The 1871 Anti-Chinese massacre in Los Angeles, and Anti-Asian American antipathies during the COVID-19 pandemic
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Health Emergency and Disaster Nursing, Advance Publication by J-STAGE ORIGINAL ARTICLE The 1871 Anti-Chinese massacre in Los Angeles, and Anti- Asian American antipathies during the COVID-19 pandemic Gracyn CUBBAGE and Barbra Mann WALL University of Virginia School of Nursing, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA Abstract Aim: This paper examines the 1871 massacre against the Chinese people in Los Angeles, leading us to reconsider that massacre and relate it to the numerous hate crimes committed against Asian Americans today. Methods: The methods used were historical research and analysis of the social, cultural, and political contexts of the Asian Massacre in the 1870s, 1880s, and 1890s. Results: Overall, the 1871 Anti-Chinese Massacre was a devastating event that resulted in multiple deaths. It provides a useful lens for comparing current acts of racism against Asians since the COVID-19 pandemic began. Conclusions: The United States has a long history of racist ideologies that have pushed social and political agendas to maintain power. From the grand jury’s failure to punish the murderers involved in the 1871 Chinese Massacre to political leaders posting racist tweets on social media in 2020, it is important to remember that hatred will always seek a public platform from which to spread. Nurses and in key positions to keep this from happening. Key words: Anti-Asian violence, 1871 Anti-Chinese massacre, disaster, COVID-19 For months, officials at the highest levels of the United women of Asian descent, is a recent example. Indeed, the States government referred to the global Coronavirus United States is no stranger to racism or placing blame on Disease 2019 (COVID-19), as the “China virus,” and others for disasters, as evidenced by the fact that the 1918 “Kung Flu.”1 This baseless claim evokes an earlier attack Influenza epidemic is still commonly called the “Spanish in 1871 against the Chinese people in Los Angeles, Influenza.” As such, it is no surprise that the spread of the leading us to reconsider that massacre and relate it to the coronavirus also spread hatred towards Chinese Ameri- numerous hate crimes committed against Asian Ameri- cans and Asian Americans in general. Hate crimes cans today. A reexamination of the Anti-Chinese including verbal harassment, shunning, physical assault, massacre of 1871 seems especially relevant at the time and civil rights violations all increased in 2020 to a of this writing, the spring of 2021, because it is a critical degree that an organization called Stop Asian American point during the COVID-19 pandemic that has spread Pacific Islander (AAPI) Hate was created to track and around the world. Once again, the Asian American and respond to these crimes.2 Significantly, on May 20, 2021, Pacific Islander community is being blamed. The March United States President Joseph R. Biden signed the Anti- 2021 Atlanta murder of eight people, including six Asian Hate Law.3 Remembering the Massacre Correspondence: Barbra Mann Wall, University of Virginia School On October 28, 1871, journalist P.S. Dorney wrote an of Nursing, 225 Jeanette Lancaster Way, Charlottesville, Virginia, article in the Los Angeles Daily News entitled, “Lynching 22903, USA. Email: bmw8y@virginia.edu the Chinese.” It described the fierce anti-Chinese feelings Received 11 June 2021; accepted 15 June 2021; J-STAGE advance published 27 July 2021. in Los Angeles as he related the horrifying, racially This article is licensed under a Creative Commons motivated massacre that had occurred on Tuesday, Attribution 4.0 International license. October 24, 1871, in Los Angeles, California. Dorney Copyright © 2021 The Authors. Health Emergency and Disaster Nursing published by NPO Disaster Nursing Group DOI http://doi.org/10.24298/hedn.2021-0006
G. Cubbage and B. M. Wall Health Emergency and Disaster Nursing, Advance Publication by J-STAGE also described the perpetrators: an “Irish shoemaker and giving China a most-favored nation status.11 The known as ‘Crazy Johnson, who stood guard;’ and men of success of the treaty was short-lived, however, as anti- Mexican descent led by Jesus Martinez, who, with others, Chinese sentiment soon erupted. cut a hole in the roof of the building where Chinese According to reports written in the 1870s, 1880s, and inhabitants were hiding and shot them.4 1890s, the Anti-Chinese massacre was instigated by an In 1883, another newspaper reporter from the Los argument between two Chinese companies that were Angeles Daily Times, in “A Reminiscence,” described trying to obtain possession of a highly valued young anonymous mounds buried behind the area where the woman who was thought to belong to one of them and massacre occurred. The riot had been forgotten by then. stolen by the other. On October 23, 1871, one company Yet he quoted an older resident who recalled the mob member was shot while walking down the Calle de los attack that had occurred twelve years earlier: “The Negros in the Coronel Adobe part of town, and although difficulty arose from a quarrel between two Chinamen,” he was not killed, the shooting led to both company fired on or hanged by “motley Mexican, American and leaders calling for a major conflict. On the evening of European population[s]” who “for a long time had October 24, at 5:30 p.m., a police officer by the name of cherished the worst feelings towards the encroaching Jesus Bilderrain heard gunfire coming from the Calle, Mongolians” [italics original].5 In the aftermath, nineteen went to investigate, and ended up calling in backup.12 people of Chinese descent living in Los Angeles were The vigilantism that resulted, as people took the law into either lynched or shot. According to Victor Jew, this their own hands, was typical of the violence in the region, killing should be called the “Anti-Chinese Massacre,” based on values of personal self-redress and individu- which is the term used in this article.6 alism that had emerged in the Western frontier since Then in 1894, C. P. Dorland wrote again about the before the Civil War. In particular, white fears of job massacre, this time in the Historical Society of Southern competition had spurred a virulent anti-Chinese move- California. He began by stating, “The trouble originated ment. The 1871 Los Angeles Anti-Chinese Massacre was among the Chinese themselves.” He described the grisly one of many over the years.13 scene that followed: During the ensuing altercation on the Calle de los About 9 o’clock a party battered in the eastern end of Negros, multiple police officers and others responded, the building, and with hooting and yelling and firing of and a white civilian named Robert Thompson was pistols, the rioters rushed in and found huddled in wounded. He was taken to the nearest place for first corners or hidden behind boxes, eight terror-stricken aid, Dr. Theodore Wollweber’s drug store on Main Street, Chinamen, who, in vain, pleaded piteously for their where he died an hour later. The death of Thompson lives. They were violently dragged out and turned over spurred a mob to attack the Chinese in force, who at that to the infuriated mob.7 point had barricaded themselves in a large building. Two Dorland referred to it as “a recital of one of the most Chinese men were captured and killed as they tried to bloody and barbarous tragedies in the annals of this escape the attackers, and seventeen more were killed or state.”8 In 1870, Los Angeles had a total population of hanged once the mob broke into the building where the just under 6,000, one hundred and seventy-two of whom Chinese had tried to hide. One casualty was a Chinese were Chinese. This information is even more disturbing doctor, Chee Long Tong, who was hanged. The angry when compared to the fact that the mob who attacked the crowd also looted several thousand dollars. Dorland Chinese numbered somewhere around 500 people, more describes Sheriff Burns joining the crowd and calling for than twice the population of their target.9 “all good and law-abiding citizens to follow him to Jew notes that accounts of remembering the massacre Chinatown,” where they found the horrific effects of the as one “caused by Chinese wrongdoing were themselves lynchings and killings. Other sources relate how Judge woven with anxieties about the Chinese,” which had Robert Widney walked through the streets trying to begun in the 1860s and escalated in the 1870s, 1880s, restore order.14 and 1890s.10 The road to the Anti-Chinese massacre in In the end, a grand jury judged the cases brought about 1871 began when the United States and China concluded by the massacre and condemned the inefficiency of the the Burlingame-Seward Treaty in 1868, which aimed to police and the actions of all those involved in murdering ease immigration restrictions. While the United States innocent civilians. Paul M. De Falla notes that the names wanted access to profitable trading in China’s ports, of “the perpetrators who seemed to encourage the mob leaders promised the Chinese the right to free travel in the [were]not published by the newspapers+ .In fact, this list United States, thereby encouraging Chinese immigration seems to have completely disappeared, and is not known 2
Health Emergency and Disaster Nursing, Advance Publication by J-STAGE 1871 Anti-Chinese massacre to exist today.”15 In 1872, in Judge Robert Widney’s Jew also analyzes narratives that blamed the Chinese. court, nine of the accused received convictions of In the 1880s and 1890s, these remembrances “took shape manslaughter and sentences of two to six years of jail at the same time that the United States Congress was time each. Yet the state supreme court reversed the order building the statutory and administrative regime of on a technicality, and Widney released them in 1873. Chinese Exclusion, the legal structure of immigration While the massacre was brutal, the retreat of law also restriction that lasted from 1882 to 1943.” As well, by occurred in the face of racial violence. As such, there has 1880, the Burlingame Treaty had been renegotiated to been no real justice brought about for the victims of the suspend Chinese immigration. It was also during this 1871 Anti-Chinese Massacre.16 time that urban violence and anti-Chinese labor unrest were increasing, and the perpetrators of the massacre Context and Analysis viewed the Chinese immigrants as encroaching on the In contextualizing the massacre, we build on the analysis territory they had already claimed. Thus, “tracing the of Jew and De Falla, who re-examine accounts that were ultimate fault of the 1871 massacre to the Chinese written in the 1870s, 1880s, and 1890s when preoccu- residents of Los Angeles worked the convenient retro- pations with anti-Chinese rhetoric was increasing, and the active effect of blaming the Chinese.”21 city of Los Angeles was rewriting the history of the embarrassing massacre. Scripts in these later years The COVID-19 Pandemic and Anti-Asian referred to the lynchers as the habitual ruffians of the American Hate Crimes city (the Irish, Mexicans, and other Europeans), members Overall, the 1871 Anti-Chinese Massacre was a devas- of the dangerous classes. Indeed, an 1880 source tating event that resulted in multiple deaths. It provides a criticized the “American ‘hoodlum’ and Mexican ‘greas- useful lens for comparing acts of racism to today. By er,’ Irish ‘tramp’ and French ‘communist,’ all of whom 2020, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention “joined to murder and dispatch the foe.”17 Pitted against was claiming that the coronavirus was discovered in these instigators were the white courageous heroes who Wuhan, China.22 As that information became public, were seen as trying to stem the violence, including Sheriff tensions rose between angry, mostly white, Americans Burns and Judge Widney.18 and Asian Americans, whether they were Chinese or Yet the vigilante teams that erupted that night were, another East Asian or Pacific Islander ethnicity. This in fact, multiethnic groups that included not only those conflict was not the only one to occur during the COVID- from the margins but also the respected members of the 19 pandemic. People were fighting back against quar- city. De Falla notes that the perpetrators were “of all antining measures and mandates about wearing masks in nationalities,” and in 1871, five hundred of them came public, saying that such overarching mandates passed by together to commit the massacre. The vigilantes included government officials violated their civil rights. On the those both within and not-quite-within respectable other hand, many other Americans were protesting society, prompting Jew to argue: “white Angelenos” violence by police against Black people and calling for were not “static identities;” rather, identity effects “that equal civil rights as part of the Black Lives Matter could be latched onto by those occupying various shades movement, especially after the murder of a Black man of ethnic relation to ‘white.’”19 Those deputized in 1871 named George Floyd. Amidst calls to action by people were Anglos and Hispanics, and the subsequent indict- across the cultural and political spectrum, one group that ments revealed Anglo and Hispanic names. Significantly, came to be blamed was that of Asian Americans. after the killing of Thompson, the main motive became Hatred and violence towards people from East Asian the idea that “white men” needed to be defended against and Pacific Islander countries increased significantly in the impertinent Chinese, especially after Chinese civil- early 2020. As a response, the Asian Pacific Planning and ians began firing their guns in self-defense. Yet, as Jew Policy Council, the Chinese for Affirmative Action, and asserts, when the massacre was memorialized in the the Asian American Studies Department of San Francisco following years, those safeguarding their “whiteness” State University created “Stop AAPI Hate” on March 19, blamed “the ambiguously white or strangely recruited 2020. The organization’s website states that the AAPI Hispanic Angelenos,” a narrative that worked to restore a center “tracks and responds to incidents of hate, violence, “new urban order” in Los Angeles. The embarrassing harassment, discrimination, shunning, and child bullying memory of what happened in 1871 had to be suppressed, against Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders in the with blame placed on the Chinese and the city’s habitual United States.” They also acknowledge in their mission criminals.20 statement that to end hatred towards Asian Americans 3
G. Cubbage and B. M. Wall Health Emergency and Disaster Nursing, Advance Publication by J-STAGE requires destroying systemic racism towards all com- Francisco (UCSF), entitled “Trump’s ‘Chinese Virus’ munities of color in the United States.23 “Stop AAPI Tweet Linked to Rise of Anti-Asian Hashtags on Twitter” Hate” has produced a national record of all the incidents discussed how attaching a specific group of people or a that have been reported to them since March 19, 2020. location to a disease is dangerous. A UCSF study found As of March 31, 2021, the number of incident reports the use of racist hashtags in relation to COVID-19 had filed regarding discrimination numbered 6,603. Overall, increased substantially after March 16, 2020, when then- “verbal harassment (65.2%) and shunning (18.1%)” President Trump tweeted, “The United States will be accounted for the majority of the incidents reported with powerfully supporting those industries, like Airlines and “physical assault (12.6%)” being the third-largest cat- others, that are particularly affected by the Chinese egory. Some trends indicate that most incidents have Virus.”28 On January 8, 2021, Twitter officials perma- occurred in public areas and businesses, with more than nently blocked Trump’s account because it violated half filed by females.24 Twitter’s Glorification of Violence Policy.29 This impor- Horrific hate crimes committed against Asian Ameri- tant action removes the accounts and social media posts cans increased when vaccinations started to become that promote hatred and violence towards people of any available and social distancing restrictions began to lift. minority group. One of the first major hate crimes to be widely publicized Bigotry and violence towards Asian Americans have occurred in March 2021, when a white man murdered been perpetrated on a large scale throughout the COVID- eight people, six of whom were women of Asian descent. 19 pandemic. The actions by organizations such as “Stop He attacked three different massage parlors in Atlanta, AAPI Hate” and Twitter, Inc. have given hope to those Georgia. In a New York Times article entitled, “8 Dead in who have been affected by anti-Asian discrimination. Atlanta Spa Shootings, With Fears of Anti-Asian Bias,” However, there are still many incidents of violence the author discussed that the perpetrator may have had towards Asian Americans that show that the fights to racial and gender-based motivation for his killings The protect people’s lives and their rights are still desperately gunman claimed his motivations were primarily to rid needed. himself of “temptation” by attacking women that he associated with his own “sexual addiction,” and he said Legacy of the 1871 Anti-Chinese Massacre and the race of the women was not relevant to why he killed 2021 Hate Crimes Against Asian Americans them.25 Nevertheless, the attack shook the Asian With a difference of 150 years between the 1871 Anti- American community, and many felt that it was a direct Chinese Massacre and the rash of hate crimes against attack on people of Asian descent because of bias created Asian Americans in 2021, we see a disturbing number of by the virus. similarities that show the United States has been slow to Aside from the news coverage of tragic events such as change its ways of ignoring the pains of people of color. the Atlanta shooting, social media sites such as Twitter The 1871 massacre was a tragedy in which many have played an important role in promoting both support innocent people were murdered; yet how it was and hatred towards Asian American populations. The remembered and who is to blame remain problematic. @StopAAPIHate Twitter account has posted informa- Media coverage of hate crimes in 2021 differs somewhat tional content about discrimination towards Asian in that it is much easier for citizens to spread information Americans, and it has provided resources to help people and misinformation at their own will through social constructively lift Asian American voices through virtual media sites such as Twitter and Facebook. This increased conferences and vigils.26 Additionally, the hashtag access to information has a positive effect in that it allows #StopAsianHate has been used to promote awareness people to explore more facets of a single situation with all of crimes perpetrated against people of Asian descent in the different biases that come with each view. However, it the United States and to uplift those who have helped to also has a negative effect by encouraging some people to prevent racist hate crimes against Asians.27 On the other deceive and manipulate others who do not wish to hand, Twitter users repeatedly used the platform to abuse analyze situations from multiple angles. Asian people and to spread misinformation and hatred. In times of disaster, an emergent effect is often Even Former President Donald Trump, known for using observed as people close to or affected by the disaster Twitter as a place to spread his own opinions, enforced come together to help alleviate the suffering of others.30 anti-Asian sentiments by using the phrase “Chinese After the Anti-Chinese massacre of 1871, however, Virus” in his tweets and other public announcements. An emergent actions led to a riotous murder spree. The article published by the University of California at San shame of the killings resulted in a rewriting of its memory 4
Health Emergency and Disaster Nursing, Advance Publication by J-STAGE 1871 Anti-Chinese massacre and who was to blame. Still, with many public traces racist tweets on social media in 2020, it is important to of the massacre gone, De Falla points out that the remember that hatred will always seek a public platform Los Angeles Daily News printed out the names of the from which to spread. It does not matter whether the known murdered Chinese men. Indeed, they were not triggering event for taking a deeper look at systemic bias nameless, and they need to be remembered: is a single violent altercation that lasted only hours or 1. Doctor Chee Long Tong, known as “Gene” Tong thousands of abuses of varying severity over the course by non-Chinese Angelenos, shot and hanged. of a year; any time is an appropriate time to be aware of 2. Wa Sin Quai, resident of Negro [sic] Alley, shot. one’s place in history. By looking at the past, we see a 3. Chang Wan, a resident at Doctor Tong’s house, violent event of one of the first incidents of Anti-Chinese hanged. bigotry that the public worked hard to either re-write or 4. Long Quai, hanged. forget. As it is mirrored in modern time and space, 5. Joung Burrow, shot. societies can begin to appreciate the lessons that history 6. (No name given. Probably Won Yu Tuk, Ed.) must tell. All the hatred and cruel actions towards Asian “Hanged. Was a cigar manufacturer.” Americans, or any other marginalized group, must be put 7. Wong Chin, hanged. together in a tangible format that can be researched, 8. Tong Wan, shot, stabbed, and hanged. understood, and stopped. That is why it is necessary to 9. Ah Loo, hanged. “Had just arrived from China.” acknowledge history and to learn from it; otherwise, 10. Wan Foo, hanged. humanity will be doomed to repeat its mistakes. If 11. Day Kee, hanged. societies, including nurses, cannot protect all their 12. Ho Hing, hanged. people, there will come a disaster greater than a massacre 13. Ah Was, hanged. or a pandemic that will rip humanity apart, and only then 14. Ah Cut, shot. will humans be forced to put aside their differences to 15. Lo Hey, hanged. survive or perish without a single sympathy among them. 16. Ah Wan, hanged. 17. Wing Chee, hanged. REFERENCES 18. Unidentified. “Who lay in the cemetery, where he had been taken as soon as hanged. Being the first 1 American Historical Association, “Statement of Violence victim. (Probably Wong Tuck, Ed.)” Against Asians and Asian Americans,” Perspectives on History 59, no. 5 (May 2021): 7–8. 19. Gun Yu, shot.31 2 “About,” Stop AAPI Hate, http://stopaapihate.org/. Accessed With today’s social media, there is a potential for both May 26, 2021. beneficial and harmful emergent effects as public 3 https://www.nytimes.com/2021/05/20/us/politics/biden-asian- memory is created and recreated. Considering the anti- hate-crimes-bill.html. Accessed May 26, 2021. Asian hate crimes from 2020–2021, a negative memory 4 Copy of P.S Dorney, “Lynching the Chinese,” Los Angeles Daily News, October 28, 1871. Retrieved from Lost LA Curriculum is being produced by those who have mocked and Project, “What were the Causes of the Anti-Chinese Massacre of threatened Asian Americans, especially after pointed 1871?” http://kl-cdn.s3.amazonaws.com/pdf/wild-west-chinese- attacks such as the spa parlor shootings. Even so, it is massacre-sandoval.pdf. Accessed May 26, 2021. important to note that social media has also played a 5 “A Reminiscence: Recollections of the Chinese Massacre of significant role in bringing together affected commun- 1871,” Los Angeles Daily Times, Oct. 27, 1883, p. 4. 6 Victor Jew, “The Anti-Chinese Massacre of 1871 and Its Strange ities, particularly during a time of social isolation due to Career,” in William Deverell and Greg Hise, ed., A Companion the COVID-19 pandemic. As such, even though hatred to Los Angeles, pp. 110–128 (Chichester, UK: Wiley Blackwell). and bias still exist towards people of color, the improve- Sources vary on the number of Chinese deaths, from fifteen to ment in communication and information sharing between twenty-one. 1871 and 2021 has made an impact on how crimes and 7 C. P. Dorland, “Chinese Massacre at Los Angeles in 1871,” Annual Publication of the Historical Society of Southern bigotry are remembered and dealt with. California 3, no. 2 (1894): 22–26. Quotation is on p. 23. 8 Ibid, 22. Conclusion 9 Jew, “The Anti-Chinese Massacre.” 10 The United States has a long history of racist ideologies Ibid, 115. that have pushed social and political agendas to maintain 11 John Schrecker, “For the Equality of Men – For the Equality of Nations”: Anson Burlingame and China’s First Embassy to the power. From the grand jury’s failure to punish the United States, 1868,” Journal of American-East Asian Relations murderers involved in the 1871 Chinese Massacre to the 17, no. 1 (2010): 9–34. former President of the United States himself posting 5
G. Cubbage and B. M. Wall Health Emergency and Disaster Nursing, Advance Publication by J-STAGE 12 “A Reminiscence;” Jew, “The Anti-Chinese Massacre;” coronavirus/2019-ncov/your-health/about-covid-19/basics-covid- Dorland, “Chinese Massacre;” Peter Paccone, Ellie Kanda, and 19.html?CDC_AA_refVal=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov% Mansi Gokani, “The 1871 Chinese Massacre – the Worst 2Fcoronavirus%2F2019-ncov%2Fcdcresponse%2Fabout-COVID- Lynching in U.S. History,” Medium, June 26, 2019, https:// 19.html. Accessed May 26, 2021. ppacone.medium.com/the-1871-chinese-massacree40d601a6376; 23 “About.” Stop AAPI Hate, http://stopaapihate.org/. Accessed and Miguel Sandoval, “What were the Causes of the Anti- May 26, 2021. Chinese Massacre of 1871?” http://kl-cdn.s3.amazonaws.com/ 24 “National Report,” “Stop Hate, ”https://stopaapihate.org/national- pdf/wild-west-chinese-massacre-sandoval.pdf. Accessed May report-through-march-2021/. Accessed May 26, 2021. 26, 2021. 25 Richard Fausset, et al., “8 Dead in Atlanta Spa Shootings, With 13 Jew, “The Anti-Chinese Massacre;” Richard Maxwell Brown, Fears of Anti-Asian Bias,” https://www.nytimes.com/live/2021/ “Violence,” in Clyde A. Milner II, Carol A. O’Connor, Martha A 03/17/us/shooting-atlanta-acworth. Accessed May 26, 2021. Sandweiss, ed., The Oxford History of the American West, 26 “Stop AAPI Hate (@StopAAPIHate),” Twitter, https://twitter. pp. 394–427 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994). com/StopAAPIHate. Accessed May 26, 2021. 14 “A Reminiscence;” Jew, “The Anti-Chinese Massacre;” 27 “#StopAsianHate,” Twitter, https://twitter.com/search?q=% Dorland, “Chinese Massacre;” Paccone, Kanda, and Gokani, 23StopAsianHate. Accessed May 26, 2021. “The 1871 Chinese Massacre;” and Sandoval, “What were the 28 Laura Kurtzman, “Trump’s ‘Chinese Virus’ Tweet Linked to Causes of the Anti-Chinese Massacre of 1871?” Rise of Anti-Asian Hashtags on Twitter, UC San Francisco, 15 Paul M. De Falla, “Lantern in the Western Sky,” Part II, March 18, 2021, https://www.ucsf.edu/news/2021/03/420081/ Quarterly of the Historical Society of Southern California 42, trumps-chinese-virus-tweet-linked-rise-anti-asian-hashtags- no. 2 (1960):161–185. Quotation is on p. 173. twitter. Accessed May 26, 2021. 16 Ibid; and Jew, “The Anti-Chinese Massacre.” 29 Twitter Inc., “Permanent Suspension of @realDonaldTrump,” 17 Paul M. De Falla, “Lantern in the Western Sky,” Part I, Twitter Blog, January 8, 2021. https://blog.twitter.com/en_us/ Quarterly of the Historical Society of Southern California 42, topics/company/2020/suspension.html. Accessed May 26, 2021. no. 1 (1960): 57–88. Quotation is on p. 58. 30 Thomas E. Drabek & David A. McEntire, “Emergent 18 Jew, “The Anti-Chinese Massacre.” Phenomena and Multiorganizational Coordination in Disasters: 19 Ibid, 119. Lessons from the Research Literature,” International Journal of 20 Jew, “The Anti-Chinese Massacre;” “A Reminiscence.” Mass Emergencies and Disasters 20, no. 2 (August 2002): 197– 21 Jew, “The Anti-Chinese Massacre,” 115. 224. 22 Centers for Disease Control and Preventions, “Coronavirus 31 De Falla, “Lantern in the Western Sky,” Part II, 161–162. Disease 2019 (COVID-19), Nov. 2020, https://www.cdc.gov/ 6
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