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Space
2023
Thank you to our chapter sponsor:
1
The Earth-Moon System
Have you ever looked at the Moon at night and The pull of Earth’s gravity is what keeps the Moon
wondered why it looks the way it does? You are not rotating as it does.
alone! People all over the world have wondered the
same thing for thousands of years. Here are some What is a Supermoon?
answers to questions about the Moon.
Sometimes the Moon can look super big! There are
Why does the Moon look white? a few reasons for this.
Unlike the Sun, the Moon does not produce its own One reason is how our brain understands size.
light. We can see the Moon because light from the When a full Moon is near other objects, like trees or
Sun reflects off the Moon’s surface. buildings, our brain compares the size of the Moon
to those objects. For this reason, it can appear really
The Moon looks whitish because the rocks and dust big. When the Moon is up in the dark sky, there is
that cover the Moon are a pale grey colour. The nothing for our brain to compare it to. So it does not
darker grey spots on the Moon are craters. seem as big.
Bright Moon (Source: kyoshino via iStockphoto). Full Moon rising over a town (Source: Ruibento via iStockphoto).
Why do we always see the same side of the Another reason has to do with the shape of the
Moon? Moon’s orbit. The Moon’s orbit is not a perfect circle.
It is more of an oval shape. This means that there
Just like the Earth revolves around the Sun, the are times when the Moon is closer to the Earth.
Moon revolves around the Earth. The Moon revolves When we see a full Moon that is in the position, we
around Earth once every 27.3 days. We call this call it a supermoon.
length of time a lunar month. The time it takes for
the Moon to rotate once on its axis is about 27 Earth Why does the Moon look different each day?
days. This is a lunar day. For comparison, the Earth
completes one rotation every 24 hours and the Moon The Moon does not always look like a white circle.
completes one rotation every 709 hours. Sometimes it looks like a half of a circle. Sometimes
it looks like a crescent shape. Sometimes you cannot
Did you notice that a lunar month and a lunar day see it at all! Why is this?
have the same length? That sameness is what
causes us to only see one side of the Moon.
2
It helps to think about the positions of the Earth and
the Moon relative to the Sun. The moon has eight phases in each lunar cycle.
Four we call primary phases and four we call
One side of the Earth always faces the Sun. secondary phases. Primary phases occur at a
Likewise, one side of the Moon always faces the specific time each month. Secondary phases do
Sun. The side of the Earth or Moon facing the Sun not. They indicate that the Moon is in transition
is bright and well lit. The side of the Earth or Moon from one primary phase to the next.
facing AWAY from the Sun is in shadow. This is true
no matter where the Moon or Earth is. Four primary phases Four secondary phases
New Moon Waxing crescent
It is our position on Earth relative to the Moon that
First Quarter Waxing gibbous
causes us to see different amounts of light and
shadow on the Moon. Full Moon Waning gibbous
Third Quarter Waning crescent
Try this!
How can you tell if the Moon is waxing or
waning? When the Moon is waxing, it looks
like the front of a capital letter “D”. When the
Moon is waning, it looks like the capital letter
“C”. Look at the Moon and try to figure out
which phase it is in!
What is a lunar eclipse?
About twice per year, the full Moon looks different.
You may see it turn from white to reddish and
back to white again. What is going on?
Orientation of the Earth, the Moon and the Sun (Let’s Talk Science
using an image by jack0m via iStockphoto). If you see this, you are likely viewing a lunar
eclipse. During a lunar eclipse, the Earth comes
Misconception Alert directly between the Sun and the Moon. During an
The shadow on the Moon is not caused by the eclipse, the Earth casts a shadow on the Moon.
Earth except in the case of a lunar eclipse.
We call the pattern of light and shadow on the Moon
as it revolves around the Earth the phases of the
Moon.
The phases of the Moon in order of their appearance (Source: Fresheneesz~commonswiki [public domain] via Wikimedia Commons).
3
Since the rays of light from the Sun travel in straight the Moon. This is what gives the Moon its red glow
lines, the shadow behind the Moon forms an arc. and the name “Blood Moon.” Particles in the atmo-
The darkest part of the shadow is directly behind sphere such as dust, water and volcanic ash can
the Earth relative to the Sun. We call this area the affect the specific shade or red that we see.
umbra. The lighter part of the shadow that stretches
beyond the Earth we call the penumbra.
Blood Moon (Source: Mark Gillow [public domain] via Wikimedia
Commons).
Areas of shadow during an eclipse (Source: Sagredo [public domain]
via Wikimedia Commons).
The location of the umbra and penumbra results in
three different types of lunar eclipses.
1. A total lunar eclipse occurs when the Earth is Paths of light and shadows that cause the Moon to look reddish during
exactly in between the Moon and the Sun. The a total lunar eclipse (Let’s Talk Science using an image by pialhovik via
iStockphoto).
Moon is completely in the deep shadow of the
umbra. Why don’t we get an eclipse every month?
2. A partial lunar eclipse occurs when only part
of Earth's shadow covers the Moon. Part of the Even though the Earth passes in front of the Moon
Moon is in the shadow of the umbra and the rest every month, we don’t see an eclipse. Why is this?
is in the shadow of the penumbra. The reason has to do with the Moon’s orbit. The
3. A penumbral lunar eclipse occurs when the orbit of the Moon is tilted in relation to the orbit of the
Moon is only covered by the shadow of the Earth.
penumbra. This shadow is pretty faint. Most
people will not even notice it.
Why does the Moon look red during an
eclipse?
During a total lunar eclipse, the Moon often appears
reddish in colour. Although most of the light is
blocked by the Earth itself, some light is still able to
pass through the Earth’s atmosphere. As the light
passes through the atmosphere it is refracted. Light The orbit of the Moon is tilted relative to that of the orbit of Earth (Let’s
in the red part of the spectrum continues on towards Talk Science using an image by pialhovik via iStockphoto).
4
Most of the time, the Moon travels above or below
Earth’s imaginary 2D plane or the ecliptic. The
ecliptic is the plane of the Earth’s orbit around the
Sun. Only when the two orbits align can we get an
eclipse.
Did you know?
The Moon is moving away from the Earth.
Someday it will no longer be close enough to fall
completely within the Earth’s umbral shadow.
When that time comes, total lunar eclipses will be
a thing of the past.
The next time you look up at the night sky, what
questions about the Moon will YOU want to ask?
Artist’s concept of the collision between Theia and the early Earth
(Source: NASA/JPL-Caltech [public domain] via Wikimedia Commons).
This newly formed Moon was extremely hot. It was
Origin of Earth's Moon so hot that it was a thick liquid instead of a solid.
Over time it began to cool and within about 100
“The more we learn about how the Moon million years, most of the “magma ocean” had
came to be, the more we discover about the cooled. As it cooled, rock that was less dense floated
evolution of our own Earth,” to the surface, eventually forming the lunar crust.
Vincent Eke (Researcher at Durham University)
Why do we think it formed this way?
In the decades since the first Moon landing, we have
Although people were not around to see the Moon’s
learned a lot about our closest neighbour in the solar
formation, we can learn a lot from the clues its
system. But there are still many mysteries waiting to
formation left behind.
be solved. The clues that we have gathered so far
tells us that the Moon probably formed soon after
We know the mass of the Moon, the size of its orbit,
the Earth, around 4.5 billion years ago. Of course,
and what it is made of. People have been to the
there were no humans around to see this. So how do
Moon and collected samples there.
scientists think our Moon came to be?
How do we think the Moon formed?
The leading theory suggests that an object the
size of Mars crashed into the newly formed Earth.
Scientists named this object Theia. They believe
that parts of Theia melted into the early Earth. Other
parts thrown off in the impact likely formed the Moon.
Scientists call this the Giant Impact Theory.
How exactly the Moon formed is still a puzzle to
researchers. The latest simulations and theories
suggest that the Moon may have formed in a matter
of hours. Previously people thought that it may have
taken millions of years. After Theia hit, material from
both the Earth and Theia were thrown into orbit. Bits
of both are then thought to have combined to form Astronaut Harrison H. Schmitt collects rock samples with a rake during
the Apollo 17 mission to the Moon (Source: NASA [public domain] via
the Moon, our natural satellite. Wikimedia Commons.
5
Using this information, scientists try to come up A Planetary Smackdown?
with scenarios that would match what we know. It’s
kind of like working backwards from a crime scene. This led scientists to try to explain why the rocks are
They put the information into computer models and so similar. They came up with different variations
simulations that help paint a picture of what might of the Giant Impact Theory to try to line up with the
have happened. As researchers learn new things, evidence.
they update the models.
Scenario 1: Theia smashed Earth a little bit
When scientists studied rocks brought back from the In this scenario, after Theia hit Earth, it created a
Moon, they discovered that they were very similar disc of debris around the Earth. This disc would
chemically to the rocks found on Earth. They were have been like the rings of Saturn. The debris then
also unlike rocks found on Mars and elsewhere in eventually clumped together to form the Moon. If this
the Solar System. This makes it likely that much of happened, it would mean that the Moon was mostly
the material that makes up the Moon originally came made of Theia and not Earth. Since chemistry has
from Earth. proven that the rocks on the Moon and the Earth are
very similar, it would mean that Theia had a chemical
makeup very similar to Earth. Scientists say the
chances of that are not very high.
Scenario 2: Several things hit the Earth
In this scenario, several smaller objects collide with
the Earth one after the other. Each impact results in
a disc of debris around the Earth like in scenario 1.
Each of these smaller discs forms a tiny moon we
call a moonlet. Over time, the moonlets eventually
join together to form the single Moon we have today.
Apollo 11 Lunar Sample 10021,79, a small rock from the Contingency This scenario has similar problems to scenario 1.
Sample, the very first sample picked up from the Moon (Source: NASA/
Astromaterials 3D).
Moon formation scenario 1 (©2022 Let’s Talk Science).
Moon formation scenario 3 (©2022 Let’s Talk Science).
Moon formation scenario 2 (©2022 Let’s Talk Science).
6
Instead of having material similar to Earth, the Moon On Earth’s surface, rock is exposed to the action of
would have materials similar to the objects that wind and moving water through the processes of
created it. These would not likely have materials weathering and erosion. On the Moon, there is no
similar to Earth. wind or moving water, so there is no erosion. That is
why there are no sedimentary rocks on the Moon.
Scenario 3: Theia smashed Earth a lot!
In this scenario, after Theia hit Earth, both were On Earth, two very common types of igneous rock
blown apart. This would have let bits from each are basalt and granite. Similarly, the two most com-
mix together. Over time, the bits would have come mon types of igneous rocks found on the Moon are
together in a rotating, donut-shaped cloud of hot basalts and anorthosites. When you look at these
materials. Scientists call this structure a synestia. two types of rock you can see small holes. These
Eventually, the center of the cloud cooled to form the holes are caused by gas bubbles that were trapped
Earth. The outer parts would have formed the Moon. in the lava as it cooled.
This scenario lines up with the evidence that both
Earth and the Moon have similar rocks. The lunar basalts are rich in iron and also in
titanium. Lunar anorthosites are rich in aluminum,
To get a sense of which of these scenarios is the calcium, and silicon.
most correct, scientists would need more rock
samples. They should be able to get some from
the Artemis missions. These missions plan to get
humans back to the Moon.
What types of rocks and minerals can we
find on the moon?
From 1969 to 1972, six Apollo missions brought
back 382 kilograms of rocks and soil from the Moon.
These rock samples have helped us learn a lot about
the Moon and our Solar System.
Did you know?
New tools on Earth have allowed researchers Lunar basalt. This sample is 3.7 billion years old (Source: NASA [public
domain] via Wikimedia Commons).
to examine the Apollo samples in greater depth.
Many of these samples are still in pristine
condition.
Unlike the Earth, the Moon has no atmosphere.
This means that there is nothing to keep asteroids,
meteoroids, and comets from hitting its surface.
Over the billions of years that the Moon has existed,
these objects have pounded the Moon’s surface.
Some of the Moon’s rocks are still large, but others
have been crushed into a fine powder!
No matter how the Moon came to be, it would have
started as a hot liquid ball of rock.
On Earth, we call rocks that form from the cooling
of liquid rock - or lava - igneous. Unlike on Earth,
where most surface rocks are sedimentary, almost
Ferroan anorthosite collected 15 m southwest of the Apollo 16 Lunar
all the rocks on the surface of the Moon are igneous. Module Orion (Source: Claire H. [CC BY-SA 2.0] via Wikimedia
Why is this? Commons).
7
This led to future missions, including one in 2008
Did you know? from the Indian Space Research Organization
Lunar basalts are found in the flat dark plains of (ISRO). In this mission, the Chandrayaan-1 space-
the Moon. We call these plains the lunar maria. craft orbited the Moon. It carried a NASA science
The word “maria” is Latin for seas. Lunar anor- instrument called the Moon Mineralogical Mapper
thosites are found in brighter lunar highlands. We (M3). It observed how the surface absorbed infrared
call these highlands the lunar terrae. The word light. M3 discovered that there was ice inside the
“terrae” is Latin for land. Moon’s polar craters.
Some of the rocks in both the maria and the terrae
are breccias. This type of rock is made from
fragments of the initial impact. Over time they were
joined back together as a result of lunar impacts.
Breccia rocks are very fragile and fall apart easily
when people handle them. Lunar breccia are rich in
uranium, thorium and potassium.
Distribution of surface ice at the Moon’s south pole (left) and north
pole (right), detected by NASA’s Moon Mineralogy Mapper instrument
(Source: NASA [public domain] via Wikimedia Commons).
A year later, in 2009, NASA launched the Lunar
Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO). It carried a device
called LCROSS. This stands for the Lunar Crater
Observation and Sensing Satellite.
The upper stage of the Centaur rocket used to
launch the LRO and LCROSS was sent crashing
Dark matrix breccia from near the Van Serg crater (Source: NASA [public down into the Cabeus crater near the south pole of
domain] via Wikimedia Commons). the Moon.
Did you know?
A new mineral was discovered in rocks collected
by Apollo 11 astronauts. They named it armal-
colite, which is a word made from the first letters
of the astronauts’ surnames—Armstrong, Aldrin,
and Collins.
Is there water on the Moon?
For a long time, people had wondered if there was
water on the Moon. In the late 1990s, scientists
using the orbiting spacecraft Lunar Prospector
found large amounts of hydrogen at the Moon’s north
and south poles. Hydrogen is a key part of water
molecules (H2O). Could this mean that there was
water on the Moon?
Artist’s illustration of the LCROSS spacecraft with Centaur heading
towards the Moon (Source: NASA).
8
After it slammed into the crater, a cloud of lunar
materials were kicked up. LCROSS then flew Did you know?
through the cloud. It detected 155 kilograms of water The Sahara desert has 100 times more water
before it too crashed into the Moon. than SOFIA found on the Moon.
After these discoveries, scientists were confident How did water get on the Moon?
that there was ice in craters at the Moon’s poles. Scientists have suggested 3 ways water could have
But what about on the rest of the Moon in the sunlit formed on the Moon:
parts?
1. Water exists because of how the Moon was
The answer came in 2020. Water was found on the formed (Giant Impact Theory).
sunlit surface of the Moon by NASA’s Stratospheric 2. Water came to the Moon from asteroids or
Observatory for Infrared Astronomy (SOFIA) comets.
Telescope. 3. Water was created on the Moon by solar winds
combining oxygen and hydrogen.
SOFIA has detected water molecules in the Clavius
Crater. This crater is one of the largest craters So far, the best theory for the formation of the moon
visible from Earth. Even though there was not a lot is that the Moon is made partly of Earth and the
of water, it proved that water could be found in the protoplanet Theia. So, the Moon’s water may have
sunny parts of the Moon. originally come from the Earth.
Why care about water on the Moon?
For long term human settlement on the Moon,
people will need water. Since it costs between $10
000 - $20 000 to launch a kilogram of anything from
the Earth to space, it would be ideal if the water
people needed was already on the Moon itself. This
is the reason why part of the upcoming Artemis
missions is to search for good sources of water.
Canada is playing an important role in the search for
water. You can read more about the rover Canada
is sending and the challenges it will face looking for
Interior cabin space of NASA SOFIA (Source: US Embassy [public
water on the Moon in this backgrounder.
domain] via Wikimedia Commons).
SOFIA concluded its final scientific flight on Septem-
ber 29, 2022. It will now be on display at the Pima Air
& Space Museum in Tucson, Arizona.
Boeing 747SP aircraft modified to carry a 2.7-metre SOFIA reflecting
telescope (Source: NASA photo/Jim Ross [public domain] via Wikimedia
Commons).
9
The Earth-Moon System
Zipping around our Solar System are objects small- What are the parts of an impact crater?
er than planets and stars. These small solar system
bodies (SSSBs) include asteroids and comets. Impact craters have the following structures.
Misconception Alert!
Comets are NOT the same as asteroids. A comet
is a chunk of ice mixed with rock that comes from
the outer part of our solar system. An asteroid is
a piece of rock or metal in orbit around the Sun
generally between Mars and Jupiter.
Sometimes, one of these SSSBs smashes into a
larger planetary body, such as a planet or moon.
We call the collisions impact events.
What is an impact crater?
Parts of an impact crater (Let’s Talk Science using an image by Tom
When an SSSB hits a planet, moon or other object, Wildoner [CC BY-SA 4.0] via Wikimedia Commons).
it is a lot like the explosion of a huge bomb. Large
amounts of surface material can be blown away,
leaving behind a large hole. We call these holes, or 1. The floor is the bottom of a crater. It may be
depressions, impact craters. flat or shaped slightly like a bowl. The floor
is usually below the level of the surrounding
Many planetary bodies have many impact craters. ground.
They can be found on Mercury, on our Moon, and 2. The walls are the interior sides of a crater. They
on Jupiter’s moons Callisto and Ganymede. are usually quite steep. Over time, step-like
areas may form. This happens as the walls
Did you know? collapse due to gravity.
The largest asteroid crater in our Solar System is 3. The rim is the top edge of a crater. It is usually
called Ceres. It is about one-quarter of the size of above the level of the surrounding ground. The
Earth’s moon. rim is formed when ground material gets pushed
up during impact.
Impact craters tend to be circular in shape. This 4. The central peak is the higher area in the
does not mean the object that created the crater center of larger craters. It happens when the
was circular. Instead, the circular shape happens impacting object is large. Some of the material
because there is typically a massive explosion upon pushed towards the edges of the crater slides
impact. This explosion causes material to fly out in back into the centre, creating a peak.
all directions. This material is called ejecta. 5. Ejecta is the rock material thrown out of a crater
during impact. Usually, you can see it all around
Sometimes, an elongated (oval) crater can form. the crater. The ejecta is thickest closest to the
This happens if an object strikes the surface at a crater and thinnest further away.
very low angle. 6. Rays are the bright streaks of ejecta that extend
away from a crater, just like rays from the Sun.
10What are the different types of impact cra-
ters? On the Moon and other planets, craters look very
much like how they looked when they were formed.
Simple craters are small, bowl-shaped craters with But on Earth, craters tend to get worn away because
smooth walls. Complex craters are larger craters. of weathering and erosion. They also get destroyed
They have features such as central peaks and through plate tectonics and volcanic activity. The
stepped sides. The Moon’s Copernicus Crater is processes on Earth’s surface can eventually erase
a complex crater. Simple and complex craters can impact craters. But as of 2022 190 terrestrial impact
range in diameter. Some are a few dozen metres craters have been identified on Earth.
wide. Others are up to 300 km wide!
Where can you find impact craters in Cana-
Impact basins are craters that are bigger than 300 da?
km in diameter. The Moon has several impact ba-
sins. From the Earth, they look like large dark areas. Some of the world’s largest impact craters are in
Impact basins on the Moon were created when huge Canada.
objects struck its surface.
There is a very interesting pair of impact craters
in Quebec, near the eastern shore of the Hudson
Bay. Both of these impact craters are now filled with
water. One is West Clearwater Lake. It is 36 km in
diameter. The other is East Clearwater Lake. It is 26
km in diameter.
Scientists think the impacts that caused these craters
happened about 290 million years ago. Scientists
Full moon with impact basins. The distinct bright ray crater at the
bottom of the image is the Tycho impact basin. The dark areas are lava
rock-filled impact basins. The image was taken by the Galileo spacecraft
in 1992 (Source: NASA via Wikimedia Commons).
What factors determine the size and shape of West Clearwater lake is at the top left and East Clearwater Lake is at the
a crater? bottom right (Source: NASA via Wikimedia Commons).
The size and shape of a crater depends on several used to think that the lakes were created by a double
factors. These include: impact. A double impact is two impacts happening at
• the mass of the impacting object; the same time. Now, scientists now think the craters
• the density of the impacting object; were formed about 4 million years apart!
• the velocity of the impacting object; and
• the geology (type of rock) of the surface the Did you know?
object strikes. The largest impact crater in Canada is the
The greater the mass and velocity of the object, the Sudbury Basin in Ontario. It is about 62 km long
larger the diameter of the crater will be. and 30 km wide.
11The Mistastin Crater in Labrador also contains a
lake. The Mistastin Crater is the result of an impact
Designing Rovers for the
that happened about 36 million years ago. Scientists Moon’s Extreme
think the original impact crater was about 28 km
wide. Since then, the crater has become much small-
Environment
er because of glacial erosion. There is an island In Looking at the Moon from our home on Earth, it
the middle of the lake. Scientists think this island is doesn’t seem too scary. Just a patchy grey sphere in
a central peak. That would make it a complex crater! the sky. Would it surprise you to know that the lunar
Scientists believe that the impact event that created surface is full of dangers for humans and machines
this crater generated surface temperatures of 2 370 alike? Exploring the Moon is serious business.
degrees Celsius. That’s the hottest temperature ever
recorded on Earth’s surface! Lunar Rovers
Because the Moon is so dangerous for humans,
a great way to explore its surface is with rovers. A
lunar rover is a vehicle designed to travel on the
surface of the Moon.
Engineers design lunar rovers to handle many
challenges, such as darkness, extreme cold,
radiation and challenging terrain. Let’s look at each
of these challenges and how rovers are designed to
face them.
Satellite view of the Mistastin Crater in Labrador (Source: Jcmurphy via
Wikimedia Commons).
The Pingualuit Crater is a young impact crater in
the Ungava Peninsula of Quebec. In French, it is
called the Cratère des Pingualuit. Pingualuit is an
Inuktitut word meaning where the land rises. The
Pingualuit Crater is approximately 1.4 million years
old. This crater has also become a lake. It is called
Pingualuit Lake. Although Pingualuit Crater is only
3.4 km in diameter, it is 400 m deep. Pingualuit Lake
is 267 m deep. That makes it one of the deepest
lakes in North America! Because the lake is so clear,
the local Inuit to refer to it as the “Crystal Eye of
Nunavik.”
Lunar rover in its testing environment (Source: Canadensys Aerospace
Corporation (Canadensys). Used with permission.
Darkness
From Earth, we always see the same face of the
Moon. This is because the Moon is spinning on its
axis at the same speed that it is going around Earth.
We say that it is in synchronous rotation with the
Earth.
Pingualuit Crater in Northern Québec (Source: NASA via Wikimedia
Commons).
12As the Moon orbits the Earth, each side of it is Extreme Cold
exposed to 14 Earth days of light and 14 Earth days
of dark. When it is light, it is a lunar day. When it is There is an extreme difference in temperature
dark, it is a lunar night. between day and night on the Moon. During the day,
the temperature rises to about 127 degrees Celsius.
Some areas of the Moon are always either light or During the night, It can dip down to as low as - 173
dark. These are at the poles of the moon. Some degrees Celsius. It can get even colder inside the
mountains in these areas are always in sunlight. craters!
Deeper craters in these areas are always dark. We
call these areas permanently shadowed regions Instruments on board NASA’s Lunar Reconnais-
or PSRs. These craters are dark because the Sun is sance Orbiter (LRO) have measured the tempera-
very low relative to the horizon. ture at the bottom of the Moon's Hermite Crater. The
temperature was around -250 degrees Celsius.
Darkness is a real challenge for rovers. This is
because the main source of power for a rover are
solar panels. Without power, a rover cannot move,
use its science instruments, turn on its headlights or
communicate with Earth.
Artist’s image of the LRO (Source: public domain via NASA).
Did you know?
View of the solar panels on a rover (Source: Lunar Rover Research The coldest temperatures in the Solar System
Challenge by Let’s Talk Science powered by actuality). have been recorded at the Moon’s poles. Scien-
tists have so far only studied these areas using
Solar panels need to get to the Moon undamaged. remote sensing instruments.
This can be tough! Solar panels are very breakable
and launches are very shaky! A hard landing on the To explore craters and PSRs, rovers will have to
Moon could also cause the panels to break. survive these extreme cold temperatures. How will
they do this?
For a rover to survive darkness, it must spend time in
a sunny location. This lets the battery charge enough Rovers will use different things to keep them at just
to run its heaters. the right temperature. This will bring new design
challenges related to insulation and temperature
Rovers may also recharge using a nearby lunar control.
lander. The lander acts like a homebase for the
rovers while on the Moon. The rover could use Insulation
docking software to find the lander. Once nearby, the
rover could use wireless charging to charge itself. To keep warm in and cold out, rovers can be painted
with gold paint. The gold keeps heat from being
The company WiBotic was chosen by NASA to transferred by radiation. This is similar to the way in
deliver this kind of wireless charging for upcoming which thermos bottles keep heat in.
lunar missions.
13Rovers can also use a special type of insulation Radiation can also cause electrical systems to fail in
called Aerogel to prevent heat transfer. This insula- lunar rovers. It can cause damage to computer chips
tion is 99.8% air. Why air? Air is a good insulator. It is and even wipe out their memory!
also very lightweight, which makes it ideal for space
missions. When exposed to radiation, the insulation in wiring
can become brittle. This can cause breaks in the wire
and short-circuiting of systems. This is why rovers
need special shielded wires.
Example of a shielded wire (Source: vinap via iStockphoto).
Did you know?
Hardening is the term for processes or materials
used to protect electronics from radiation.
Scientist Peter Tsou holding a cube made of Aerogel (Source: NASA/ Challenging Terrain
JPL-Caltech [public domain] via Wikimedia Commons).
From Earth, the ground on the Moon seems pretty
Temperature Control flat and smooth. It is far from that! In some places it
is flat, but in others there are steep rocky landforms
Rovers also have temperature control systems. This and deep craters. To explore these areas, rovers
includes heaters. A thermostat on the heater can need to be able to climb and not get themselves
automatically switch the heater on and off. The heat stuck!
rejection system uses a pump and tubing to release
heat out into space. This works a lot like the air Rover Wheels
conditioning (AC) system in a car. To explore the Moon, rovers will need special
wheels.
Cosmic Radiation
The wheels need to be strong because the rocks on
In space there are lots of high-energy particles flying
the Moon can be very sharp! Even the Moon’s fine
around. We call these particles cosmic radiation,
grey soil or regolith contains jagged, microscopic
or cosmic rays for short. These particles are very
shards of rock.
dangerous for people and equipment in space.
Earth’s magnetic field and atmosphere protect us
from the impact of these particles. The Moon, on the
other hand, does not have this same protection. The
Moon does not have an atmosphere and its magnet-
ic field is very weak. This means that it has little to no
shielding from radiation.
Astronauts on the surface of the Moon would face
between 200 and 1 000 times more radiation than
on Earth. That is about two and a half times the
radiation level on the International Space Station
(ISS). High levels of radiation can lead to cancer and Moon surface image taken during the Apollo 12 mission in 1969 (Source:
other illnesses. NASA via Wikimedia Commons).
14Rovers wheels also need to have good treads that You may be wondering why moon dust is so sharp.
help them to grip the ground. Lunar regolith is very It’s because the Moon does not have water and air to
powdery. This makes it slippery to drive on. cause weathering and erosion like on Earth. These
processes turn sharp rocks into smooth rocks.
To understand how well a rover will work on the
Moon, engineers test drive rovers on a simulated
lunar surface. This surface is made of a miner-
al-based simulants that matches the texture of real
lunar soil.
Rover wheels also need to be designed to help the
rover go up and down the steep sides of craters.
Designs have included wheels with deep grooves
as well as wheels with spikes. Some have even
included wheels made of mesh. No matter what type
of wheels a rover has, rover drivers are taught to
avoid places where the rover can get stuck!
Scientist-astronaut Harrison Schmitt uses a sampling tool to scoop lunar
samples during the Apollo 17 mission (Source: NASA).
Moon dust tends to fly around when vehicles land,
launch, or move around on the Moon. Not only is the
dust very sharp, it also has a static charge. This
makes it stick to things.
If a rover's cameras get dirty, then its driver will not
be able to see well. This could lead to the rover
hitting a rock or falling into a crater. All that dust can
Canadensys rover wheels delivered to the Canadian Space Agency also get into mechanical parts, causing them not to
(Source: Canadensys Aerospace. Used with permission).
work properly.
Newer rover designs, like the DuAxel by NASA’s A lot of work has been going into dealing with dust
Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), aim to help rovers on astronaut spacesuits. Some of the technology
tackle rocky terrain and near vertical slopes. Instead might also work for rovers. This includes creating
of being one four-wheeled vehicle, the DuAxel is two electrical changes to repel dust and applying a
two-wheeled vehicles. The two vehicles are tethered dust-resistant coating.
to each other with a cable. By having one vehicle
move at a time, the rover can keep itself from falling From Models to the Real Thing
and flipping over.
In November 2022, Canadensys Aerospace
Did you know? Corporation (Canadensys) and its partners were
On Earth, air-filled rubber tires are very common, selected to build the first Canadian lunar rover and
but they would not work on the Moon. The its scientific instruments. This small rover will play
extreme cold of the Moon would make the rubber an important role in the search for water ice on the
so hard that it would shatter like glass! Moon.
Dealing with Dust This rover will explore the south pole of the Moon. It
will carry six scientific instruments referred to as pay-
Not only is regolith slippery to drive on, the powdery loads. Five of the instruments are Canadian-made
soil kicks up a lot of dust! Moon dust is sharp like and one is American.
glass. It gets into everything, from astronaut lungs to
tiny machine parts.
15Canada Goes to the Moon
These instruments will act like scientists' eyes and Canada is getting ready to go to the Moon and it’s
hands on the Moon. They will help measure and going to be an adventure! Let’s find out about Can-
gather information and send the data back to Earth. ada’s role in missions to the Moon, and why we’re
The instruments will be used to collect data about going there in the first place.
the presence of hydrogen (water), the properties of
lunar soil, and radiation levels. Why go to the Moon?
As the rover moves around it will test important You may be wondering, why go to the Moon? Hav-
systems. These include the mechanical systems and en’t people already gone there?
communication systems.
The first time humans went to the moon were during
At first, the rover will be controlled remotely by the Apollo missions between 1969 and 1972. These
engineers and scientists on Earth. Eventually, it will early missions helped people learn a lot of things.
be able to work autonomously. They learned how to make technologies that could
get people to space and back safely to Earth. They
learned how to survive on the surface of the Moon
for a few days.
For the upcoming return to the Moon, humans have
a larger goal. They want to learn how to survive in
deep space. This includes Mars and beyond! People
have lived in space, but only in space stations. Living
on the Moon will allow people to develop the skills
and knowledge to explore even deeper space.
Image source: Canadensys Aerospace Corporation (Canadensys) via
Let’s Talk Science Lunar Rover Research Challenge.
This is a very exciting time for Canadian space
technologies. Designing a lunar rover comes with
many obstacles and challenges. But the information
they will someday provide will be key to helping
prepare for humans to live and work on the Moon.
Times and distances from Earth to the ISS, the Moon and Mars (©2022
Let’s Talk Science based on an image by naulicreative via iStockphoto).
Imagine you were going on a camping trip to a
new place far from home. But you had never gone
camping before. What would you do?
First, you might learn about all the gear you need to
go camping. Next, you might practice setting up your
camping stuff in your own backyard.
16Then, you might move farther from the security and Water: A Crucial Resource
comforts of your home to a campground nearby.
Humans need water to survive. Just like when you
go on a camping trip, you have two options for your
water supply. You can bring it with you, or find some
once you get there. Astronauts have had to bring
their water with them for every journey to space in
the past. But to live on the Moon or Mars for a long
time, they need to be able to find water in space.
Astronauts need water to stay hydrated, but they can
also use it to grow food. They can turn it into oxygen
to breathe. They can even turn water into fuel for
rockets or for generating electricity.
People camping with the Milky Way visible in the night sky (Source: Scientists have used satellites to confirm there is
anatoliy_gleb via iStockphoto).
frozen water on the Moon. Most of these ice deposits
Canadian astronauts are now quite confident are at the Moon’s South Pole. This is why the next
travelling, living and working on the International missions to the Moon are going to the lunar South
Space Station (ISS). The ISS is the closest outpost Pole.
to Earth. Living on the ISS is a little like camping in
your backyard. International Collaboration for Space Explo-
ration
The Moon is our next closest destination. It’s kind of
In October of 2020, Canada signed an international
like camping in a nearby campground. Mars is much
agreement called the Artemis Accords. This
further away. It would be like camping in a different
agreement includes over twenty countries that have
country!
pledged to work together for the peaceful exploration
and use of the Moon, Mars, and other astronomical
We can only really learn how to live in space by
objects.
going there. And going to space is now easier than it
has ever been. Both governments and private com-
Space agencies and companies from Canada, the
panies, like SpaceX, are sending people to space on
United States, Japan, and the European Union are
a regular basis. This idea would have been science
working together to travel to the Moon by participat-
fiction 50 years ago.
ing in the Artemis program. The Canadian Space
Agency (CSA) is part of this program, which is led by
NASA.
During the Artemis missions, scientists aim to set up
systems for long-term human and robotic exploration
of the Moon.
The SpaceX Dragon crew capsule approaching the ISS (Source: Public
domain image by NASA/SpaceX).
Artemis program logo (Source: Public domain image by NASA via
Wikimedia Commons).
17The main goal of the Artemis program is to prepare Artemis III
for humans to stay on the Moon by 2025. Several
missions are planned for the program. Four astronauts will travel to the Moon. It is expected
that this crew will include a woman and a person of
Artemis I colour. If all goes well, two astronauts will go down to
the lunar surface. Estimated date: 2025
This is a test flight of the Orion spacecraft and the
Space Launch System (SLS) rocket. There will be no
astronauts on board. Planned launch date is in Fall
2022.
Infographic of Artemis III mission stages and routes (Let’s Talk Science
using a public domain image from NASA).
The Lunar Gateway
As part of the Artemis program, scientists will build
a new space station to orbit around the Moon.
This station is called The Lunar Gateway, or The
Infographic of the planned Artemis I mission (Source: CSA, NASA).
Gateway.
Artemis II Did you know?
The Lunar Gateway will be about one sixth the
This will be the first crewed mission to the Moon
size of the ISS.
since 1972. There will be four astronauts on board,
including one from Canada. This means Canada will
Four astronauts will be able to live and work on The
be only the second country to have an astronaut fly
Gateway for up to three months at a time. They will
around the Moon! Estimated date: 2024
take trips to the surface of the Moon for research,
and to test new technologies. Astronauts could
also use these trips to prepare for deeper-space
missions, like going to Mars.
Infographic of SLS rocket and Orion crew modules relative to familiar
objects (Source: CSA, NASA). Functions of the Lunar Gateway (Let’s Talk Science using a public
domain image by NASA).
18Canadarm3 • and begin developing the technologies needed
for future deep space missions.
Unlike the ISS, The Lunar Gateway will not have a
crew all the time. An important part of the LEAP program is supporting
the development, launch, and use of a Canadian
When no one is home, a smart robotic system called lunar rover. This rover will include at least one
Canadarm3 will manage operations autonomously. Canadian science instrument to collect data about
Canadarm3 will use artificial intelligence to learn the surface of the Moon. Two Canadian companies,
from its environment and its experiences. Canadensys Aerospace and MDA, have been cho-
sen to submit lunar rover designs. The plan for the
The Canadarm3 will have one long arm and one Canadian rover is to gather images, measurements,
short arm. It will also have a set of detachable tools. and data at the Moon’s South Pole.
This means it can do many important jobs.
It will be able to grab and move around visiting space Did you know?
vehicles and The Gateway. Canada has a long history of developing rovers
for space?
It will also give astronauts a hand during spacewalks.
When it’s not doing these things, it will be inspecting It is important to send more rovers onto the surface
and repairing the station - without help from people of the Moon. Rovers can explore the area before
on Earth! humans arrive, and teach us what to expect. Learn
more about the challenges of designing a rover mis-
sion through the Lunar Rover Research Challenge.
Did you know?
China launched the Yutu 2 in 2018. It is currently
the only working rover on the Moon.
Space Exploration Benefits Life on Earth
Space exploration impacts our society on Earth in
many different ways. Here are some examples.
An artist's concept of Canadarm 3's large arm on the Lunar Gateway
(Source: CSA, NASA).
Healthcare
• Monitoring devices developed for astronauts
can be used here on Earth
Engineers and scientists began designing Can-
• Robotic surgery technology is based on the
adarm3 in 2014, and they plan to launch it in 2027.
Canadarm2
MDA, an engineering company based in Brampton,
• Remote health care techniques, like telemedi-
Ontario, is leading the development. By the time
cine, give people more access to doctors
Canadarm3 is launched, hundreds of Canadian com-
panies will have been involved in its development.
Exploring the Lunar Surface
The CSA created the Lunar Exploration Accelerator
Program (LEAP) to support innovation in lunar and
deep space exploration. This program helps Canadi-
an organizations to:
• develop and design science experiments for
lunar conditions;
• invent new technologies for use in lunar orbit, Surgical robot (Source: Cmglee [CC BY-SA 3.0] via Wikimedia Com-
and on the Moon's surface; mons).
19Food Production Employment
• Growing food in extreme environments is both a • About 22 000 people have jobs in the space
challenge for deep space missions as well as for sector in Canada. This number is expected to
Northern communities in Canada. Improvement increase with the start of the Artemis missions
in such technology can increase food access • The Canadian space industry offers many
across the country. diverse careers
• Studying microbiology in space also prevents • In 2018, total revenues in the Canadian space
food from spoiling before crews are ready to sector reached $5.7 billion
consume it, and helps us understand how to
keep astronauts healthy in space.
Engineers at the David Florida Laboratory (Source: CSA).
Partnerships with other Countries
Flight Engineer Kate Rubins of NASA shows off radish plants growing • Space exploration brings people from different
inside the Columbus laboratory module (Public image domain image by
NASA via Wikimedia Commons). nations together, to work peacefully towards a
common goal
Earth Observation • By working together, nations develop valuable
• Canada uses satellites and radar technology expertise. Canada has become a world leader in
for national security, to monitor resources and space robotics.
the health of the climate, for navigation, and to
protect ourselves from natural disasters
• Earthrise was one of the first colour photo-
graphs of the Earth in space. For the first time,
humans could see how small and fragile our
planet is. The environmental movement was
just beginning then, and this photograph helped
people realize how important it was. The very
first Earth Day took place less than two years
later, on April 22, 1970.
ISS emblem (Public domain image by NASA via Wikimedia Commons).
Earthrise over the Moon taken by William Anders during the Apollo 8
mission in 1968 (Public domain image by NASA).
20sion, one end of the ICPS was attached to the
Orion stage adapter and held 10 small satellites,
Artemis Goes to the Moon! called CubeSats, which were released into lunar
orbit. The other end is attached to the Core
Stage by the Launch Vehicle Stage Adapter.
It’s been 50 years since humankind set foot on the • the Launch Vehicle Stage Adapter (LVSA);
lunar surface. The last time was during the Apollo The cone-shaped LVSA connects the narrower
17 mission on December 7, 1972. The next chapter ICPS to the wider Core Stage below it.
in deep space exploration and scientific discovery is • the Core Stage built by Boeing together with
NASA’s Artemis program. This program is focused industry partners;
on returning humans to the Moon and preparing to The Core Stage is the largest rocket stage ever
go to Mars and beyond. built! It fuels the world’s most powerful rocket.
It stands almost 65 metres tall and is about 8.5
Did you know? metres in diameter.
During the Apollo 17 mission, the Boeing-built • two solid rocket boosters;
Lunar Roving Vehicle (LRV) drove about 30 km The 2 boosters on the SLS are the most power-
on the Moon’s surface. ful solid rocket boosters ever built for a rocket!
Each booster stands almost 54 metres tall and
The Missions produces over 1.5 million kilograms of thrust.
Artemis I was an uncrewed mission and test flight The 2 solid rocket boosters combined produce
of NASA’s Space Launch System (SLS) rocket and more than 75% of the total thrust for the SLS
Orion spacecraft. It took place between November rocket during the first 2 minutes of flight.
16 and December 11, 2022. • and four RS-25 engines.
The 4 RS-25 engines are part of the engine
Artemis II will be a crewed flight that sends astro- section of the Core Stage. Each of the 4
nauts around the Moon and back to Earth. engines weigh about 3,600 kg and are about the
Artemis III will bring the first woman and the first size of a small car! Each engine produces over
person of colour to the surface of the Moon. 225,000 kilograms of thrust.
Did you know?
In Greek mythology, Artemis is Apollo’s twin
sister and the goddess of the Moon.
Let’s look at each mission in more detail.
Artemis I
On November 16, 2022, at 1:47 a.m. Eastern Time,
the Artemis I mission successfully began at the
Kennedy Space Center in Florida, USA. One of
the main purposes of the mission was to test the
Space Launch System (SLS) rocket and the Orion
spacecraft.
From top to bottom, the SLS rocket is made up of:
• the Interim Cryogenic Propulsion Stage
(ICPS);
The Interim Cryogenic Propulsion Stage (ICPS)
stands about 13.7 metres tall and is about 5
metres in diameter. It is powered by one RL10
engine that sends the Orion spacecraft on the
right path to the Moon. For the Artemis I mis- Infographic of the parts of the Artemis I rocket system (Source: NASA).
21Inside the core stage infographic (Source: NASA).
Together the SLS rocket and Orion spacecraft stand
about 98 metres tall. When full of fuel, they weigh
more than 2.3 million kilograms!
The SLS core stage contains the propellant. The
propellant is the fuel used by the rocket engines.
When full, the core stage contains about 2.8 million
litres of liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen. As the
most powerful rocket in the world, SLS produces
about 4 million kilograms of thrust when it lifts off.
The Flight
With a thunderous rumble, the SLS rocket and The Space Launch System rocket lifts off from Launch Complex 39B at
capsule took off from Launch Complex 39B in the NASA's Kennedy Space Center (Source: Boeing/John Grant)
early hours of November 16. Then, after about eight minutes, the propellant in
the core stage burned up and the four engines shut
Just over two minutes after liftoff, the solid rocket off. We call this the Main Engine Cutoff. After the
boosters used up their propellant. They then separat- engines shut off, the core stage separated from the
ed and fell away from the core stage.
22Orion part of the launch system. At just eight-and-
Did you know?
a-half minutes after liftoff, the Orion capsule was
A “Moonikin” mannequin named Campos along
safely placed into orbit using the Interim Cryogenic
with 2 mannequin torsos made up the Orion
Propulsion Stage (ICPS). At that moment, the SLS
‘crew’ to collect data for future human spaceflight.
core stage’s job was complete!
Artemis II and Beyond
A little more than 18 minutes into the mission from
liftoff, the solar arrays on Orion started to open. It A Boeing-built Core Stage will also be used for the
takes about 10 minutes for the 4 panels to fully open. Artemis II mission. For this mission, Canada will
These solar arrays provide power to Orion for the trip even send an astronaut aboard the Orion! This will
around the Moon and back to Earth. be one of two rides that the Canadian Space Agency
will receive aboard the Orion due to their contribution
About 1 hour and 20 minutes after liftoff, the engine of a robotic arm, called Canadarm3.
on the ICPS started the first of two burns to put Orion
on the right course. A burn is when thrust is applied Let’s Talk Science appreciates the work and contri-
in order to change the velocity of the spacecraft. The butions of Susan Higashio Weinreich from Boeing
second burn took about 18 minutes to complete. Canada in the development of this Backgrounder.
Finally, in just under 2 hours from liftoff, the ICPS
separated from Orion. This allowed the Orion
capsule to accelerate to more than 40,000 kilometers
per hour. At this speed, it was able to escape Earth’s
gravity and be on its way to the Moon.
While on its way, 10 CubeSats were deployed one
at a time from spring-loaded canisters in the Orion
stage adapter. This sent the tiny satellites into lunar
orbit, and allowed for data about the Earth, the Moon
and space to be captured and sent back for studying.
One cubesat - Lunar IceCube - is on a mission to
hunt for lunar water ice. A Canadian lunar rover will
be doing the same thing on the Moon.
Shoebox-sized cubesats line the interior of the Orion stage adapter
(Source: NASA [public domain] via Flickr).
After nearly 26 days, Artemis I successfully complet-
ed its mission on December 11, 2022 when the Orion
capsule splashed down in the Pacific Ocean.
23Can you design a rover
that can survive on the
moon?
Setting: Indoors when designing something new. Neglecting certain
Time: 1 hour factors can often lead to catastrophic failure of the
Concepts: Designing, prototyping design. The Tacoma Narrows Bridge is a famous
Skills: Problem solving, critical thinking example of what can happen when bridge designers/
Ages: 11-14 engineers failed to consider the effect of strong
winds in their bridge design.
Materials:
Feel free to use any materials that you can think of. In space, the stakes are even higher. A simple
Some suggested items could include: miscalculation can turn into a big problem that can
cost the astronauts their lives! That’s why anything
• Writing utensils that goes into space must first go through extensive
• Paper testing and many iterations of re-designs. You don’t
• Scissors often get something perfectly right on your first try.
• Glue and/or tape It’s always important to test out what you think might
• Recycled materials (bottles, caps, cardboard, work, take what you learned from it, and take steps
cans, etc.) to improve it.
• Something to allow your rover to roll
• Elastic bands and/or string Why does it matter?
• Aluminum foil
• Popsicle sticks Canadians are playing a big role in the ongoing/
upcoming Artemis missions. For the first time in
What to do! history, a Canadian rover will explore the Moon!
Canadensys, a Canadian company, has been se-
Many different space agencies are currently working lected to build the Canadian lunar rover. A lot of work
together to launch a mission to the Moon. You has gone into the design so that it can withstand the
have been tasked with designing a rover that can extremely harsh conditions on the Moon, with special
withstand the harsh conditions on the Moon to help care given to the wheels. Normal tires like we use on
during the mission. Earth can’t be used without air pressure. Scientists
therefore had to design special wheels that don’t rely
Using any materials that you can think of, how would on air, yet don’t get clogged by the loose soil and
you design such a rover? Try to include solutions for have very good traction.
as many challenges as you can think of.
Investigate further!
1. Consider all the challenges that your rover might
face on the moon. (You might want to review Think beyond what you can make at home or in your
Designing Rovers for the Moon’s Extreme classroom. If you had access to any materials in the
Environment) world, how would that change your design? What
2. Create a design to face all of these challenges. effects would each of these new changes have on
3. Build your designed rover, if you want to. the overall impact of your rover?
4. Test your rover and see if there’s anything that
you can improve If you liked this activity, you might be interested in
5. Share your design and your results with others! our Lunar Rover Research Challenge!
What’s happening?
As with many human-made devices and structures,
there are often many different factors to consider
24Peter Visscher
Robotic Vehicle Development, General Manager
Canadensys Aerospace Corporation
I was born/grew up in: Exeter, Ontario I am motivated by
I now live in: Stratford, Ontario
I completed my training/education at: I attended Engineering and robotics is a lot of fun! Working with
the University of Western Ontario and completed a people that share the same passion makes it even
Bachelor of Mechanical Engineering. better. We get a great deal of satisfaction in being
able to follow an idea through the design stage, into
What I do at work the prototype state, through testing, and finally into
production.
As a robotic vehicle designer, I get to work with
plenty of super smart people! They are experts in How I affect peoples’ lives
various engineering fields. Together, we design,
build, and test lots of cool hardware. We design robotic vehicles that can be used for a
wide variety of tasks. These tasks include protecting
My job is to find interesting business opportunities our soldiers and even exploring other planets.
for our company. Then I create a vehicle design that
gets the client excited. Then, I get to work with my Outside of work I
team to turn ideas into reality. This involves coordi-
My hobbies include hiking, mountain biking, and
nating activities related to mechanical, electrical, and
napping. I occasionally work with students at local
even software engineering. We use several software
high schools. I also do some volunteering at church.
tools such as CAD for creating mechanical designs.
We also use specialized software for electrical
My advice to others
design. There is a lot of brainstorming and problem
solving required. But this is something that engineers Get as much hands-on experience as you can
love to do! before or during college or university. This will greatly
improve your education and make it more interesting
My career path and effective. Book knowledge becomes more
concrete when put into practice.
II was a potato and broccoli farmer and a mechanic
until I was 27. Then I got married. My wife encour-
aged me to go to school to become an engineer.
I think it was because I was continually modifying
everything that we owned to make it go faster or be
louder.
Then, I worked at a company making off-road ve-
hicles. Then someone asked me if I wanted to help
design a lunar rover. So, I did that until now.
Today I’m the General Manager of Canadensys
Aerospace Corporation in Stratford, Ontario. We
design and build advanced vehicles for civil, defense
and security use. We are also designing a Lunar
Rover that will be used on the moon. It’s pretty cool
to be involved in that!
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