The 1871 Anti-Chinese massacre in Los Angeles, and Anti-Asian American antipathies during the COVID-19 pandemic

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Health Emergency and Disaster Nursing, Advance Publication by J-STAGE

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

The 1871 Anti-Chinese massacre in Los Angeles, and Anti-
Asian American antipathies during the COVID-19 pandemic
Gracyn CUBBAGE and Barbra Mann WALL
University of Virginia School of Nursing, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA

     Abstract
     Aim: This paper examines the 1871 massacre against the Chinese people in Los Angeles, leading us to
     reconsider that massacre and relate it to the numerous hate crimes committed against Asian Americans today.
     Methods: The methods used were historical research and analysis of the social, cultural, and political contexts
     of the Asian Massacre in the 1870s, 1880s, and 1890s.
     Results: Overall, the 1871 Anti-Chinese Massacre was a devastating event that resulted in multiple deaths. It
     provides a useful lens for comparing current acts of racism against Asians since the COVID-19 pandemic
     began.
     Conclusions: The United States has a long history of racist ideologies that have pushed social and political
     agendas to maintain power. From the grand jury’s failure to punish the murderers involved in the 1871 Chinese
     Massacre to political leaders posting racist tweets on social media in 2020, it is important to remember that
     hatred will always seek a public platform from which to spread. Nurses and in key positions to keep this from
     happening.
     Key words: Anti-Asian violence, 1871 Anti-Chinese massacre, disaster, COVID-19

   For months, officials at the highest levels of the United                 women of Asian descent, is a recent example. Indeed, the
States government referred to the global Coronavirus                       United States is no stranger to racism or placing blame on
Disease 2019 (COVID-19), as the “China virus,” and                         others for disasters, as evidenced by the fact that the 1918
“Kung Flu.”1 This baseless claim evokes an earlier attack                  Influenza epidemic is still commonly called the “Spanish
in 1871 against the Chinese people in Los Angeles,                         Influenza.” As such, it is no surprise that the spread of the
leading us to reconsider that massacre and relate it to the                coronavirus also spread hatred towards Chinese Ameri-
numerous hate crimes committed against Asian Ameri-                        cans and Asian Americans in general. Hate crimes
cans today. A reexamination of the Anti-Chinese                            including verbal harassment, shunning, physical assault,
massacre of 1871 seems especially relevant at the time                     and civil rights violations all increased in 2020 to a
of this writing, the spring of 2021, because it is a critical              degree that an organization called Stop Asian American
point during the COVID-19 pandemic that has spread                         Pacific Islander (AAPI) Hate was created to track and
around the world. Once again, the Asian American and                       respond to these crimes.2 Significantly, on May 20, 2021,
Pacific Islander community is being blamed. The March                       United States President Joseph R. Biden signed the Anti-
2021 Atlanta murder of eight people, including six                         Asian Hate Law.3

                                                                           Remembering the Massacre
Correspondence: Barbra Mann Wall, University of Virginia School            On October 28, 1871, journalist P.S. Dorney wrote an
of Nursing, 225 Jeanette Lancaster Way, Charlottesville, Virginia,         article in the Los Angeles Daily News entitled, “Lynching
22903, USA. Email: bmw8y@virginia.edu                                      the Chinese.” It described the fierce anti-Chinese feelings
Received 11 June 2021; accepted 15 June 2021; J-STAGE advance
published 27 July 2021.                                                    in Los Angeles as he related the horrifying, racially
              This article is licensed under a Creative Commons            motivated massacre that had occurred on Tuesday,
              Attribution 4.0 International license.                       October 24, 1871, in Los Angeles, California. Dorney

Copyright © 2021 The Authors. Health Emergency and Disaster Nursing
published by NPO Disaster Nursing Group                                                      DOI   http://doi.org/10.24298/hedn.2021-0006
G. Cubbage and B. M. Wall                               Health Emergency and Disaster Nursing, Advance Publication by J-STAGE

also described the perpetrators: an “Irish shoemaker            and giving China a most-favored nation status.11 The
known as ‘Crazy Johnson, who stood guard;’ and men of           success of the treaty was short-lived, however, as anti-
Mexican descent led by Jesus Martinez, who, with others,        Chinese sentiment soon erupted.
cut a hole in the roof of the building where Chinese               According to reports written in the 1870s, 1880s, and
inhabitants were hiding and shot them.4                         1890s, the Anti-Chinese massacre was instigated by an
   In 1883, another newspaper reporter from the Los             argument between two Chinese companies that were
Angeles Daily Times, in “A Reminiscence,” described             trying to obtain possession of a highly valued young
anonymous mounds buried behind the area where the               woman who was thought to belong to one of them and
massacre occurred. The riot had been forgotten by then.         stolen by the other. On October 23, 1871, one company
Yet he quoted an older resident who recalled the mob            member was shot while walking down the Calle de los
attack that had occurred twelve years earlier: “The             Negros in the Coronel Adobe part of town, and although
difficulty arose from a quarrel between two Chinamen,”            he was not killed, the shooting led to both company
fired on or hanged by “motley Mexican, American and              leaders calling for a major conflict. On the evening of
European population[s]” who “for a long time had                October 24, at 5:30 p.m., a police officer by the name of
cherished the worst feelings towards the encroaching            Jesus Bilderrain heard gunfire coming from the Calle,
Mongolians” [italics original].5 In the aftermath, nineteen     went to investigate, and ended up calling in backup.12
people of Chinese descent living in Los Angeles were            The vigilantism that resulted, as people took the law into
either lynched or shot. According to Victor Jew, this           their own hands, was typical of the violence in the region,
killing should be called the “Anti-Chinese Massacre,”           based on values of personal self-redress and individu-
which is the term used in this article.6                        alism that had emerged in the Western frontier since
   Then in 1894, C. P. Dorland wrote again about the            before the Civil War. In particular, white fears of job
massacre, this time in the Historical Society of Southern       competition had spurred a virulent anti-Chinese move-
California. He began by stating, “The trouble originated        ment. The 1871 Los Angeles Anti-Chinese Massacre was
among the Chinese themselves.” He described the grisly          one of many over the years.13
scene that followed:                                               During the ensuing altercation on the Calle de los
   About 9 o’clock a party battered in the eastern end of       Negros, multiple police officers and others responded,
   the building, and with hooting and yelling and firing of      and a white civilian named Robert Thompson was
   pistols, the rioters rushed in and found huddled in          wounded. He was taken to the nearest place for first
   corners or hidden behind boxes, eight terror-stricken        aid, Dr. Theodore Wollweber’s drug store on Main Street,
   Chinamen, who, in vain, pleaded piteously for their          where he died an hour later. The death of Thompson
   lives. They were violently dragged out and turned over       spurred a mob to attack the Chinese in force, who at that
   to the infuriated mob.7                                      point had barricaded themselves in a large building. Two
   Dorland referred to it as “a recital of one of the most      Chinese men were captured and killed as they tried to
bloody and barbarous tragedies in the annals of this            escape the attackers, and seventeen more were killed or
state.”8 In 1870, Los Angeles had a total population of         hanged once the mob broke into the building where the
just under 6,000, one hundred and seventy-two of whom           Chinese had tried to hide. One casualty was a Chinese
were Chinese. This information is even more disturbing          doctor, Chee Long Tong, who was hanged. The angry
when compared to the fact that the mob who attacked the         crowd also looted several thousand dollars. Dorland
Chinese numbered somewhere around 500 people, more              describes Sheriff Burns joining the crowd and calling for
than twice the population of their target.9                     “all good and law-abiding citizens to follow him to
   Jew notes that accounts of remembering the massacre          Chinatown,” where they found the horrific effects of the
as one “caused by Chinese wrongdoing were themselves            lynchings and killings. Other sources relate how Judge
woven with anxieties about the Chinese,” which had              Robert Widney walked through the streets trying to
begun in the 1860s and escalated in the 1870s, 1880s,           restore order.14
and 1890s.10 The road to the Anti-Chinese massacre in              In the end, a grand jury judged the cases brought about
1871 began when the United States and China concluded           by the massacre and condemned the inefficiency of the
the Burlingame-Seward Treaty in 1868, which aimed to            police and the actions of all those involved in murdering
ease immigration restrictions. While the United States          innocent civilians. Paul M. De Falla notes that the names
wanted access to profitable trading in China’s ports,            of “the perpetrators who seemed to encourage the mob
leaders promised the Chinese the right to free travel in the    [were]not published by the newspapers+ .In fact, this list
United States, thereby encouraging Chinese immigration          seems to have completely disappeared, and is not known

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Health Emergency and Disaster Nursing, Advance Publication by J-STAGE                              1871 Anti-Chinese massacre

to exist today.”15 In 1872, in Judge Robert Widney’s                Jew also analyzes narratives that blamed the Chinese.
court, nine of the accused received convictions of               In the 1880s and 1890s, these remembrances “took shape
manslaughter and sentences of two to six years of jail           at the same time that the United States Congress was
time each. Yet the state supreme court reversed the order        building the statutory and administrative regime of
on a technicality, and Widney released them in 1873.             Chinese Exclusion, the legal structure of immigration
While the massacre was brutal, the retreat of law also           restriction that lasted from 1882 to 1943.” As well, by
occurred in the face of racial violence. As such, there has      1880, the Burlingame Treaty had been renegotiated to
been no real justice brought about for the victims of the        suspend Chinese immigration. It was also during this
1871 Anti-Chinese Massacre.16                                    time that urban violence and anti-Chinese labor unrest
                                                                 were increasing, and the perpetrators of the massacre
Context and Analysis                                             viewed the Chinese immigrants as encroaching on the
In contextualizing the massacre, we build on the analysis        territory they had already claimed. Thus, “tracing the
of Jew and De Falla, who re-examine accounts that were           ultimate fault of the 1871 massacre to the Chinese
written in the 1870s, 1880s, and 1890s when preoccu-             residents of Los Angeles worked the convenient retro-
pations with anti-Chinese rhetoric was increasing, and the       active effect of blaming the Chinese.”21
city of Los Angeles was rewriting the history of the
embarrassing massacre. Scripts in these later years              The COVID-19 Pandemic                  and    Anti-Asian
referred to the lynchers as the habitual ruffians of the           American Hate Crimes
city (the Irish, Mexicans, and other Europeans), members         Overall, the 1871 Anti-Chinese Massacre was a devas-
of the dangerous classes. Indeed, an 1880 source                 tating event that resulted in multiple deaths. It provides a
criticized the “American ‘hoodlum’ and Mexican ‘greas-           useful lens for comparing acts of racism to today. By
er,’ Irish ‘tramp’ and French ‘communist,’ all of whom           2020, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
“joined to murder and dispatch the foe.”17 Pitted against        was claiming that the coronavirus was discovered in
these instigators were the white courageous heroes who           Wuhan, China.22 As that information became public,
were seen as trying to stem the violence, including Sheriff       tensions rose between angry, mostly white, Americans
Burns and Judge Widney.18                                        and Asian Americans, whether they were Chinese or
   Yet the vigilante teams that erupted that night were,         another East Asian or Pacific Islander ethnicity. This
in fact, multiethnic groups that included not only those         conflict was not the only one to occur during the COVID-
from the margins but also the respected members of the           19 pandemic. People were fighting back against quar-
city. De Falla notes that the perpetrators were “of all          antining measures and mandates about wearing masks in
nationalities,” and in 1871, five hundred of them came            public, saying that such overarching mandates passed by
together to commit the massacre. The vigilantes included         government officials violated their civil rights. On the
those both within and not-quite-within respectable               other hand, many other Americans were protesting
society, prompting Jew to argue: “white Angelenos”               violence by police against Black people and calling for
were not “static identities;” rather, identity effects “that      equal civil rights as part of the Black Lives Matter
could be latched onto by those occupying various shades          movement, especially after the murder of a Black man
of ethnic relation to ‘white.’”19 Those deputized in 1871        named George Floyd. Amidst calls to action by people
were Anglos and Hispanics, and the subsequent indict-            across the cultural and political spectrum, one group that
ments revealed Anglo and Hispanic names. Significantly,           came to be blamed was that of Asian Americans.
after the killing of Thompson, the main motive became               Hatred and violence towards people from East Asian
the idea that “white men” needed to be defended against          and Pacific Islander countries increased significantly in
the impertinent Chinese, especially after Chinese civil-         early 2020. As a response, the Asian Pacific Planning and
ians began firing their guns in self-defense. Yet, as Jew         Policy Council, the Chinese for Affirmative Action, and
asserts, when the massacre was memorialized in the               the Asian American Studies Department of San Francisco
following years, those safeguarding their “whiteness”            State University created “Stop AAPI Hate” on March 19,
blamed “the ambiguously white or strangely recruited             2020. The organization’s website states that the AAPI
Hispanic Angelenos,” a narrative that worked to restore a        center “tracks and responds to incidents of hate, violence,
“new urban order” in Los Angeles. The embarrassing               harassment, discrimination, shunning, and child bullying
memory of what happened in 1871 had to be suppressed,            against Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders in the
with blame placed on the Chinese and the city’s habitual         United States.” They also acknowledge in their mission
criminals.20                                                     statement that to end hatred towards Asian Americans

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G. Cubbage and B. M. Wall                              Health Emergency and Disaster Nursing, Advance Publication by J-STAGE

requires destroying systemic racism towards all com-           Francisco (UCSF), entitled “Trump’s ‘Chinese Virus’
munities of color in the United States.23 “Stop AAPI           Tweet Linked to Rise of Anti-Asian Hashtags on Twitter”
Hate” has produced a national record of all the incidents      discussed how attaching a specific group of people or a
that have been reported to them since March 19, 2020.          location to a disease is dangerous. A UCSF study found
As of March 31, 2021, the number of incident reports           the use of racist hashtags in relation to COVID-19 had
filed regarding discrimination numbered 6,603. Overall,         increased substantially after March 16, 2020, when then-
“verbal harassment (65.2%) and shunning (18.1%)”               President Trump tweeted, “The United States will be
accounted for the majority of the incidents reported with      powerfully supporting those industries, like Airlines and
“physical assault (12.6%)” being the third-largest cat-        others, that are particularly affected by the Chinese
egory. Some trends indicate that most incidents have           Virus.”28 On January 8, 2021, Twitter officials perma-
occurred in public areas and businesses, with more than        nently blocked Trump’s account because it violated
half filed by females.24                                        Twitter’s Glorification of Violence Policy.29 This impor-
   Horrific hate crimes committed against Asian Ameri-          tant action removes the accounts and social media posts
cans increased when vaccinations started to become             that promote hatred and violence towards people of any
available and social distancing restrictions began to lift.    minority group.
One of the first major hate crimes to be widely publicized        Bigotry and violence towards Asian Americans have
occurred in March 2021, when a white man murdered              been perpetrated on a large scale throughout the COVID-
eight people, six of whom were women of Asian descent.         19 pandemic. The actions by organizations such as “Stop
He attacked three different massage parlors in Atlanta,         AAPI Hate” and Twitter, Inc. have given hope to those
Georgia. In a New York Times article entitled, “8 Dead in      who have been affected by anti-Asian discrimination.
Atlanta Spa Shootings, With Fears of Anti-Asian Bias,”         However, there are still many incidents of violence
the author discussed that the perpetrator may have had         towards Asian Americans that show that the fights to
racial and gender-based motivation for his killings The        protect people’s lives and their rights are still desperately
gunman claimed his motivations were primarily to rid           needed.
himself of “temptation” by attacking women that he
associated with his own “sexual addiction,” and he said        Legacy of the 1871 Anti-Chinese Massacre and
the race of the women was not relevant to why he killed        2021 Hate Crimes Against Asian Americans
them.25 Nevertheless, the attack shook the Asian               With a difference of 150 years between the 1871 Anti-
American community, and many felt that it was a direct         Chinese Massacre and the rash of hate crimes against
attack on people of Asian descent because of bias created      Asian Americans in 2021, we see a disturbing number of
by the virus.                                                  similarities that show the United States has been slow to
   Aside from the news coverage of tragic events such as       change its ways of ignoring the pains of people of color.
the Atlanta shooting, social media sites such as Twitter       The 1871 massacre was a tragedy in which many
have played an important role in promoting both support        innocent people were murdered; yet how it was
and hatred towards Asian American populations. The             remembered and who is to blame remain problematic.
@StopAAPIHate Twitter account has posted informa-              Media coverage of hate crimes in 2021 differs somewhat
tional content about discrimination towards Asian              in that it is much easier for citizens to spread information
Americans, and it has provided resources to help people        and misinformation at their own will through social
constructively lift Asian American voices through virtual      media sites such as Twitter and Facebook. This increased
conferences and vigils.26 Additionally, the hashtag            access to information has a positive effect in that it allows
#StopAsianHate has been used to promote awareness              people to explore more facets of a single situation with all
of crimes perpetrated against people of Asian descent in       the different biases that come with each view. However, it
the United States and to uplift those who have helped to       also has a negative effect by encouraging some people to
prevent racist hate crimes against Asians.27 On the other      deceive and manipulate others who do not wish to
hand, Twitter users repeatedly used the platform to abuse      analyze situations from multiple angles.
Asian people and to spread misinformation and hatred.             In times of disaster, an emergent effect is often
Even Former President Donald Trump, known for using            observed as people close to or affected by the disaster
Twitter as a place to spread his own opinions, enforced        come together to help alleviate the suffering of others.30
anti-Asian sentiments by using the phrase “Chinese             After the Anti-Chinese massacre of 1871, however,
Virus” in his tweets and other public announcements. An        emergent actions led to a riotous murder spree. The
article published by the University of California at San       shame of the killings resulted in a rewriting of its memory

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Health Emergency and Disaster Nursing, Advance Publication by J-STAGE                                   1871 Anti-Chinese massacre

and who was to blame. Still, with many public traces             racist tweets on social media in 2020, it is important to
of the massacre gone, De Falla points out that the               remember that hatred will always seek a public platform
Los Angeles Daily News printed out the names of the              from which to spread. It does not matter whether the
known murdered Chinese men. Indeed, they were not                triggering event for taking a deeper look at systemic bias
nameless, and they need to be remembered:                        is a single violent altercation that lasted only hours or
   1. Doctor Chee Long Tong, known as “Gene” Tong                thousands of abuses of varying severity over the course
        by non-Chinese Angelenos, shot and hanged.               of a year; any time is an appropriate time to be aware of
   2. Wa Sin Quai, resident of Negro [sic] Alley, shot.          one’s place in history. By looking at the past, we see a
   3. Chang Wan, a resident at Doctor Tong’s house,              violent event of one of the first incidents of Anti-Chinese
        hanged.                                                  bigotry that the public worked hard to either re-write or
   4. Long Quai, hanged.                                         forget. As it is mirrored in modern time and space,
   5. Joung Burrow, shot.                                        societies can begin to appreciate the lessons that history
   6. (No name given. Probably Won Yu Tuk, Ed.)                  must tell. All the hatred and cruel actions towards Asian
        “Hanged. Was a cigar manufacturer.”                      Americans, or any other marginalized group, must be put
   7. Wong Chin, hanged.                                         together in a tangible format that can be researched,
   8. Tong Wan, shot, stabbed, and hanged.                       understood, and stopped. That is why it is necessary to
   9. Ah Loo, hanged. “Had just arrived from China.”             acknowledge history and to learn from it; otherwise,
   10. Wan Foo, hanged.                                          humanity will be doomed to repeat its mistakes. If
   11. Day Kee, hanged.                                          societies, including nurses, cannot protect all their
   12. Ho Hing, hanged.                                          people, there will come a disaster greater than a massacre
   13. Ah Was, hanged.                                           or a pandemic that will rip humanity apart, and only then
   14. Ah Cut, shot.                                             will humans be forced to put aside their differences to
   15. Lo Hey, hanged.                                           survive or perish without a single sympathy among them.
   16. Ah Wan, hanged.
   17. Wing Chee, hanged.
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   18. Unidentified. “Who lay in the cemetery, where he
        had been taken as soon as hanged. Being the first         1
                                                                      American Historical Association, “Statement of Violence
        victim. (Probably Wong Tuck, Ed.)”                            Against Asians and Asian Americans,” Perspectives on History
                                                                      59, no. 5 (May 2021): 7–8.
   19. Gun Yu, shot.31                                           2
                                                                      “About,” Stop AAPI Hate, http://stopaapihate.org/. Accessed
   With today’s social media, there is a potential for both           May 26, 2021.
beneficial and harmful emergent effects as public                  3
                                                                      https://www.nytimes.com/2021/05/20/us/politics/biden-asian-
memory is created and recreated. Considering the anti-                hate-crimes-bill.html. Accessed May 26, 2021.
Asian hate crimes from 2020–2021, a negative memory
                                                                 4
                                                                      Copy of P.S Dorney, “Lynching the Chinese,” Los Angeles Daily
                                                                      News, October 28, 1871. Retrieved from Lost LA Curriculum
is being produced by those who have mocked and                        Project, “What were the Causes of the Anti-Chinese Massacre of
threatened Asian Americans, especially after pointed                  1871?” http://kl-cdn.s3.amazonaws.com/pdf/wild-west-chinese-
attacks such as the spa parlor shootings. Even so, it is              massacre-sandoval.pdf. Accessed May 26, 2021.
important to note that social media has also played a            5
                                                                      “A Reminiscence: Recollections of the Chinese Massacre of
significant role in bringing together affected commun-                  1871,” Los Angeles Daily Times, Oct. 27, 1883, p. 4.
                                                                 6
                                                                      Victor Jew, “The Anti-Chinese Massacre of 1871 and Its Strange
ities, particularly during a time of social isolation due to          Career,” in William Deverell and Greg Hise, ed., A Companion
the COVID-19 pandemic. As such, even though hatred                    to Los Angeles, pp. 110–128 (Chichester, UK: Wiley Blackwell).
and bias still exist towards people of color, the improve-            Sources vary on the number of Chinese deaths, from fifteen to
ment in communication and information sharing between                 twenty-one.
1871 and 2021 has made an impact on how crimes and
                                                                 7
                                                                      C. P. Dorland, “Chinese Massacre at Los Angeles in 1871,”
                                                                      Annual Publication of the Historical Society of Southern
bigotry are remembered and dealt with.                                California 3, no. 2 (1894): 22–26. Quotation is on p. 23.
                                                                 8
                                                                      Ibid, 22.
Conclusion                                                       9
                                                                      Jew, “The Anti-Chinese Massacre.”
                                                                 10
The United States has a long history of racist ideologies             Ibid, 115.
that have pushed social and political agendas to maintain
                                                                 11
                                                                      John Schrecker, “For the Equality of Men – For the Equality of
                                                                      Nations”: Anson Burlingame and China’s First Embassy to the
power. From the grand jury’s failure to punish the                    United States, 1868,” Journal of American-East Asian Relations
murderers involved in the 1871 Chinese Massacre to the                17, no. 1 (2010): 9–34.
former President of the United States himself posting

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G. Cubbage and B. M. Wall                                      Health Emergency and Disaster Nursing, Advance Publication by J-STAGE

12
     “A Reminiscence;” Jew, “The Anti-Chinese Massacre;”                    coronavirus/2019-ncov/your-health/about-covid-19/basics-covid-
     Dorland, “Chinese Massacre;” Peter Paccone, Ellie Kanda, and           19.html?CDC_AA_refVal=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%
     Mansi Gokani, “The 1871 Chinese Massacre – the Worst                   2Fcoronavirus%2F2019-ncov%2Fcdcresponse%2Fabout-COVID-
     Lynching in U.S. History,” Medium, June 26, 2019, https://             19.html. Accessed May 26, 2021.
     ppacone.medium.com/the-1871-chinese-massacree40d601a6376;         23
                                                                            “About.” Stop AAPI Hate, http://stopaapihate.org/. Accessed
     and Miguel Sandoval, “What were the Causes of the Anti-                May 26, 2021.
     Chinese Massacre of 1871?” http://kl-cdn.s3.amazonaws.com/        24
                                                                            “National Report,” “Stop Hate, ”https://stopaapihate.org/national-
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     26, 2021.                                                         25
                                                                            Richard Fausset, et al., “8 Dead in Atlanta Spa Shootings, With
13
     Jew, “The Anti-Chinese Massacre;” Richard Maxwell Brown,               Fears of Anti-Asian Bias,” https://www.nytimes.com/live/2021/
     “Violence,” in Clyde A. Milner II, Carol A. O’Connor, Martha A         03/17/us/shooting-atlanta-acworth. Accessed May 26, 2021.
     Sandweiss, ed., The Oxford History of the American West,          26
                                                                            “Stop AAPI Hate (@StopAAPIHate),” Twitter, https://twitter.
     pp. 394–427 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994).                 com/StopAAPIHate. Accessed May 26, 2021.
14
     “A Reminiscence;” Jew, “The Anti-Chinese Massacre;”               27
                                                                            “#StopAsianHate,” Twitter, https://twitter.com/search?q=%
     Dorland, “Chinese Massacre;” Paccone, Kanda, and Gokani,               23StopAsianHate. Accessed May 26, 2021.
     “The 1871 Chinese Massacre;” and Sandoval, “What were the         28
                                                                            Laura Kurtzman, “Trump’s ‘Chinese Virus’ Tweet Linked to
     Causes of the Anti-Chinese Massacre of 1871?”                          Rise of Anti-Asian Hashtags on Twitter, UC San Francisco,
15
     Paul M. De Falla, “Lantern in the Western Sky,” Part II,               March 18, 2021, https://www.ucsf.edu/news/2021/03/420081/
     Quarterly of the Historical Society of Southern California 42,         trumps-chinese-virus-tweet-linked-rise-anti-asian-hashtags-
     no. 2 (1960):161–185. Quotation is on p. 173.                          twitter. Accessed May 26, 2021.
16
     Ibid; and Jew, “The Anti-Chinese Massacre.”                       29
                                                                            Twitter Inc., “Permanent Suspension of @realDonaldTrump,”
17
     Paul M. De Falla, “Lantern in the Western Sky,” Part I,                Twitter Blog, January 8, 2021. https://blog.twitter.com/en_us/
     Quarterly of the Historical Society of Southern California 42,         topics/company/2020/suspension.html. Accessed May 26, 2021.
     no. 1 (1960): 57–88. Quotation is on p. 58.                       30
                                                                            Thomas E. Drabek & David A. McEntire, “Emergent
18
     Jew, “The Anti-Chinese Massacre.”                                      Phenomena and Multiorganizational Coordination in Disasters:
19
     Ibid, 119.                                                             Lessons from the Research Literature,” International Journal of
20
     Jew, “The Anti-Chinese Massacre;” “A Reminiscence.”                    Mass Emergencies and Disasters 20, no. 2 (August 2002): 197–
21
     Jew, “The Anti-Chinese Massacre,” 115.                                 224.
22
     Centers for Disease Control and Preventions, “Coronavirus         31
                                                                            De Falla, “Lantern in the Western Sky,” Part II, 161–162.
     Disease 2019 (COVID-19), Nov. 2020, https://www.cdc.gov/

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