
specific computational approaches aimed be loved by or dependent on someone. to both the behaviourism and cognitivism
at implementing emotional processes in In linguistic pragmatics, theories of eras: it would naturally incorporate both
artificial agents (socially interactive agents, utterance interpretation now explore not perspectives. In this light, perhaps the
social robotics, chatbots) and systems. This only the expressive qualities of figurative growing interest in the affective sciences
trend is particularly apparent in signal language (especially metaphor), but also stems from the maturation of the scientific
processing research that allows more the direct manifestation of emotions study of how and why we think the way we
sensitive measuring and monitoring of through linguistic and paralinguistic means, think and do the things we do.
affective responses. Affective computing has effectively embracing the very same affective But the relevance of the question of
powerful implications for industry, social dimension that was formerly disregarded. whether or not we are in a new era hinges,
media, education, and, when combined with Meanwhile, in the social sciences, perhaps, not just on an appreciation of
clinical research, also for health monitoring behavioural economists have developed historical scientific progress or of the
and patient care. more psychologically realistic assumptions contribution of the affective sciences,
There are also key roles for the about economic agents—homo but also on how cognitive processes are
humanities and the social sciences in economicus—by incorporating affective defined. If one assumes that all mental
Nature Human Behaviour | www.nature.com/nathumbehavcomment
processes—including affective processes— Jonathan Turner53, Carien Van Reekum 55
, University, Leiden, The Netherlands. 38Center for
are captured by the word ‘cognitive’, then Patrik Vuilleumier 1,56, Tim Wharton 57
Neural Science, New York University, New York, NY,
any blossoming of the affective sciences and David Sander 1,9 ✉ USA. 39Harvard Kennedy School and Department
could be said to be simply part of the further 1
Swiss Center for Affective Sciences, University of Psychology, Harvard University, Cambridge,
growth of the cognitive sciences; as such, of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland. 2Department of MA, USA. 40Department of Social and Decision
the question could perhaps seem irrelevant. Special Education, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Sciences, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh,
Nevertheless, asking it would at the very Switzerland. 3Berkeley Law School, University of PA, USA. 41School of Psychology, Cardiff University,
least constitute a call for our colleagues to California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA. 4Division Cardiff, UK. 42Vanderbilt University Law School,
consider advances in the affective sciences of Humanities and Social Sciences, California Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA.
in light of their own models and research: Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA. 43
Department of Psychology, KU Leuven, Leuven,
considering affective processes in cognitive 5
Department of Computer Science, University Belgium. 44Department of Psychology, University
and behavioural models may well increase of Houston, Houston, TX, USA. 6Department of of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA.
the explanatory and predictive power of Anthropology, Brunel University London, London, 45
Department of Experimental Psychology, University
such models. Above all, we hope this brief UK. 7Department of Psychology, University of of Oxford, Oxford, UK. 46CNRS-Institut des Systèmes
opinion piece might initiate and stimulate Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA. 8Australian Intelligents et de Robotique, Sorbonne University,
constructive, interdisciplinary, and Research Council Centre of Excellence for History Paris, France. 47Department of Experimental,
passionate debate. of Emotions, Australian Catholic University, Perth, Clinical and Health Psychology, Ghent University,
The conceptual, methodological, and Western Australia, Australia. 9Department of Ghent, Belgium. 48Institute of Social and Cultural
technical advances made within the last few Psychology, FPSE, University of Geneva, Geneva, Anthropology, Freie Universität, Berlin, Germany.
decades have demonstrated that affective Switzerland. 10Institute of Human Development, 49
Department of Psychology and Neuroscience,
processes are unquestionably enlightening University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, Boston College, Boston, MA, USA. 50Philosophy
when it comes to understanding both USA. 11Department of Psychology, Durham Department, Georgia State University, Atlanta,
behaviour and cognition. While it will University, Durham, UK. 12Cognitive Science Centre, GA, USA. 51Department of Psychology, University
ultimately be the responsibility of historians University of Neuchâtel, Neuchâtel, Switzerland. of Munich, Munich, Germany. 52Department of
of science to determine whether or not a 13
Department of Psychology, University of Toronto, History, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA, USA.
new era has begun, given the undeniable Toronto, Ontario, Canada. 14Brain and Creativity 53
Department of Sociology, University of California,
impact of affective sciences on our models Institute, University of Southern California, Los Riverside, Riverside, CA, USA. 54Département de
of brain, mind, and behaviour, it seems Angeles, CA, USA. 15Dornsife Cognitive Neuroscience Philosophie, Université de Montréal, Montréal,
relevant to ask today whether we are now in Imaging Center, University of Southern California, Québec, Canada. 55School of Psychology and Clinical
the era of affectivism. ❐ Los Angeles, CA, USA. 16Department of Philosophy, Language Sciences, University of Reading, Reading,
Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA. UK. 56Department of Neuroscience, University
Daniel Dukes 1,2 ✉, Kathryn Abrams3, 17
Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence Medical School, University of Geneva, Geneva,
Ralph Adolphs 4, for History of Emotions, University of Melbourne, Switzerland. 57School of Humanities, University of
Mohammed E. Ahmed 5, Andrew Beatty6, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. 18Department of Brighton, Brighton, UK.
Kent C. Berridge 7, Susan Broomhall 8, Cognitive Neuroscience, Maastricht University, ✉e-mail: Daniel.Dukes@unifr.ch;
Tobias Brosch 1,9, Joseph J. Campos10, Maastricht, The Netherlands. 19Department of David.Sander@unige.ch
Zanna Clay11, Fabrice Clément 12, Computer Science, University College London,
William A. Cunningham13, Antonio Damasio14, London, UK. 20Department of Philosophy, University Published: xx xx xxxx
Hanna Damasio15, Justin D’Arms16, of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland. 21Department of https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-021-01130-8
Jane W. Davidson17, Beatrice de Gelder18,19, Philosophy, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario,
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Nature Human Behaviour | www.nature.com/nathumbehavcomment
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The manuscript was written primarily by D.D. and D. J.E.S., C.T., F.T., J. Tsai, J. Turner, C.V.R., P.V., and T.W.). Supplementary information The online version contains
Sander after taking into account the inputs and rounds of I.P. and M.E.A. prepared Fig. 1b–g. Except for D.D. and D. supplementary material available at https://doi.org/
comments from the other co-authors (K.A., R.A., M.E.A., Sander, the authorship list is in alphabetical order. 10.1038/s41562-021-01130-8.
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