The Pilates method: history and philosophy
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HISTORICAL REVIEW
The Pilates method:
history and philosophy
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Penelope Latey
Until the mid-1980s the Pilates Method of exercise was little known outside the world
of dance but has grown in popularity rapidly in the last decade: coming out of
obscurity. Pilates method is much more than a list of exercises. It is a way of
connecting and conditioning the whole being-body and mind. This article traces its
history in context and examines the initial principles of the method, with the
beginnings of modern developments. # 2001 Harcourt Publishers Ltd.
Joseph (Hubertus) Pilates: Joseph Hubertus Pilates was born
1880^1967 in 1880 near Dusseldorf in
Germany. He was apparently a
Joseph Pilates ran an exercise studio sickly child, suffering from rickets,
in New York from the late 1920s to asthma and rheumatic fever. There
the 1960s. He wrote two books on was concern at one time that he
his method, and some films of his might have tuberculosis. He was
work are available, but otherwise his probably taken to health spas and
Penelope Latey
Pilates Practitioner, Senior Lecturer and course co-
method has been passed down via given exercise regimes that were
ordinator of the Grad. Cert. in the Pilates Method apprenticeship training from popular at the time for people in
at the University of Technology Sydney (UTS), teachers who were themselves poor health. Long before the advent
Australia. Council Member and ex-president of the apprenticed to him. It has been said of antibiotics and other successful
Australian Pilates Method Association (APMA).
that Pilates ‘did’ and Clara, his wife, drugs, and before the life-saving
This paper is modified from an annotated excerpt
from the book Modern Pilates written by Penelope
‘explained’. He had no formally procedures of modern medicine, to
Latey. Due to be published, September 2001, Allen structured teacher-training course, stay alive meant one had to remain
and Unwin, Australia. and only since the 1980s has there fit and strong. Regular exercise was
Correspondence to: P. Latey
been any formalized dissemination one of the few ways available to
1 Toongovah Road, Waverton 2060, of his work. First came the book combat ill health. Health spas and
NSW, Australia. The Pilates Method of Mental and exercising for health had become a
E-mail: latey@tpg.com.au Physical Conditioning by common part of German life.
P. Freidman and G. Eisen, The industrial revolution had
Received April 2001
Revised June 2001
published in 1980. Later on, a brought more sedentary lifestyles
Accepted July 2001 number of Pilates associations and and an increased density of living
........................................... other groups of Pilates instructors which led in turn to increases in
Journal of Bodywork and Movement Therapies (2001)
5(4), 275^282 around the world produced training contagious diseases and infant
# 2001 Harcourt Publishers Ltd courses of varying length, quality mortality, together with a general
doi: 10.1054/bwmt.2001.0237, available online at
http://www.idealibrary.com on and depth. decline in health. Exercise for health
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J O U R NA L O F B O DY W O R K AN D M OVE ME N T T H E R A PIE S OC TOBER 20 01Latey
Educational Gymnastics: ‘learn to attaching them to the ends of the
place our body under our own beds to allow the patients to work
control’ and Medical Gymnastics: with resistance while still bed-
‘influencing movements to alleviate bound. He had realised that doing
or overcome the sufferings that have exercise with resistance helped
arisen through abnormal conditions’ patients recover muscle tone more
(Wide 1906). quickly (Sparrowe 1994). This later
Both forms of modern led to his development of the
Gymnastics became so popular that ‘cadillac’, a four-posted bed with
they were included in the normal various springs and hanging bars,
curriculum in many German schools and the ‘universal reformer’, a
before the turn of the century. The sliding platform with springs on
re-introduction of gymnastics for which the patient/client lies down,
the 1896 Olympic Games sits or stands. The removal of the
undoubtedly provided an extra boost. fight against gravity in the supine
As a child Pilates worked so hard position allows tension to be
Fig. 1 J.H. Pilates. Photo from Balanced at improving his fitness, and at regulated and the spine and pelvis to
Body USA. body-building, that by 14 years of be aligned. His work expanded to
age his muscles were so clearly include various other pieces of
defined that he was posing for apparatus, which in turn inspired
was gradually introduced to the anatomy charts. As a teenager he additional mat exercises.
German population through the enjoyed diving, skiing and After the war Pilates returned to
development of gymnastics. Modern gymnastics. Eventually he became a Hamburg in Germany where he
gymnastics, derived from ancient professional boxer and taught self- refined his equipment and methods.
Greek gymnastics, were developed defence. His work in the field of During this time he met Rudolph
by the German Friedrich Jahn early exercise led him to an interest in van Laban, the originator of
in the nineteenth century. His yoga, karate, Zen meditation and Labannotation, the most widely
system started with a programme of the exercise regimes of the ancient used form of dance notation. This
outdoor exercise and later Greeks and Romans. was Pilates’ introduction to dance.
progressed to the use of equipment In 1912, at the age of 32, Pilates Later the dance world was to be an
that he developed. The aim was to went to England, where he worked area of fruitful cross-fertilization for
improve fitness and strength, as a boxer, a circus performer and a Pilates. At the same time P. H.
primarily for men. Jahn had studied self-defence instructor. At the Ling’s ideas on Gymnastik were
theology, history and philosophy at outbreak of World War I he was developing a following in Germany,
university and linked fitness with interned as an enemy alien. In camp with Hede Kallmeyer in Berlin and
national pride and well-being. he refined his ideas about health and Bess Mesendieck in Hamburg both
At the same time, Per Henrik Ling body-building and encouraged all training teachers. With the release in
in Sweden developed another form camp members to participate in his 1925 in Germany of a film on
of gymnastics (Gymnastik) conditioning programme, based on Gymnastik, this more gentle form of
emphasizing rhythm and fluidity of a series of exercises performed on a physical education with breathing
movement. (This came to be called mat. Apparently, during the and movement gained a broader
first callisthenics, then physical influenza pandemic of 1918, no one public profile (Johnson 1995).
education, in the United States.) in the internment camp died from Pilates migrated to the USA in
Initially Gymnastik exercise was the disease – this was considered 1926, a time when many Germans
primarily utilized by women. extraordinary (Friedman & Eisen fled their country. His success as a
Promoted from the late nineteenth 1980). Many more thousands died in physical trainer had attracted the
century as a way of improving that epidemic than lost their lives in attention of the German Army and
strength, endurance, flexibility and the Great War. it had requested his services as a
coordination, it aimed to augment Towards the end of the war trainer, a request that Pilates did not
the body’s general well-being by Pilates was transferred to the Isle of wish to respond to. Another factor
placing controllable, regular Man, where he applied his contributing to his decision to
demands on the cardiovascular knowledge to help rehabilitate the migrate is believed to be his work
system with coordinated breathing. war injured. Here Pilates began with Max Schmelling, the German
P. H. Ling also developed experimenting with bed springs, boxer. Schmelling began his career
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his advice and work was being used
without due acknowledgement;
something the Pilates community
still has problems with today.
Even though Pilates had
experience with strength and fitness
training, gymnastics, boxing, and
instructing for self-defence, in the
long term it was dancers who
worked with him most
enthusiastically. Pilates became a
friend of Ted Shawn, a dancer who,
with Ruth St Denis, founded the
Denishawn Dance Company, then
went on to help develop the dance
centre at Jacob’s Place in the mid-
Fig. 2 J. H. Pilates New York Studio. Photo from Balanced Body USA. 1930s. Shawn welcomed many
different forms of movement, and
there Pilates taught mat classes and
in the early 1920s, becoming the health...saw them pass the outdoor training. This early style of
European light-heavyweight remainder of their shortened and Pilates was orientated towards
champion in February 1928. He spoiled lives, either in constant pain strength work and reminiscent of
then left for the USA to become or in mental suffering, or both’ boxing training.
world heavyweight champion in (Pilates 1934). Films of Pilates’ later work show
1932 (Mullan 1999). Schmelling’s Pilates must have been appalled at a more flowing style with a similar
manager is believed to have helped the suffering during the Great movement quality to modern dance
fund Pilates’ studio on 8th Avenue Depression and frustrated that so (Video: J. Pilates, Physical Mind
in New York so that the boxer could few were following his advice or Institute 1995). Ron Fletcher was
continue training with him (Winsor using ‘contrology’. As a recent one of first well-known dancers to
1999). immigrant among many new use ‘Contrology’. Pilates’ ability to
On the boat to the USA Pilates immigrants, with particular ideas return dancers to the stage after
met his future wife Clara, a nurse, about sustaining good health and back and leg injuries gained him an
who would work with him at the happiness, Pilates found it extremely excellent relationship with Hanya
studio. Calling his method hard to establish a new profession Holm, Martha Graham and the
‘Contrology’, Pilates established his when many were in the throes of choreographer George Balanchine,
American studio just before the bankruptcy, unemployed and facing who all used and recommended him
beginning of the Great Depression. starvation (Townsend 1994). (Eisen & Freidman 1980). By the
There is no information on how the The ‘balance of body and mind’, end of the1940s he had developed a
Depression affected the studio but it he claimed, is the only route to good significant clientele among dancers.
must have been extremely difficult sustainable health. He went on to Pilates’ second book, Return to
after the October 1929 stock market deplore some of the common Life Through Contrology, co-
crash. practices of the day in regard to authored with W. J. Millar, was
In 1934 he was able to publish a looking after babies and children. published in 1945. In it he sets out
small book about his method. Your He explained the roots of ill health the development of his philosophy
Health set out his philosophy and from childhood onwards as poor and a list of exercises to follow and
ideas about good health and how to care and lack of exercise. The end of practise at home. He wrote no other
achieve it. This little publication his booklet becomes a long books.
exuded an element of determination advertising essay espousing his By the time Pilates died in 1967,
and frustration. Pilates referred to method of exercise, good hygiene, a number of studios based on his
‘Business men, both during and after and explaining why one should use method had been opened, catering
the [first world] war, were so busily his specially designed beds and to its extensive following in the
engaged in piling up fortunes, that chairs that are ‘posturally correct’ American dance world. During this
they entirely neglected to devote the (Pilates 1934). He ended the booklet time his wife Clara had worked side
necessary time to safeguard their by voicing his dismay that some of by side with Pilates and after his
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death continued to run a studio until to use it for post-acute rehabilitation his method. He berates the ‘quack’
her own death in 1977. and general fitness. cures promoted by ‘proprietors of
Pilates was extremely possessive patent medicines and manufacturers
of his method of exercise; even of mechanical apparatus, massaging
though he taught about half a dozen
Traditional Pilates belts, rowing machines, nostrums,
instructors, he was reluctant to
philosophy and principles serums and other injections’ (Pilates
entrust it to others and remained the The exercise system that Joseph 1934), possibly referring to other
sole master at his studio. Except for Pilates developed mixed the early exercise regimes, patent cure-
Your Health and Return to Life practical movement styles and ideas alls from ‘snake oil’ salesmen and
Through Contrology nothing of gymnastics, martial arts, yoga early forms of unsuccessful
comprehensive was published about and dance with philosophical inoculation. He believed that
his method until after he and Clara notions. Pilates was a great reader wellness began in childhood and
had died. In 1980 The Pilates and was fond of quoting the that ‘The first lesson is correct
Method of Physical and Mental German philosophers Johann breathing: properly instructed how
Conditioning (Eisen & Friedman) Schiller: ‘It is the mind itself which to draw the abdomen in and out at
was published. This book clearly shapes the body’ and Arthur the same time holding their breath
sets out, with some refinements, his Schoepenhauer: ‘To neglect one’s for a short time... then they should
philosophy and principles, and the body for any other advantage in life also learn how to fully deflate the
mat exercises of his method. is the greatest of follies [sic]’, two lungs in exhaling’ (Pilates 1934).
Pilates taught his assistants by principles he incorporated into his The remarkable health sustained
apprenticeship. His early assistants beliefs (Friedman & Eisen 1980). by the detainees in the internment
tended to move away and open their The amalgamation of philosophy, camp during World War I,
own studios, Ron Fletcher and exercise (movement) and the especially in the face of the influenza
Carola Trier among them, but some, performing arts as we see it in the pandemic, the consequences of the
such as his later assistant Romana Pilates method has been common in use of mustard gas-observed in the
Kryzanowski, stayed with him. Eve Germany from the nineteenth war injured on the Isle of Man, plus
Gentry, another early apprentice, century onwards. Pilates was only the prevalence of tuberculosis, his
moved away to pursue dance then one of a number of Europeans to own asthma (all conditions that
returned to the method, bringing develop and interrelate the concepts threaten the lungs), must have
with her clearly organized gentle of physical practice and mental focused Pilates’ mind on breathing
exercises that more easily applied J. discipline. Pilates’ 1934 booklet problems. He was probably also
Pilates’ principles, now known as Your Health was produced by the aware of Leo Kofler, the Delsarte
‘pre-Pilates’ work as well as a new ‘Prof. Pilates Health Studios’. In the system and Else Grindler and her
approach to some of the principles. Introduction he said: followers, whose systems all worked
Some of Pilates’ early followers with breathing (Johnson 1995).
merged his work with their own, and Perfect Balance of Body and Mind, is Pilates felt that most people were
some students took pieces of the that quality in civilised man, which not overdressed and overheated and did
method, sometimes only the only gives him superiority over the not wash properly. On hygiene he
exercises without understanding the savage and animal kingdom, but emphasized ‘ ‘‘Hardening’’ of the
principles, and developed their own furnishes him with all the physical and body. Fewer clothes the better.
style, though still labelling it mental powers that are dispensable for Cleanliness of the skin. Massaging
‘Pilates’. There are consequently attaining the goal of Mankind – health with brush’ (Pilates 1934). Does this
many different interpretations of the and happiness. The purpose of this hark back to his early childhood
booklet is to transmit in a simple form,
Pilates method, each subtly altered when he was improving his health?
the causes of present day ill-health and
by new understandings of the On posture and breathing:
immoral conditions, and the resultant
human body or influenced by one of effects which prevent the average ‘Drawing in of stomach and the
the many new movement styles that human being from attaining this throwing out of the chest. The spine
had developed since the beginning of physical perfection – man’s inherited of every normal child is straight. The
the twentieth century. birthright. back is perfectly flat’ (Pilates 1934).
Today, not only dancers and (Pilates 1934) Pilates believed that a healthy adult
athletes use the Pilates method should also have a flat spine.
extensively, with modifications and Knowing Pilates’ background one Overweight problems, particularly
variations to some of the exercises, can understand much of his around the abdomen, ‘have their
but the general public is beginning determined belief in the rightness of origins in the ‘‘miss-carriage’’ of the
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spine’ and poor posture affects good
health.
There were no exercise
descriptions in Your Health,
however. Pilates most definitely
wanted clients to attend his studio.
Around this time Pilates drew up his
designs for a bed and chairs. These Fig. 3 The Hundred. Photo from P Latey. Published with permission from Allen and Unwin.
were never manufactured, though
his Wunda chair is of a similar
design to his armchair. Eleven years
later he published Return to Life
Through Contrology (hereafter body remove harmful germs. ‘True vigour and fast dynamics, matching
referred to as Return to Life), heart control follows correct his written descriptions of how to
written by himself and W. J. Millar. breathing which simultaneously move. These facts, and his very
In this 1945 book Pilates describes reduces heart strain, purifies the definite philosophy, suggest that he
his work as ‘Contrology’, sets out blood, and develops the lungs’. was a very robust man physically
the philosophy behind his work and, Pilates felt it was vital to breathe and mentally and that even to
for the first time, describes and both deeply and fully: ‘Squeeze attempt his original exercises one
illustrates a set of 34 exercises to do every atom of air from your lungs would have to be equally robust.
at home (Fig. 3). The explanation of until they are almost as free of One would also have to ignore the
the philosophy that underpins his air as is a vacuum’ (Pilates & Miller normal curves of the spine, and the
exercise system is more 1945). hazards of over-bracing the body.
comprehensive. ‘Contrology is Stretching and rolling the spine After Pilates and Clara’s deaths,
complete coordination of body, (with the chin pressed tightly to the his method, as described by
mind and spirit’. Pilates has added chest) was also important. He Friedman and Eisen in 1980 in The
spirit to his earlier definition, aiming claimed that this helped to correct Pilates Method of Physical and
to encompass the whole person, posture by flattening out the curves Mental Conditioning has subtly
including their emotional well-being. in the spine and straightening out changed. The fundamental
‘Contrology restores physical the body. Pilates believed that the principles remained the same, but
fitness. [it] develops the body back should be flat ‘like a plumb new ones were added, and the
uniformly, corrects wrong postures, line’ (like a baby’s). Thus in original principles clearly delineated.
restores physical vitality, invigorates performing floor exercises, the full Most importantly, the concept of
the mind, and elevates the spirit’. length of the back was always ‘center’, which Pilates called the
His guiding principles included pressed firmly against the mat. ‘powerhouse’, was named and
‘concentrating on the purpose of the Pilates also thought that one carefully explained. The range of
exercises as you performed them’ always had to articulate/move exercises was enlarged and
(Pilates & Miller 1945). evenly throughout the spine and developed, with exercises structured
Pilates enlarged on his ideas about that one needed to exercise all the into progressive levels, and with the
correct breathing in Return to Life: muscles: ‘Developing minor muscles beginnings of a move away from
The exercises: ‘stirred your sluggish naturally helps to strengthen major very extreme effort.
circulation into action and to muscles’ (Pilates & Miller 1945). Development has continued since
performing its duty more effectively The exercises were described in then, and there are now what are
in the matter of discharging through detail, with breathing, movements termed ‘pre-Pilates exercises’ as well
the bloodstream the accumulation and aim carefully noted, and as a whole range of Pilates-based
of fatigue-products created by illustrated with many photos. Words exercises with further variations and
muscular and mental activities. commonly used in describing how to modifications. Some of the exercises
Your brain clears and your will do the exercises include ‘Keep legs have been simplified to ensure
power functions’ (Pilates & Miller (tensed, knees locked) ‘arms connection with the body from the
1945). He believed that vigorous rigid, shoulders locked’, fists inside out, making the method more
exercise was important, as this clenched, ‘snap-kick’ (Pilates & accessible. The principles have been
achieved a ‘bodily house-cleaning Miller 1945). refined to reflect current
with blood circulation’, and that Films which show Pilates working understanding of applied anatomy,
breathing correctly helped your and teaching reveal his extreme physiology and kinesiology.
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Some developments of the
traditional principles
In the 1970s and early 1980s many
more Pilates studios opened in
America, and the method went
offshore when Alan Herdman
brought it to London and started his
studio at ‘The Place’ (London
School of Contemporary Dance).
Although the method was still only
taught by apprenticeship, the
method was now influenced by
Friedman and Eisen’s clear
Fig. 4 The Center. Photo or drawing from photo P Latey. Published with permission from Allen
descriptions of how to exercise and Unwin.
correctly by following six
fundamental principles.
movement go hand in hand with avoiding strain or pain through
control. attention to detail, precision and
1. Concentration: To do the 5. Precision: Concentrate on right flow of movement is sustained.
movements properly you must movements each time you Breathing is an important element of
pay attention to what you are exercise or else you will do them the method, to heighten breathing
doing. No part of your body is improperly and lose their value awareness, to help focus and use the
unimportant; no motion can be (Pilates stated). centre and to increase oxygen
ignored. You must concentrate 6. Breathing: Full and thorough intake. Friedman and Eisen also
on what you are doing. All the inhalation and exhalation are described ways of ‘finding’ the body.
time. part of every Pilates exercise. In discussing relaxation, for
2. Control: The reason you need to Pilates saw forced exhalation as example, they noted that because
concentrate so thoroughly is so the key to full inhalation. there is an emphasis on control,
you can be in control of every ‘Squeeze out the lungs as you concentration and precision there is
aspect of every movement. Not would wring out a wet a tendency for clients to tense up
just the large motions of your towel...Soon the entire body is ‘using far more effort than is
limbs but the positions of your charged with fresh oxygen from necessary; in essence they are over-
fingers, head and toes, the toes to fingertips....According to controlling. The cure for this is to
degree of arch or flatness of Eisen and Friedman (1980), relax the muscles while maintaining
your back, the rotation of your Ramana Kryzanowska and other enough tone to hold the position
wrists, the turning in or out of American Pilates Method you want’ (Friedman & Eisen 1980).
your legs. teachers use the following On lengthening and strengthening
3. Centering: Our first requirement variations, ‘Breathe in on the they note that Pilates always wanted
in concentrating on our bodies point of effort... and out on the the client to use a full range of
and gaining full control of them return or exhalation’. This rule is movement, encouraging
is a starting place: somewhere to sometimes modified to.... ‘If you ‘lengthening out the body as you
begin building our own bodily are doing something that squeezes worked it’ – thus the client always
foundation. Consider the part of your body tight, use the motion to lengthened away from the center.
your body that forms a squeeze air out of your lungs and Friedman and Eisen move away
continuous band, front and back, inhale when you straighten up’. from ‘locking’ the joints to
between the bottom of your rib ‘straightening’ and stretching out
cage and the line across your hip So concentrating, controling the joints ‘long and thin’ to find
bones. We call this your ‘center’. movement, coordinating full and maximum extension (Fig. 5).
the center is the focal point of the deep breathing and centering the Turning to the notion of the
Pilates Method (Fig. 4). body in order to move with an straight spine: Pilates was keen on
4. Flowing movement: Nothing economy of effort are crucial aspects stretching through the spine and
should be stiff or jerky. Nothing of the method. The quality of each neck. His original instructions for
should be too rapid or slow. movement is emphasized rather than creating a flat back include the
Smoothness and evenly flowing encouraging mindless repetition. By words ‘navel to spine’, ‘spine to mat’
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The repertory approach has
recently been exploited by some, and
turned into the replication of a list of
exercises taught to large groups, by
briefly trained people. It is certainly
quicker (a weekend to 10 days
training), and more lucrative, to
train teachers based on the
Fig. 5 The Double (leg) Kick. Photo from P Latey. Published with permission from Allen and traditional repertoire. Large group
Unwin. classes lend themselves to that style,
but it is only a productive approach
if the client already has good body
and ‘press the base of the skull into there are people who practise it. The awareness and flexibility, no injuries
the mat’. different styles can be roughly or problems, and is happy to build
Friedman and Eisen repeated divided into a few different types. strength in set areas rather than
these, with ‘chin to chest’ and Up until the 1980s there were three carefully working specific muscles.
‘stretching the neck’, which flattens distinct styles: American West Otherwise this approach can be
the whole spine. Getting the client Coast, American East Coast and potentially dangerous.
‘sitting up out of your hips’ British. By the early 1990s, with the Skilled Modern Pilates
continued the straight spine idea profession gathering momentum, practitioners, on the other hand, use
with ‘squeezing buttocks so tight distinctions of place had changed to Joseph Pilates’ philosophy and
that the thighs turn out’ (Friedman the broad categories of hard, soft modified principles with a more
and Eisen 1980), encouraging the and rehabilitative Pilates, and gradual introduction to movement,
pelvis to tilt posteriorly. All this was Pilates-based exercises (The Method via ‘pre-Pilates’ exercises; and
aimed at creating a flat back, which Forum Physicalmind Institute include many adaptations and
we now know is not a good thing. 1996). Current styles can be divided developments that connect with our
Friedman and Eisen also included into two basic schools: the repertory improved knowledge of how the
‘correct’ foot positions, avoidance of approach and modern Pilates. body works. We are further
hunched shoulders and articulating The repertory approach closely influenced by other movement
the spine one vertebra at a time: follows the original exercises as set disciplines, by developments in
which was also controlled with out by Pilates himself, and later by psychology and by theories of
pinched buttocks. Friedman and Eisen. This more emotional factors and how the mind
The understanding that traditional method uses set exercise works. While the overall pattern of
improvements will take time, sequences and set numbers of movements may be similar each
commitment and consistency, and repetitions, with only a small body will have different needs.
that ‘one properly done movement is amount of modification for different So, in Modern Pilates the initial
worth any number of sloppy ones’, body types or problems. It continues emphasis is on understanding the
is continued in their book, with the with the ‘spine to mat’ flat back body and improving awareness,
proviso that pain and strain are to approach and ‘squeezing the connecting breathing, getting the
be avoided. buttocks’ tight for assisting postural feel of the right muscles working and
Friedman and Eisen’s principles control (Gallagher & Kryzanowska the over-worked areas being de-
can be summarized as concentra- 1999). It is fairly fast and dynamic stressed. The exercises are always
tion, control, centring, flowing right from the start of the tailored to the clients’ particular
movement, precision and breathing. programme. needs, body types, weaknesses and
As the first comprehensive record
of the method, aside from Pilates’
own publications, their work
is invaluable.
Towards present-day
Pilates
There are now almost as many
variations to the Pilates method as Fig. 6 The Leg slide. Photo from P Latey. Published with permission from Allen and Unwin.
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J O U R NA L O F B O DY W O R K AN D M OVE ME N T T H E R A PIE S OC TOBER 20 01Latey
strengths. The foundations of method helps them look after their Johnson DH 1995 Bone, Breath and Gesture
North Atlantic Books, Berkeley
breathing, alignment and working bodies, has tended to over-inflate the
Mullan H 1999 The World Encyclopaedia of
from the centre are emphasized profile of the profession before high Boxing Carlton Books, London
initially. A broader range of quality standards have been Pilates JH Your Health. First published 1934.
exercises is then introduced to assist established. Nevertheless a sound Reprint 1998. Presentation Dynamics
in applying the principles of the modern interpretation of the Inc, NV
method, encompassing other method can be applied safely to both Pilates JH, Miller. Return to Life through
Controlology. First published 1945.
movement styles and gradually fit and unfit people, and ranges from Reprint 1998. Presentation Dynamics
working towards a more dynamic post-trauma rehabilitation to fitness Inc, NV
approach. for the ordinary or elderly body; and Townsend D 1994 The new Penguin
Selected traditional exercises are can be extended to the fine-tuning of Dictionary of Modern History 1789–1945
utilized only when appropriate elite athletes and dancers. Penguin Books, London
The Method Forum (previously the Pilates
breathing, correct alignment and Present Day Pilates and the Modern Forum) 1991–2000. Journal of The
muscle control have become second Method will be discussed in a Physicalmind Institute ( previously the
nature to the body. Growing interest subsequent article in JBMT. Institute for the Pilates Method). Santa
in the method has been generated by Fe, NM
Videos of J.H. Pilates and Eve Gentry, from
this broadening of approach: by
the Physicalmind Institute 1993–1995
changes in the general public’s need (previously the Institute for the Pilates
to look after themselves, and by REFERENCES
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J O U R NA L O F B O DY W O R K AN D M OVE ME N T T H E R A PIE S OC TOBER 20 01You can also read
