THE COMMEMORATIVE 10 TH ISSUE - HIGHER EDUCATION IN SOUTHEAST ASIA AND BEYOND APR 2021 | ISSUE 10 - The HEAD ...
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APR 2021 | ISSUE 10
HIGHER EDUCATION IN SOUTHEAST ASIA AND BEYOND
MCI (P) 030/05/2020
THE COMMEMORATIVE
10 TH ISSUE
Editor’s Message
In this commemorative tenth edition of Higher Education in Southeast internationally — initially within ASEAN standards but eventually with
Asia and Beyond (HESB), we have invited leading researchers and global standards — with an increasing number of joint programmes
policymakers to share their insights and analysis of the future and transnational programmes offered and delivered by Philippine
development of higher education in each of the 11 Southeast Asian higher education institutions.
countries. Each of their articles is accompanied by a profile of each
In the context of the pandemic, Adrian W. J. Kuah and Katrina Tan
country by Zane Kheir, which takes stock of the state of higher
reflect on how the National University of Singapore has seen the
education hitherto in those countries.
opening of more access routes to learning, a greater focus on student
Masitah Shahrill and Joanna Yacob look at access to higher education engagement and motivation, a higher level of trust and reliance on self-
and lifelong learning, and the development of the future workforce in directed learning, and the provision of space and time for students to
Brunei, in the context of “Wawasan Brunei 2035” (Brunei Vision 2035), explore their interests outside the curriculum.
the aspirational forefront of the country’s national strategy.
Prompilai Buasuwan argues that the success of higher education
Say Sok and Rinna Bunry consider how Cambodia has no choice but institutions in promoting the creative and innovative society of the
to invest in its most valuable natural resource — its people — and how Thailand 4.0 policy will require socio-cultural and institutional
higher education development holds the key, given the country’s tragic transformation.
history.
The Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), in reflecting on
In Indonesia, where many of the objectives and operations of many its 20 years of supporting Timor-Leste’s national development, shares
higher education institutions are spread thinly across different how it is helping to nurture human resource to lead the future of the
missions, Satryo Soemantri Brodjonegoro argues that mission region’s youngest nation, such as through teacher training at the
differentiation should provide a better investment plan. National University of Timor-Leste.
Nanludet Moxom and Richard Noonan note that although quality Thanh Pham looks at three important trends that higher education
assurance practices have been helpful for Laos’s Ministry of Education in Vietnam should take into consideration for both short- and long-
and its higher education institutions, the latter’s quality assurance term development plans — the digitalisation of higher education, how
systems have not been very effective or fully functional. selective it is with “borrowed” values and practices, and how it should
actively reach out to the world.
Morshidi Sirat and Abdul Razak Ahmad argue that Malaysia needs
a reset, introducing a framework and trajectory for higher education In his overview, Philip G. Altbach argues that rather than focusing on
which is more robust and in tune with regional and global co-existence, elements that unite the region, it is worth reflecting on what divides
exhibiting a high degree of resilience, and with clarity on the role of the it, and discusses if there are any points of constructive regional
state vis-à-vis universities. collaboration for higher education.
While investment into the education sector seeks to promote the Finally, this special issue of HESB includes a collection of the latest
development of more autonomous higher education institutions available data on higher education across the 11 countries of Southeast
in Myanmar, Maitrii Aung-Thwin argues that stakeholders should Asia — on the gross enrolment rate, the number of higher education
consider balancing these initiatives by contributing to the development institutions, tuition fees, higher education spending as a percentage of
of state educational infrastructure and institutions, thereby ensuring GDP, and number of foreign students — which will make for a useful
that education reform will be more sustainable as Myanmar continues reference point for researchers, policymakers and the public alike.
its multi-sector transformation.
We invite you to consider contributing to future issues and be part of
Roger Y. Chao, Jr and Lorraine Pe Symaco envisage Philippine higher the conversations and debates on higher education in Southeast Asia
education in the next few decades to be increasingly benchmarked and beyond.
H E S B A P R 202 1 01
HESB COMMEMORATIVE
ISSUE 10 | APRIL 2021
Brunei Darussalam Laos
State of ZANE KHEIR ZANE KHEIR
the Region 12 36
Envisioning the Higher Education
Consultant Editors
Developments and in Lao PDR:
S. GOPINATHAN
Academic Advisor,
Trajectories on the Future Challenges and Direction
The HEAD Foundation of Higher Education in NANLUDET MOXOM & RICHARD NOONAN
Brunei Darussalam
PHILIP G. ALTBACH
Research Professor and MASITAH SHAHRILL & JOANNA YACOB
40 SG Indonesia Laos Brunei Myanmar Malaysia Vietnam Thailand Cambodia Philippines
Distinguished Fellow, merlion jakarta Patuxai Victory Billionth Barrel Independence twin Da Lat Bangkok Phnom Penh Manilla
15
national Monument Monument monument towers Golden Buddha Pagoda Democracy Independence Rizal Monument
Center for International monument Monument monument
Higher Education, Boston College The Philippines Thailand Vietnam
Malaysia ZANE KHEIR ZANE KHEIR ZANE KHEIR
Editor ZANE KHEIR
LOKE HOE YEONG Cambodia 62 77 92
ZANE KHEIR 44
Editorial Manager
THAVAMALAR BALAKRISHNAN
20 Higher Education Rethinking Higher Building on Existing
Malaysia’s Higher in the Philippines: Education in Thailand Resources and Traditional
Education: Tumbled Out of Prospects and Challenges for Thailand 4.0: Values as a Development
Potential Scenarios of its Trajectory? Developing a Strategy for Vietnamese
Editor's Message Cambodian (Public)
ROGER Y. CHAO, JR &
MORSHIDI SIRAT & ABDUL RAZAK AHMAD LORRAINE PE SYMACO Creative Economy Higher Education
01 Higher Education in 2040
48 66 PROMPILAI BUASUWAN THANH PHAM
SAY SOK & RINNA BUNRY
81 96
Looking Back to 23
Look Ahead – Myanmar Singapore
A HESB Retrospective Overview
Indonesia
ZANE KHEIR ZANE KHEIR
Timor-Leste
04 ZANE KHEIR 54 71 ZANE KHEIR The Myth – and the
Promise – of Southeast
28 85 Asian Higher Education
A Platform for the Future Myanmar Education Whither the University? PHILIP G. ALTBACH
of Southeast Asian Reform: Balancing Private ADRIAN W. J. KUAH & KATRINA TAN
20 Years of Supporting 100
Higher Education – Building the Future and Public Partnerships
The Genesis of HESB Through Higher Education MAITRII AUNG-THWIN
74 Timor-Leste’s National
Development: Nurturing
In Conversation with 2020-2024
S. Gopinathan SATRYO SOEMANTRI BRODJONEGORO
58 Human Resources to Lead
the Future
07 32 JAPAN INTERNATIONAL
COOPERATION AGENCY (JICA)
89
02 H E S B A P R 202 1 H E S B A P R 202 1 03
Looking Back
to Look Ahead
An HESB Retrospective
Issue 2 Issue 4 Issue 6
JUNE 2017 JULY 2018 SEPTEMBER 2019
This issue discusses ASEAN’s This issue discusses In this issue, we feature keynotes
role in regional integration, the internationalisation in higher from the 6th Global Higher
political framework of Southeast education in the region and Education Forum. Education
Asia, and the higher education beyond. We dive deep into the hubs in Southeast and West Asia
initiatives that arise from these varying responses of universities examine the consequences of
frameworks. Further, we look to the growing trend, with some reforming higher education and
at the evolving cultural mission nations pushing back against research, while Taiwan looks at
of elite East Asian universities, it as a “neo-liberal agenda of reforming its higher education
and Southeast Asian university the West”, while others see it governance.
governance reforms and as a way to share indigenous
autonomy alongside global neo- knowledge and culture beyond
liberalism. borders.
Issue 1 Issue 3 Issue 5
JULY 2016 JANUARY 2018 FEBRUARY 2019
The inaugural issue of HESB This issue questions the role of In this issue, we observe the role
looks at higher education universities and critical thinking of leadership and management
reform in the region, following in the world today, alongside in higher education, and its
trends of internationalisation growing economism in higher quality assurance in the face of
and massification. It also looks education institutions. We massification. We discover how the
at how governance, financing, discuss lessons learnt from the Tokyo Convention has harmonised
and university autonomy affect California Master Plan in higher different quality assurance systems
the pace of change in higher education, and the state of in higher education. We also delve
education, and how policy Hong Kong’s higher education into the status of higher education
makers can make effective landscape 20 years after in various Southeast Asian nations
change. handover to China. amidst economic and political
transitions and reforms.
04 H E S B A P R 202 1 H E S B A P R 202 1 05
Want to read our past issues?
Scan the QR code or visit
www.headfoundation.org/head-library/hesb
A Platform for the Future
of Southeast Asian
Higher Education
Issue 8 The Genesis of HESB
JUNE 2020
In Conversation with S. Gopinathan
In this special issue, we look at
the impact of COVID-19 on higher
education institutes, and the HESB Editor Loke Hoe Yeong (LHY) interviewed Professor
long-term implications of their S. Gopinathan (SG), Consultant Editor and Founding
responses, from the adoption Editor of HESB, about the role of the publication, university
of virtual learning and its place ranking systems, and the fate of higher education in the face
in curriculums beyond the of the pandemic, in Singapore and Southeast Asia.
pandemic to UNESCO’s response
to pandemic-exacerbated learning
inequality, and how the bayanihan LHY: What spurred you on to start HESB, and what did you
spirit in the Philippines helped envision it to be?
Issue 7 mobilise school communities
Issue 9 SG: Two things, I think. Firstly, there was a model of a publication,
during the crisis.
MARCH 2020 OCTOBER 2020 which Professor Philip Altbach and the Center for International
Higher Education (CIHE) at Boston College had been doing, which
This special issue of HESB We focus on regional student
I was familiar with — the International Higher Education (IHE)
features keynotes from the mobility in Asia and Southeast
journal. It was a publication intended to serve the international
second ASEAN-Australian Asia, in conjunction with the
higher education community and to provide a source of ideas, and
Dialogue (AAED), which ASEAN International Mobility
a platform for networking. CIHE continues to be our partner for
addresses the needs of for Students Programme (AIMS).
HESB. Secondly, I was also aware that in most Southeast Asian
international education in It envisions Malaysia as a
countries, K-12 education had reached a stage of reasonable
relation to business and industry. regional student hub and builds
maturity. This is not to say there are no more issues around access,
We also look at how universities a sustainable exchange platform
equity, quality, and so on. But by and large, primary, high school,
are incorporating sustainability between Southeast Asia and East
and even some post-secondary education were already available
education into their curriculum Asian countries. We also look to
in all these countries. In my view, the next stage of development
and university direction, contextualising student mobility
was likely to be in higher education, and in particular, universities.
alongside UN Sustainable programmes within the larger
Development Goals. aims of internationalisation in When I joined The HEAD Foundation, I was thinking, “How
ASEAN higher education. could The HEAD Foundation be of use to a new generation of
scholars, who are building up higher education systems in their
own countries? What were the policy and practice implications?
What would be a good platform for sharing best practices?” We
06 H E S B A P R 202 1 H E S B A P R 202 1 07
concluded that a publication similar to IHE was universities, and libraries were all in the Western private university, but it couldn’t be allowed to die an English language publication isn’t attempting
the answer, especially since there were no such world. We are talking here about the 1970s, when because the government would then be accused to meet the needs of all university faculty in the
publications available in Southeast Asia, as far as we he came up with this concept of the inequities in of trying to destroy Chinese-medium education. Southeast Asia region and beyond. It is able to say,
were aware. knowledge production. The government policy response was for Nanyang in so far as language is not an obstacle for certain
University to be converted into NTI [Nanyang types of faculty, that its publication would be both
I am probably the first person in Singapore to have
LHY: Since your PhD, you have built an academic Technological Institute] in the first instance, and relevant and useful.
done a doctorate in comparative higher education.
career as a leading expert on Singapore’s K-12 then NTU [Nanyang Technological University].
I did a comparative study between the then Nevertheless, my wish further down the line would
education policies. It would appear the project
University of Singapore and Universiti Kebangansan So issues about language, identity and competing be for some of HESB’s articles to be translated into,
of starting HESB was a return to your first love of
Malaysia (UKM) — the former a British-style colonial educational traditions were all, and continue to say, Vietnamese or Thai, and have two issues of that
research on higher education. What drew you to do
university, the latter a Malay-medium national be, part of my thinking and research in terms of per year. I still feel that these languages, which are
research on higher education all those years ago?
university that was established as a response of sorts education policy. In a sense, my work at The HEAD very much a part of the linguistic culture of these
SG: To tell you the truth, and this is a very prosaic to the University of Malaya (which was the colonial Foundation now is the culmination of my early work countries, must have enough materials in their
answer — it wasn't as if I woke up in the middle of university of the time). A fundamental difference on higher education. national languages. I don’t foresee a time soon when
the night with an epiphany. After several years of between the two universities was that University of everything would be in English, and that everybody
teaching at the Institute of Education, I decided Singapore was an English medium university and LHY: Interesting that you mentioned the issue of the would be able to access it in English. But I think
that I should do a doctorate. Philip Altbach offered UKM was a Malay medium university. medium of instruction. Fast forward to today, let’s HESB, as it stands, is really just the first cut of what
me an opportunity to go to SUNY Buffalo [State look at Southeast Asia more broadly. Obviously, we are trying to achieve.
University of New York at Buffalo] to study with LHY: That was the 1970s, when Singapore had two the language issue has become very important for
I think institutions such as The HEAD Foundation
him. And my initial connection with Philip was not universities, which were then merged into one. What higher education in the past 10 to 20 years, perhaps
have a role to play in providing access to information,
through the academic study of higher education but are your reflections on the development of higher due more to globalisation with the use of English
insights and best practices, and making them as
through the book publishing industry. education in Singapore ever since? in university classrooms. HESB, as an English
universally available as possible.
“
language publication, is seeking to be the platform
In my early days as a book editor with the Oxford SG: In the 1960s, with regard to K-12 education, one
for higher education practitioners and researchers
University Press in Singapore, I had written in major policy dilemma was: what should Singapore
in the region to have dialogue lines in English. What
the Bookseller, a British book publishing journal, do with the medium of instruction in a differentiated
are your comments in regard to this?
about an inaugural series of bookfairs in Singapore. system of education, the latter a colonial legacy? I would think that
Libraries and bookshops were not widespread at Singapore then had Chinese-medium schools, SG: The medium of instruction issue in education in
that time. Philip read it and invited me to contribute Malay-medium schools, Tamil-medium schools, Singapore was resolved a long time ago. But it is still earlier steps would be
a chapter on book publishing in Singapore, to his and of course English-medium schools. The country an issue of tension in many other Southeast Asian faculty exchange, or joint
edited volume, Publishing in the Third World. later opted, controversially, for a national public countries. I think the tension between national and
system of education, in which English would be international continues to preoccupy many policy research. If, for example,
When I decided to do my PhD, I chose to go to
America as I was already familiar with the British
the medium of instruction. And so the language makers. In the drive to establish universities as there is a Southeast Asia-
issue was fundamental in thinking about education key national institutions, national languages
academic tradition. I then remembered Philip and
policy, including medium of instruction issues at had to become the main medium of instruction. wide consensus that climate
asked him for some advice. He said, “What advice?
Come to Buffalo!” I didn't know anything much
the university level. But countries also wanted these institutions to be change and rising sea
recognised internationally. Because the question
about Buffalo at that time, but they had a fantastic In the 1970s, as industrialisation and economic
was: how would these academics in, say, Vietnam, levels are going to be major
education department, where I was exposed to growth gained pace in Singapore, the government
critical discourses about education — which I did became aware that the best students were going
or Thailand, or Laos, communicate with the challenges, then how could
international academic community, if only a few in
not encounter during my Masters in Singapore. to English-medium education institutions. The
those universities spoke English? that be an opportunity for
And so, as they say, the rest is history. Philip was Chinese-medium Nanyang University was in danger
very interested in the centre-periphery model of not getting the best students. The government So I see the emergence of many institutions where
curriculum and/or research
[from dependency theories in academia] — in argued that if this trend continued, then Nanyang the faculty are bilingual. We can look at Malaysia, collaboration?
terms of what constituted inequality in knowledge University was not going to be viable; that, if for example, which probably has the best example
production and knowledge distribution around Singapore was going to survive at all, it was going of a top-tier set of institutions, where large numbers
the world. Because the major publishing houses, to survive in terms of quality. Nanyang was a of the faculty are bilingual. So in a sense, HESB as
08 H E S B A P R 202 1 H E S B A P R 202 1 09
“
LHY: In discussing Southeast Asia and issues of research, has not performed well in the ranking
regional integration, what comes to mind is the tables — to a very large extent because the Soviet So I think the relationships between
European Union’s Erasmus programme of student legacy of university and faculty structures is simply
exchange. Do you think that is ultimately the model just so different from the Anglo-Saxon university
public and private universities will change.
that Southeast Asia should emulate? model, which the ranking tables favour. How do you If private universities are not financially
get the kind of citation numbers if you’re not even
SG: We are a long way away from that. I think the
writing in English? Do you think this is going to be
viable, what happens to the students still
Erasmus programme provides a model of what is
possible. But then when we talk about regional
a huge problem for Southeast Asia as a whole, in in the middle of their courses?
terms of university rankings?
integration today, Britain has already left the EU.
Euroscepticism in countries, such as Poland, is SG: Yes, I think so. As I noted earlier, I believe that
growing. There is tension and friction, and I’m not countries in Southeast Asia have to come to a greater
sure Southeast Asia even has the same degree of consensus around what it means to be a part of this
solidarity and common purpose as the EU. I think region, and the core principles of state behaviour LHY: There are two more themes I wanted to cover, LHY: The final theme I wanted to discuss — the role
there are a lot of issues to work out. More bilateral within this region. which have emerged in the past nine issues of HESB. of private higher education and foreign branch
exchanges may be a first step, perhaps. Student mobility and faculty mobility in the context campuses. What’s their future looking like right
There is tremendous diversity within this region, in
of COVID-19 now face huge challenges. Obviously, now, given the COVID-19 situation?
I’m still perhaps the only person in NIE’s history terms of political histories and structures, size and
the digital solution shouldn’t supersede the whole
[National Institute of Education, Singapore] to complexity of education systems, including media SG: Private universities are going to be under
face-to-face, classroom experience. But also in a
have done fieldwork in a Southeast Asian country of instruction, variety of post-secondary institutions tremendous stress, because the ability of students
region such as Southeast Asia, greater technology
for a doctorate. This is in part because of the and so on. and their families to pay tuition fees is being
utilisation is inevitable. Yet it is likely that the use
preoccupation today with university rankings, compromised. A lot of students can't afford to pay
So, the question then would be, is it sensible, wise, of technology will only accentuate the disparities
which drive the patterns in research collaboration. tuition fees because of the declining economy. And
feasible to think in terms of a Southeast Asian and inequalities across the region, especially within
If you said in your CV that you obtained your PhD in the UK, there’s going to be huge consequences
Erasmus where there is a mutual recognition of some larger countries. What’s the roadmap here for
or a research grant from, say, Oxford University for British universities, because if they don’t get EU
qualifications? I would think that earlier steps technology use for the next five years for Southeast
or Teacher’s College at Columbia University, students, and the domestic economy is declining,
would be faculty exchange, or joint research. If, for Asian higher education?
that counts for more than, say, a more modest they are going to be in severe financial difficulties.
example, there is a Southeast Asia-wide consensus
research grant from a university in Southeast Asia, SG: Singapore universities will have to figure out And not just students. Faculty positions will be in
that climate change and rising sea levels are going
unfortunately. what the true strengths and weaknesses of online jeopardy and funding for research may also decline.
to be major challenges, then how could that be
learning are. How do we begin to understand what
Now, if there isn’t enough collaboration between an opportunity for curriculum and/or research So I think the relationships between public
is lost in online learning, which we take for granted
Southeast Asia universities at the level of joint collaboration? So my wish would be for greater and private universities will change. If private
in the face-to-face classroom experience? But then,
research, faculty exchanges and sabbaticals, are we faculty exchange and for joint research around a universities are not financially viable, what happens
when you have 400 students in an auditorium and
even able to talk about the mutual recognition of certain set of commonalities. to the students still in the middle of their courses?
one lecturer in front of them, can we really say
qualifications? Are they going to transfer to the public universities
Another area could be the emergence of the digital that is the true nature of learning? That’s not the
perhaps? Is the state then able to expand the places
economy and what this could mean for countries Oxbridge style of tutorials, for sure — that is mass
LHY: I want to pick up on your point of faculty in public universities? But state budgets will also
— who’s doing the thinking collectively around, higher education!
exchanges and student exchanges in the context suffer; if there is a decline in national economic
not just what Singapore does as a digital nation, but
of COVID-19 a bit later, but first — university Given that Singapore receives many foreign growth, education budgets are going to shrink.
also what lessons there might be for countries like
ranking league tables. This is, of course, a major students, it could be more severely impacted
Cambodia or Brunei. It’s not quite a bitter winter for universities, though
preoccupation today. It is an affliction for some, than Laos or Cambodia. Singapore’s universities
certainly not a spring or a summer for them either.
or a marker of progress and prestige for others, What we need to do is build greater connectivity had to scramble to create many more places for
The pandemic has brought on much reflection on
depending on whom you speak to. And here, I’m between ISEAS-like institutions and greater efforts Singaporean students unable to travel to attend
the role of the state in these challenging times, and
thinking of their impact on Southeast Asia, where on the part of ASAIHL [the Association of Southeast overseas universities. So in general, I think it's hard
higher education has surely got to be part of this
some national systems are just not well-equipped to Asian Institutions of Higher Learning], RIHED to predict what will happen. Universities are going
strategic, major rethink.
deal with the kind of pressure. Even Russia, a former [SEAMEO Regional Centre for Higher Education to be chasing a moving target. And it will require a
superpower with universities that excel in scientific and Development], and so on. lot of contingency planning and flexibility.
10 H E S B A P R 202 1 H E S B A P R 202 1 11
Brunei
Darussalam
ZANE KHEIR
Brunei Darussalam, its name meaning “Brunei, the abode of peace”, is the University of Brunei Darussalam (UBD) was programmes also allow Bruneian students to pursue
ASEAN’s smallest country in terms of population, with only 429,000 established in 1985 soon after independence. As of undergraduate and graduate studies at universities
people in 2018, and second smallest in terms of landmass after Singapore. 2017, Brunei’s total enrolment was 12,135 students, overseas in addition to those in Brunei. In 2019,
Brunei is an Islamic monarchy ruled by Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah who a majority of whom were female, at 59%.³ UBD is the MOE was allotted a budget of BND735 million,
has absolute authority over the country’s institutions. Brunei was by far the largest HEI in the country and enrols most of which went to staff salaries and recurring
granted full independence from its status as a British protectorate in approximately half of the country’s university expenses, and only BND19,582,660 was devoted to
1984. It was once a formidable empire that dominated the entirety of students. All schools and HEIs in Brunei are developmental projects.5 There was no data on how
Borneo as a Malay sultanate with connections to the Malay Peninsula, required to abide by its bilingual language policy much was given to HEIs.
Sumatra and the Philippines, but contracted following the expansion of instruction in English and Bahasa Melayu (the
Following the precedent of its larger neighbour
of European colonialism. Wedged between the Malaysian states of standard Malay from Peninsular Malaysia, not
Malaysia, in 2004 Brunei launched the Wawasan
Sabah and Sarawak on the north of Borneo, Brunei’s demographics the Brunei dialect). All HEIs are overseen by the
Brunei 2035 (Brunei Vision 2035) master
and language environment are similar to neighbouring Malaysia’s, Ministry of Education (MOE) and Ministry of
development plan, which calls for Brunei to be
with Malay and English being the dominant languages, with the Religious Affairs, as several HEIs are either religious
recognised for its “highly educated and skilled
exception that Malay written in the Jawi script still enjoys institutional universities or maintain religious curricula (e.g.,
people”. In 2014, Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah reasserted
recognition in Brunei. Culture in Brunei has a long history of influence Sultan Sharif Ali Islamic University). All universities
the importance of monitoring the nation’s progress
from the Malay Peninsula, which is also true of its history in the field and TVET (Technical and Vocational Education
in implementing the vision, and established an
of education, where it often looks to Malaysia and Singapore as role and Training) institutions are respectively required
advisory council composed of multiple government
models and as sources from which to import educational resources.¹ to be accredited by the Brunei Darussalam National
agencies. The first goal of the vision, which is
Accreditation Council (BDNAC) and the Brunei
Brunei’s small population enjoys one of the highest standards of living directly related to education, comes under the
Darussalam Technical and Vocational Education
in Asia and the world, with a GDP per capita of USD64,673, no income responsibility of the MOE, Ministry of Religious
Council (BDTVEC).4
tax and full subsidy for higher education. Brunei’s economic prosperity Affairs and Manpower Council. The focus on
is mostly attributed to its plentiful gas and oil reserves, exports of which One of the key features of Brunei’s higher education monitoring and assessment also holds implications
totalled USD5.116 billion in 2017.² Its energy industry has also been a system, along with its primary and secondary for the use of technology and transparency of data in
major provider of jobs for university graduates as well as opportunities system, is that the Bruneian government provides education reform.
for foreign direct investment. full subsidy for all tuition, making higher education
In 2018, the MOE released the Strategic Plan 2018-
free for citizens regardless of socioeconomic
Brunei’s higher education system is relatively small, with five public and 2022, which sets out three main strategic objectives:6
status. An assortment of scholarships and funding
two private higher education institutions (HEIs). Its flagship university,
1
Geoffrey C. Gunn, Language, Power and Ideology in Brunei Darussalam (Athens, OH: Ohio 3
Rose P. Tibok and Wendy Hiew, “Higher Education Systems and 5
Azlan Othman, “MoE allocated BND735M budget”, Borneo Bulletin,
University Press, 1997). Institutions, Brunei Darussalam”, in The International Encyclopedia of March 17, 2019, https://borneobulletin.com.bn/moe-allocated-
2
“Brunei Energy”, Export.gov, last modified July 12, 2019, Higher Education Systems and Institutions, eds. Pedro Nuno Teixeira bnd735m-budget/.
https://www.export.gov/apex/article2?id=Brunei-energy. and Jung-Cheol Shin et al. (Dordrecht: Springer, 2019).
4
Ibid.
12 H E S B A P R 202 1 H E S B A P R 202 1 13
1. Transform human resources organisation to a Internationalisation
“performance-driven culture”
Envisioning the Developments
In 2011, UBD launched the GenNEXT programme, a
2. Provide equal and equitable access to quality mandatory curriculum for third-year undergraduate
education
and Trajectories on the Future
students to either engage in an overseas exchange
3. Enhance shared accountability with stakeholders programme, internship, community outreach or
in teaching and learning development incubation programme.7 UBD has also been at the
forefront of Brunei’s internationalisation efforts, of Higher Education in
Brunei Darussalam
Many of these changes will be implemented by the as it is active in attracting foreign stu-dents and
adoption of new information systems that monitor faculty. In 2017, 33.8% of lecturers in Brunei’s HEIs
faculty and staff’s performance. The strategic plan were non-citizens. In addition to being an active
MASITAH SHAHRILL & JOANNA YACOB
emphasises the growth of the knowledge economy member of the ASEAN university network, UBD also
and a push towards use of big data, which can be used provides attractive scholarships for foreign graduate
to create an effective human resource performance students, including tuition waivers, monthly
management and appraisal system. Considering stipends and research funding.
Brunei’s noticeable gender gap in enrolment, the
MOE aims to narrow this gap by improving access In the past few decades, we have observed several if not many evolving roles of higher
COVID-19 Impact
for male students and “at-risk” and “disadvantaged” education institutions in their effort to raise their standards and status amidst challenges
learners at all educational levels. Though Brunei was among the lucky few nations and pressures from local and international educational and economy demands and
to have been minimally impacted by COVID-19, influences. Envisioning the probable developments and trajectories on the future of
Beyond the scope of higher education, Brunei’s job the pandemic caused closure of all HEIs. The higher education is normally associated with the latest global trends. The short-term
market has been unable to provide a diverse set of pandemic also proved to be a test of the nation’s ICT goals are likely about adjusting to new norms while the long-term goals could be a paradox
jobs for university graduates, which has led to an (Information and Communications Technology) for the future of higher education – that is, the unpredictability of global educational
exodus of Bruneians with advanced degrees. In infrastructure’s ability to cope with a sudden shift demands that is influenced by technology, accessibility and the need to stay relevant
2017, the Brunei Energy and Industry Department to e-learning. It also expedited the need to meet whilst ensuring quality and the continuity of successful planning.
launched JobCentre Brunei, a platform to help goals of upgrading infrastructure set in place by
match local graduates with private companies to Wawasan Brunei 2035 and the MOE’s Strategic Plan.
boost employment and marketability of graduates Brunei Darussalam’s Educational Vision
With the widespread shift to online learning, some
and foster new apprenticeships. To sync the needs instructors have been required to record online Brunei Darussalam, a country with the smallest population among the 11 Southeast Asian
of the labour market with practices of HEIs, the lessons and submit them to relevant oversight countries, has always placed the development of a quality education system and future
MOE is not only working with energy officials, committees, making for an additional layer of workforce as the aspirational forefront of the country’s national strategy, “Wawasan
but aims to implement a “Labour Management performance monitoring.8 Brunei 2035” (Brunei Vision 2035).1 The first of the three goals of the vision focuses on
Information System” to provide data to universities ensuring people of the country are educated, highly skilled and accomplished. In realising
on the needs of the local job market, so that HEIs this vision, we are guided by the national philosophy of Melayu Islam Beraja, or Malay
can shift enrolment away from low-needs to in- ZANE KHEIR recently graduated with a PhD in Islamic Monarchy. The educational levels span holistically, from primary and secondary,
demand courses. Comparative Asian Studies at the National University of to technical, vocational and higher education. The country’s Ministry of Education
Singapore. regulates all government and private education institutions, while the Ministry of
Religious Affairs specifically regulates educational institutions offering components of
Islamic religious education.
6
Ministry of Education, Brunei Darussalam, “Ministry of Education 7
Tibok and Hiew, “Higher Education Systems and Institutions,
Strategic Plan 2018–2022”, last modified 15 August, 2018, Brunei Darussalam”.
https://www.moe.gov.bn/SitePages/Strategic%20Plan%202018- 8
Najib Noorashid, Phan Le Ha, Yabit Alas, and Varissa Mae Yabit,
2022.aspx. “Beyond the Pandemic, Integrating Online Learning”, accessed
October 10, 2020, https://www.universityworldnews.com/post.
php?story=20201009150047136.
14 H E S B A P R 202 1 H E S B A P R 202 1 15
In this commentary, the discussions will specifically in 2016); UNISSA’s Centre of Leadership and
focus on a few relevant strategic thrusts related Lifelong Learning (C4L, established in 2017); UTB’s
to the development and purpose of education — Continuing Education in Science, Engineering and
Three Goals of Wawasan Brunei 20351 such as access to higher education and lifelong Technology (Tri-CEd, established in 2018); and
learning; the role of technology in light of the PB’s Centre of Excellence for Lifelong Learning
sudden realisation surge of online education or the (CELL, established in 2020). These higher education
1 Educated, highly skilled and accomplished people
blended mode of teaching and learning caused by institutions have been tasked to take on the
2 High quality of life current pandemic; aligning the Fourth Industrial responsibility of reskilling or upskilling the existing
Revolution and higher education; and growing the workforce in order to meet the demands of the
3 A dynamic and sustainable economy workforce by producing future-ready graduates. All global market. Due to the fast-changing pace of
these are pertinent to what may shape the future of international markets, it is important to recognise
the higher educational landscape in the country. the need for shorter accredited higher education
training programmes that have lifelong learning
modes. There is also an increasing need to align
Improving Opportunities to
institutional-level qualifications with the country-
Lifelong Learning
level accreditation criteria for online learning. The
The Higher Education Landscape Improving opportunities to lifelong learning is need for a revised policy may offer major potential
in Brunei Darussalam listed as one of the strategic initiatives in the for change in mainstreaming and growing lifelong
Ministry of Education’s strategic plan in Brunei learning.
In Brunei Darussalam, the higher education levels its full independence. This was followed by Institut
Darussalam. Four institutions in the country have
are categorised as university colleges, polytechnics, Teknologi Brunei in 1986, which was upgraded to
set up their respective lifelong learning centres
institutes and universities. Consequently, there are university status in 2008 and renamed Universiti Transforming Teaching and
in offering programmes, which are inclusive
officially seven higher education institutions — five Teknologi Brunei (UTB) in 2016. In order to cater
and follow flexible study pace and blended
Learning Approaches
government and two private — that fall within this to the growing demands of the Islamic academic
learning approaches. These facilities are UBD’s The unprecedented and ongoing global pandemic
category. The main foci of each higher education disciplines, Universiti Islam Sultan Sharif Ali
Centre for Lifelong Learning (C3L, established has caused sudden changes in educational policies.
institutions are generally the same — to strive for (UNISSA) was established in 2007. Politeknik
“
We have observed significant rises in the workload of
quality and excellence in teaching and learning, Brunei was established in 2008 but operations
educators and changes to their teaching approaches.
and produce skilled and employable graduates. only began in 2012. Kolej Universiti Perguruan
Adjusting and revising the provisions on the
However they very much differ when it comes to Ugama Seri Begawan (KUPU SB) was set up in
teaching of modules or courses, learning delivery
their respective institutional programme offerings, 1975 as an Islamic Religious Teachers’ Training
strategic initiatives and processes. A few place great College, and upgraded to a university college in Due to the fast-changing and transforming assessment approaches using
various online platforms have quickly become the
emphasis on current and future research initiatives 2007. Furthermore, KUPU SB is under the purview pace of international new normal in the country. Alternative instructional
in order to develop research areas and to increase of the Ministry of Religious Affairs. Meanwhile
research productivity. For the benefit of this the two private higher education institutions are markets, it is important to approaches have also been implemented, such as
the practice of blended learning, and consequently
commentary, we will only attend to the educational Kolej International Graduate Studies (KIGS) and recognise the need for shorter began the exploration of the blended pedagogy
landscape of all higher education institutions in Laksamana College of Business (LCB) established
Brunei Darussalam as a general collective. in 2002 and 2003, respectively. According to the accredited higher education underpinned by a lifelong learning perspective.
Blended learning mode typically involves face-to-
The first formal higher education institution,
latest available statistics provided by the Ministry training programmes that face or physical classes, and lesson materials or
of Education, there are a total of 11,406 enrolled
Universiti Brunei Darussalam (UBD) was
higher education students and 832 lecturers.2 have lifelong learning modes. resources containing video lectures, discussions
established in 1985, a year after the country gained and assessments, which are provided online; and
occasionally utilising e-Portfolio in documenting
and showcasing the records of work conducted.
Nevertheless, with the influx of online learning we
1
Government of Brunei Darussalam, “Wawasan Brunei 2035”, www.wawasanbrunei.gov.bn
need to seriously consider upgrading our online
2
Ministry of Education, Brunei Darussalam, “Brunei Darussalam Education Statistics 2018”, accessed September 4, 2020, http://www.moe. learning systems, such as Canvas and other existing
gov.bn/DocumentDownloads/Education%20Statistics%20and%20Indicators%20Handbook/Brunei%20Darussalam%20Education%20 online education platforms.
Statistics%202018.pdf
16 H E S B A P R 202 1 H E S B A P R 202 1 17“
The Fourth Industrial Revolution and Higher Education
Coined by Klaus Schwab in 2016, the Fourth Industrial Revolution, or IR
It is also important to
4.0, is about converging technology with economy. Its advent has also think about higher education
impacted many aspects of human endeavours including education. IR
4.0 is a national agenda for Brunei, and higher education institutions
institutions as knowledge hubs
play a meaningful role in the implementation of this nation-wide where innovation can thrive.
initiative — through teaching, research and development, innovation,
commercialisation, and creating IR 4.0-ready human capacity. A deeper
understanding of Brunei’s initiatives need to be sought, and support
needs to be acquired for implementation and delivery in order for higher
education institutions to be aligned with the pursuit of this agenda.
Additionally, to ensure employability of graduates, it is now necessary for In 2021, Brunei released its latest economic All the above require constant monitoring and
higher education institutions to redesign existing educational systems to blueprint supporting the third goal in Brunei reflection on the best practices in which we will
an adaptable and flexible system, which supports teaching and learning Vision 2035, “Towards a dynamic and sustainable subsequently apply and put into action. What will
for the fourth as well as future industrial revolutions. economy”. Its first policy direction, “Continue matter most will be the commitment and dedication
providing high-standard education system which of the higher education community — the leaders,
will produce experts, professionals and technicians lecturers and researchers, administrative and
Growing the Workforce of Tomorrow
to meet industry demand” pointed to having support staff, the stakeholders comprising of
Higher education institutions play a major role in preparing and skilled, adaptive and innovative people as one of students, alumni, industry and many more, to
equipping students with the most relevant and up-to-date knowledge, its aspirations. As higher education providers, in further improve, to maintain and sustain, and
to face current as well as future educational and industrial needs. It is order to produce graduates who are highly skilled, finally to make all these a continuous reality within
also important to think about higher education institutions as knowledge marketable, and future ready, we need to consider the next 20 years. A whole-of-nation approach will
hubs where innovation can thrive. developing and equipping our students with relevant indeed be an advantage. This will not only benefit
skillsets — among them analytical and innovative the country but will also help us towards achieving
thinking, emotional intelligence and so on — which the country’s national vision.
will complement their academic knowledge.
Six Aspirations in the Economic Blueprint of Brunei Darussalam 20213
Future Aspirations ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to acknowledge Pg Dr Mohamad
There are undoubtedly other strategic thrusts that
Iskandar Pg Hj Petra, Dr Abby Tan Chee Hong and
can be further explored — for example, enabling self-
6 Associate Professor Dr Jose Hernandez Santos for their
1 3 sustaining higher education institutions; attracting valuable inputs to this commentary.
Good Governance highly talented graduate research students;
Productive and Open and Globally and Public Service
Vibrant Businesses Connected Economy focusing and venturing on specific niche research
Excellence
areas to increase collaborations with international MASITAH SHAHRILL is Senior Assistant Professor
researchers and industry partnerships; achieving at the Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah Institute of Education,
2 5 international reputation through the ranking Universiti Brunei Darussalam.
exercises of the Quacquarelli Symonds (QS) and the
Skilled, Adaptive, High Quality JOANNA YACOB is Acting Registrar and Secretary,
and Innovative and Competitive Times Higher Education (THE) World University
4 Registrar Office, at Universiti Brunei Darussalam.
People Economic Rankings; and having programmes accredited and
Sustainable
Infrastructure certified by professional agencies.
Environment
3
Ministry of Finance and Economy, Brunei Darussalam, “Towards a Dynamic and Sustainable Economy”, accessed February 7, 2021,
http://deps.gov.bn/DEPD%20Documents%20Library/NDP/BDEB/Econ_Blueprint.pdf.
18 H E S B A P R 202 1 H E S B A P R 202 1 19Cambodia
ZANE KHEIR
Cambodia is a mainland Southeast Asian country of 16.25 million people with USD531 in Vietnam.3 The funding that the heavily on tuition fees as their main source of
wedged between Thailand and Vietnam. Like neighbouring Thailand, government provides to universities is based on revenue, which cover 80-90% of institutional
it is officially a kingdom in which Buddhism is the state religion. historical and political funding models, which make expenditures for large institutions in Phnom Penh.7
Cambodia has one of the smallest populations among ASEAN countries transparency and systematic auditing a formidable Government scholarships for students provide
and the lowest GDP per capita in the region of USD1,640. Cambodia has challenge. Aside from funding issues, Cambodia’s tuition waiver and a modest living allowance for
a modestly sized higher education system, with 49 public universities economy arguably cannot provide employment for a approximately 15% of students, and are financed
and colleges managed by numerous different government ministries, substantial number of university graduates, as 60% directly by the universities. The total budget of the
and 56 private or vocational institutions as of 2011.1 Higher education of its labour force is still engaged in the agriculture MOEYS was 12.3% of Cambodia’s national budget
institutions (HEIs) are composed of two main categories: universities, industry.4 Only 14.7% and 31.3% of Cambodian in 2017, of which an average 3-4% was allotted to
which are managed by the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport university graduates between the respective ages of higher education — a figure that is five to six times
(MOEYS), and TVET (Technical and Vocational Education and Training) 20-24 and 25-34 participate in the job market. 5 The lower than the world average.8 Scarce funding has
institutions, or “independent schools”, which are managed by others, most popular majors in Cambodian universities also translated into depressed salaries for academic
the largest being the Ministry of Labour and Vocational Training. are business, social sciences and law, with only staff at public HEIs, who earned an average monthly
one in five students majoring in STEM disciplines, salary of USD100 for a 12-hour work week. In 2018,
From the mid-1970s when Cambodia’s entire education system
due to their higher associated costs and the limited only 3.4% of university academic staff were PhD
was virtually destroyed under the Khmer Rouge, to 1997 when the
availability of trained faculty.6 holders, though the government aims to increase
government relaxed university laws allowing for the opening of
this figure to 5% by 2023.9 Poor support for academic
private universities, Cambodia’s higher education system underwent Overall, Cambodia’s higher education system
staff has also translated into weak research output,
immense change. Prior to 1997, not only were all universities public, faces many challenges, ranging from lack of a
with no Cambodian universities appearing in the
they also operated on tuition-free models. This abruptly ended comprehensive system of financial governance, to
Times Higher Education World rankings, and
following the 1997 reforms. Despite Cambodia’s relatively poor higher transparency and resource allocation. Although
nearly 65% of faculty members at Cambodian
education enrolment rate of roughly 12% in 2018, its overall enrolment average annual tuition fees of USD300-400 are
universities claiming to be involved in no research
has shown significant increases from only 10,000 in the early 1990s inexpensive by regional standards, they still
activities, according to a 2015 survey of 444 people
to over 200,000 in 2013.2 Cambodia’s low university enrolment is function as a high barrier to entry for many
at 10 universities.10
directly linked to shortages in funding and the dominant perspective Cambodian students. Public universities rely
throughout the country that higher education is a private good. In
2010, Cambodia spent an average of USD218 per student, compared
4
Yuto Kitamura, “Higher Education in Cambodia: Challenges to Promote 7
Mak Ngoy, Sok Say, Un Leang with Bunry Rinna, Chheng Sokunthy and
Greater Access and Higher Quality”, in The Palgrave Handbook of Asia Kao Sovansophal, “Finance in Public Higher Education in Cambodia”,
Pacific Higher Education, eds. Christopher S. Collins, Molly N.N. Lee, Working Paper Series No. 114, May 2019, Cambodia Development
John N. Hawkins and Deane E. Neubauer (New York: Palgrave Macmillan Resource Institute.
1
“Cambodian Higher Education: Vocational or Tertiary Education?” JustLanded.com, accessed US, 2016).
January 25, 2021, https://www.justlanded.com/english/Cambodia/Cambodia-Guide/Education/
8
Ibid.
Cambodian-higher-education.
5
Top Proleong, “Higher Education Divide and Industry 4.0: A Blessing or 9
Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport, “Education Strategic Plan
a Curse for Cambodia’s Rural Graduates?”, Khmer Times, July 3, 2019, 2019–2023”, June 2019,
2
Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport, “Policy on Higher Education 2030 — April 2018”, accessed https://www.khmertimeskh.com/50620273/higher-education-divide-
January 25, 2021, http://www.moeys.gov.kh/en/policies-and-strategies/policy-on-higher- https://www.moeys.gov.kh/index.php/en/policies-and-strategies/3206.
and-industry-4-0-a-blessing-or-a-curse-for-cambodias-rural-graduates/. html#.YA6TfXczaRs.
education-2030.html#.YA6PLXczaRs.
6
World Bank, “Cambodia — Higher Education Improvement Project”, 10
Kimkong Heng, “Post-Pandemic, Higher Education Reform is the
3
UNESCO Bangkok, “Education Systems in ASEAN+6 Countries: A Comparative Analysis of April 26, 2018, https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/loans-
Selected Education Issues”, Education Policy Research Series Discussion Document No. 5 (2014), Priority”, University World News, accessed October 24, 2020, https://
credits/2018/04/26/cambodia-higher-education-improvement-project. www.universityworldnews.com/post.php?story=20201020094948838
Education Policy and Reform Unit.
20 H E S B A P R 202 1 H E S B A P R 202 1 2 1There have been signs of reform to stimulate a system. This long-term initiative is Cambodia’s
research culture in Cambodian universities and equivalent to long-term plans in Malaysia and
conform to regional standards. One step was the
establishment of the Accreditation Committee of
Thailand (i.e., Malaysia Education Blueprint
and Thailand 4.0) and aims to shift the country’s
Potential Scenarios of
Cambodia in 2003, which aimed to introduce new
quality assurance measures. More significantly, in
HEIs towards international standards, increase
enrolment and research focus in STEM disciplines
Cambodian (Public)
2010, the MOEYS launched the Higher Education
Quality and Capacity Improvement Project in
and meet the needs of the digital economy. Along
with the ESP, the 2030 roadmap encourages further
Higher Education in 2040
conjunction with the World Bank to provide integration with ASEAN countries by increasing SAY SOK & RINNA BUNRY
USD23 million to fund higher education quality partnership programmes with foreign universities
improvement between 2011 and 2015. This funding and participating in the ASEAN International
was allotted to improving the quality of teaching, Mobility Students Programme. Though Cambodia
university management, project-based research has a negligible number of international students,
and enhancing the access and retention of partnerships with other ASEAN universities and
disadvantaged students, providing 1,050 “special- inter-university exchange would be an outlet to
priority” scholarships.11 internationalisation and further recognition.
Landscape-wide, not much has changed in the effort to transform public higher education
In 2018, the MOEYS released the Education Strategic (HE) in the past 20 years, and there is little synergistic effort to strategise its development
Plan (ESP), a four-year plan for 2019-2023 that COVID-19 Impact and Response to serve the national aspiration for economic development and social progress. Perhaps
encompasses reforms in Cambodia’s primary, Although Cambodia has emerged from the with the exception of quantity, quality and relevance of HE institutions is a big concern,
secondary and higher education systems. The ESP COVID-19 pandemic relatively unscathed, with and their contribution to the national development aspiration of a higher middle-income
set a range of new goals for Cambodian higher just over 300 cases, the pandemic has had an effect economy by 2030 and an advanced society by 2050 (i.e., the visions and aspirations) is next
education, including a stronger focus on national on its education system and the government’s to impossible. If the development is to take a natural course and if there is little endeavour
and international accreditation and implementing a higher education initiatives. In July of 2020, the to systematically strategise the required development, there is little chance that Cambodia
centralised higher education management system, MOEYS released a comprehensive response plan can produce adequate skilled, well-rounded talents and advanced innovation to achieve its
requiring 40 public universities to input data into to the COVID-19 pandemic, allotting a special national agendas.
a government-run system. This plan also aims to budget of USD31.4 million to adapt working and
provide new block grants to institutions that offer teaching environments to be suitable for pandemic Selected development in the past 20 years
specialised training that respond to the country’s conditions and equip schools with infrastructure to
need for economic and social development. This Viewed against its dark past, little resource, and limited state capacity, higher education
conduct remote learning. These upgrades, however,
is a considerable incentive considering that nearly has achieved fairly impressive growth, especially in quantitative terms. This is possible
will benefit Cambodian institutions in the long-term
84% of higher education spending in Cambodia due to improving individual purchasing power and a cost-sharing programme against the
beyond the scope of the COVID-19 pandemic. Since
is privately funded. Unlike other countries in the backdrop of a neoliberal economy and laissez-faire state. However, there are concerns,
early 2020, a total of 124 HEIs have been closed,
region, Cambodia lacked a national student loan especially in terms of quality and relevance, limited expansion of the university missions,
impacting 222,000 students. The closure of these
scheme until very recently. poor collective university leadership and management, and the inability of higher
HEIs across the country runs the significant risk of
education to catapult the nation to achieve its national aspirations.
curtailing the feasibility of the goals put in place in
Higher Education Vision 2030 the ESP, as tuition fees constitute a large proportion Gross enrolment has increased nearly tenfold, increasing from 28,080 in 2000 to 223,221
of university funding. in 2010, and 201,910 in 2020 – the gross enrolment rate stands at 10.75%. If enrolment is
As regional and global trends towards privatisation
left to natural growth based on an annual average growth rate of 8.75% in the past 20 years,
and university autonomy spread, in 2014, the MOEYS 11
Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport, “Higher Education Quality and
by 2040, we may have 510,758 students. Despite the promising figures, there are concerns.
released the Higher Education Vision 2030 to Capacity Improvement Project (HEQCIP)”, accessed January 25, 2021,
https://www.moeys.gov.kh/index.php/en/heip/higher-education- The enrolment is relatively low and concentrated in non-science and non-technology
introduce substantial reforms to the higher education quality-and-capacity-improvement-project-heqcip.html.
22 H E S B A P R 202 1 H E S B A P R 202 1 23You can also read
