Sentinel - Raytheon Technologies
←
→
Page content transcription
If your browser does not render page correctly, please read the page content below
Sentinel
This Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) image taken by a Sentinel
has discovered a deployment worthy of further investigation
(inset, bottom left). Another airborne platform with an electro-
optical sensor has been directed to the location, and has
confirmed that these are armoured fighting vehicles (inset, top
left). This is an example of a ‘fused product’ from the image
analysts. (The resolution of the SAR image has been degraded)
Raytheon UK
Kao One
Kao Park
Harlow
Essex
CM17 9NA
The Airborne Stand-Off Radar System (ASTOR)
Tel: +44 (0)1219 426862
Fax: +44 (0)1219 407268
– past, present and future
www.raytheon.co.uk ©2017 Raytheon Company. All rights reserved.
Issue 1.0 – SEPTEMBER 2017.
2 Sentinel Sentinel 3
INTRODUCTION CONTENTS
The Sentinel story goes back to the early 1980s, as
Sentinel
this book explains. At that time, and even upon its
introduction to service in 2005, few people could
have predicted the success that the ASTOR system 1
would enjoy. It has arguably become the most ORIGINS 4
effective and adaptable airborne reconnaissance
The Airborne Stand-Off Radar System (ASTOR)
system ever deployed. That fascinating story from
initial requirements to current operations can be
2
PROPOSALS 9
followed in these pages.
– past, present and future Credit for this success lies with a great number
3
of individuals. First, those responsible for defining
THE WINNER 14
by Chris Pocock the early requirements. They achieved a clarity of
purpose that enabled the development of a unique
and remarkably capable system. Next, the joint
programme teams who turned the requirements
4
DEVELOPMENT 18
into reality. Then the early operators who worked
With thanks to:
through the initial challenges of deployment,
supported by industry. They developed a concept 5
Mike Burstow, John Craib, Rob Crook, Hamilton Johnston, Tony Jordan, Barry Lowe, of operations that has delivered significant military SERVICE 22
George McFarlane, Peter Robbie, Mark Martinez, Phil Nettleship and Nick West capability to this day. Credit is also due to all those
Photographs:
who have worked tirelessly and collaboratively to
maintain the system and its performance whilst
6
DEPLOYMENT 28
AIN (p21); MOD Crown Copyright (front and back covers, p4, p7, p22, p25, p28, p30, p31, p32, constantly under budgetary threat.
p34, p38); via Terry Panopalis (p4); Chris Pocock (p6, p11, p13, p16, p23, p25, p26, p29, p35);
Raytheon (p9, p10, p11, p12, p14, p17, p18, p20, p21, p24, p27, p34, p36, inside back cover);
And there is plenty of promise for the future.
Sentinel is still very relevant, and its sensor and
7
Chris Ryan (p13); and US Air Force (p6). REPRIEVE 32
communications capabilities could be significantly
enhanced. Indeed, it could evolve into a truly
Multi Mission Aircraft, with relevance to operations
around the globe.
8
FUTURE 36
© 2017. The entire contents of this publication are protected by copyright. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
Roland Howell,
system, or transmitted in any form or by any means: electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher.
The views and opinions expressed by independent authors and contributors in this publication are provided in the writers’ personal capacities and are their sole Director, Airborne ISR, Raytheon UK
responsibility. Their publication does not imply that they represent the views or opinions of the Royal Air Force or Raytheon and must neither be regarded as
constituting advice on any matter whatsoever, nor be interpreted as such.
4 Sentinel | CHAPTER ONE Sentinel | CHAPTER ONE 5
CHAPTER ONE
This BN-2T Islander flew trials of a Ferranti MTI
radar for the Army’s CASTOR requirement
ORIGINS
When the Sentinel R.1 entered service with the Royal Air Force (RAF), Raytheon promised to provide a
new and unique surveillance capability. Ten years later, the Airborne Stand-Off Radar (ASTOR) system has
more than fulfilled that promise. The five aircraft have served British and allied forces in multiple theatres,
bringing them intelligence that could not have been obtained by any other means.
For a military commander, knowing the disposition and from May 1984, this aircraft flew with a Ferranti MTI radar, its
movement of enemy forces is half the battle won. Anything that 360-degree scanning antenna housed in an ungainly circular
helps dispel ‘the fog of war’ should be embraced. In the 1970s, radome beneath the nose. In the cabin, operators at two
developments in imaging radar and datalink technology began workstations viewed the imagery that was collected, at a range
to offer new possibilities for gathering timely information across of up to 70 miles. Ultimately, though, it was also intended to
wide areas. In particular, digital processing of the video signals downlink the radar returns to a ground station.
from Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) systems improved their
ground mapping range and resolution substantially. Moreover, Meanwhile, the RAF was evolving its own requirement for
digital processing made possible the correct interpretation of longer-range surveillance by SAR of fixed targets such as
the Doppler shifts of moving targets that were detected by these airfields and bridges from much higher altitudes by the Canberra
SARs. The combination of Moving Target Indicator (MTI) displays PR.9 jet. The RAF had previously flown a podded SAR system
with ground mapping SAR, offered the prospect of accurate all- provided by Thorn-EMI on its Phantom FGR.2 fighters. That
weather, day-night surveillance. company had also produced the Searchwater radar for the RAF’s
Nimrod MR.2 maritime patrol aircraft, in conjunction with the
With this in mind, and responding to increasing concern that the MOD’s Royal Signals and Radar Research Establishment (RSRE)
Warsaw Pact could mount a surprise armoured attack in central at Malvern. Thorn-EMI and the RSRE studied the development
Europe, the British Army developed a requirement in 1980 for a of a ground surveillance SAR and mounted it in the bomb bay
Corps Airborne Stand-Off Radar (CASTOR) system. The concept of an MOD Canberra B.6 for flight trials from the RAE airfield
was to mount an MTI sensor on an Islander twin turboprop that at Thurleigh in 1982. These proved promising, and in late 1983,
would fly close to the front lines of the Cold War at medium Thorn-EMI won an engineering and design study from the MOD,
This synthetic aperture radar (SAR) image was produced altitude. It would provide indications of movement and other that might offer an alternative to the CASTOR.
during flight trials by a Canberra (insert) of a sensor hostile intent on the other side of the inner German border.
But these British efforts lagged SAR and MTI development in
developed by Thorn-EMI and the MOD’s Royal Signals
In 1983 the UK Ministry of Defence (MOD) purchased a BN-2T the US, which had invested heavily in long-range, integrated,
and Radar Establishment (RSRE)
Turbine Islander from Pilatus Britten Norman (PBN) for flying near-real-time battlefield surveillance systems. In particular,
trials of the CASTOR concept. Over a period of two years Hughes Radar Systems Group had been developing an Advanced
6 Sentinel | CHAPTER ONE Sentinel | CHAPTER ONE 7
Synthetic Aperture Radar System (ASARS) for the high-flying U-2 could also be exploited and disseminated by up to 15 operators. In 1986 British defence ministers decided that two different The TDP was approved in April 1986. The RSRE explored
spyplane since 1977. This sensor first flew in 1981, just as the Some of these operators were onboard to perform the battlefield operational systems were unaffordable, and directed that whether satisfactory resolution at long-range could be achieved
U-2 was put back into production as the TR-1, for deployment command and control function, rather than intelligence analysis. the Army and RAF requirements be combined. The CASTOR by a SAR despite the motion of the aircraft, and whether the
to Europe as a new tool for monitoring Warsaw Pact military Although JSTARS would also include a unique surveillance and requirement was dropped, and Staff Requirement (Land and Air) MTI mode could detect and accurately locate targets despite
deployments. The first operational ASARS mission was flown control datalink (SCDL) to multiple ground stations, by contrast 925 for the ASTOR system was issued. having to process the Doppler returns while the aircraft was
from the TR-1 base at RAF Alconbury, UK, in 1985. But the US ASARS was exclusively controlled by a ground station that also moving across track. The TDP also explored inter-operability with
kept details of the ASARS and its imagery highly classified, and received and processed the raw radar data. But the MOD was concerned that the technical risk of NATO allies, especially the JSTARS.
was reluctant to grant access, even to its closest ally in the UK. developing the ASTOR radar to combine SAR and MTI
Although the airborne platforms for both these American radar The RSRE flew a modified Searchwater radar on the trials
remained high; that the concept of operations had not been
systems would be ‘owned’ by the US Air Force, their operation Canberra, with an MTI added by Thorn-EMI. It also flew a lower-
properly defined; and that the system might not be survivable
and output was heavily influenced by the requirements of the power experimental radar on an Andover transport aircraft. The
in a conflict.
US Army – JSTARS in particular. In the UK, however, inter-service output was recorded onboard and processed after the aircraft
rivalry developed as the Army pursued the CASTOR requirement It therefore directed that the RSRE conduct a Technology had landed. Thorn-EMI was also contracted to further evaluate
for up to 15 Turbine Islanders while the RAF eyed a buy of up to Demonstrator Programme (TDP) to resolve these questions. low-altitude MTI performance by flying an adaptation of its
nine SAR-plus-MTI radar systems from Thorn-EMI to install on its
Canberra PR.9s. The rivalry was part-doctrinal and part-technical.
The Army wanted control of a system that could identify targets
close enough to the flight line for attack by artillery such as the A wide-area Moving Target Indicator
Multiple Launch Rocket System (MLRS). An MTI on a medium- (MTI) scan from the JSTARS
A TR-1 taxies for takeoff from RAF Alconbury, carrying an ASARS-2 altitude platform could do that. But the longer-range SAR
radar sensor in the nose and a SIGINT system in wing pods imaging that the RAF required could best be achieved by a
faster and higher-flying platform.
ASARS was a mapping radar employing an electronically-
scanned antenna to produce very high-resolution imagery of
fixed targets. A limited MTI capability would later be added to The Joint Surveillance and Target Attack Radar System
ASARS. By contrast, another airborne ground surveillance radar (JSTARS) was carried by converted Boeing 707 airliners
being developed in the US, by Norden Systems, was optimized
from the start as an MTI that could cover a wide-area. For this
purpose, it necessarily featured a much longer antenna, and the
airborne platform to house it would be converted Boeing 707
airliners.
This was the Joint Surveillance and Target Attack Radar System
(JSTARS), developed from 1985 by prime contactor Grumman. To
be designated E-8C in service, the JSTARS concept also differed
from ASARS by processing the radar signals onboard, where they
8 Sentinel | CHAPTER ONE Sentinel | CHAPTER TWO 9
CHAPTER TWO
Skymaster AEW radar in another BN-2T Islander, with a bulbous 50,000 feet. And a radar ‘grazing angle’ no lower than two
nose radome that was larger than the ‘platypus’ one flown on degrees was desirable to reduce the ground area that would be
the CASTOR trials version. This aircraft flew from PBN’s base at in shadow.
Bembridge airfield on the Isle of Wight. Towards the end of its
flight trials in 1990, the BN-2T downlinked radar returns to a Fortunately, there were now two new business jets in
development that could fast-cruise at 50,000 feet –
PROPOSALS
mobile Motorola ground station from the JSTARS programme
that the US provided in a transatlantic co-operation initiative. the Bombardier Global Express and the Gulfstream V. The First Gulf War had been a fast-moving conflict in which precision air-launched weapons played a
These also seemed to offer a more flexible and lower-cost major role. It was followed by new wars closer to home, in the Balkans. The need to track large numbers
To further explore whether the imagery obtained would have solution than JSTARS – and the MOD was certainly not of targets moving through central European chokepoints such as the Fulda Gap may have gone.
real military utility, the RSRE built a high-fidelity simulation interested in the airborne command and control role that But in the former Yugoslavia, new imperatives arose, such as finding single tanks hidden in farmyards.
facility to represent the terrain in central Europe. Image analysts the E-8C also performed.
and intelligence officers from the Army and the RAF were The ASTOR requirement needed revision, but there were further The MOD’s Equipment Approvals Committee finally endorsed
enlisted to interpret the radar returns, including whether it By 1991, however, the geopolitical landscape had changed. The
delays as elements within the Army and the RAF questioned its the ASTOR requirement in June 1993. The first briefings to
would be useful to classify targets as tracked or wheeled. Cold War had ended without armed conflict as the Warsaw Pact
purpose and debated how and where to exploit and disseminate industry followed, as the project inched towards the Project
collapsed. Instead, a major war had unfolded in the Middle East
what was – in theory – highly classified reconnaissance data. Definition (PD) phase. The MOD was looking for a prime
At the same time, British military experience in interpreting after Iraq had invaded Kuwait.
In 1992, various papers went back and forth between the MOD contractor who would take responsibility for delivering the
reconnaissance radar imagery was being boosted by a
For Operation Desert Storm, the US deployed both the and the two services, who were still not entirely in accord over whole system: aircraft, radar, datalinks, ground stations, training
transatlantic agreement whereby the US provided the UK and
operational TR-1/ASARS and the developmental E-8C/JSTARS the project. and logistics support. The prime would assemble teams to
NATO with a ground station that exploited the product of the
aircraft, and their ground stations. They proved the value of provide the many pieces of the puzzle. The prime would also
daily TR-1 flights over central Europe – the TR-1 ASARS Data A consensus finally emerged that the ASTOR capability could
near-real-time radar reconnaissance in fast-moving battlefield be the design authority.
Manipulation System (TADMS). radically improve the Army’s modus operandi, and provide
situations. The question for the UK MOD was, how did the New
targeting information for the RAF that could not be provided But a number of key points remained unresolved. They included
The TDP took nearly five years, ending in July 1991, but the World Order affect the requirement for ASTOR, that had been
from space, or from conventional imaging systems carried how much endurance was needed and feasible, and therefore
results were promising. The feasibility of a fully dual-mode radar written under very different circumstances?
by tactical fighters. If – as seemed likely – UK armed forces whether the chosen aircraft should be inflight-refuelled. Would
(DMR) that could provide continuous MTI sweeps across a wide
would be required in future to operate in previously-uncharted the new, higher-flying business jets offer enough payload for
area plus swaths and higher-resolution spotlights in SAR mode,
territory, a wide area airborne surveillance system that could be
over long ranges, was confirmed. The MTI could be replayed so
“
rapidly deployed had obvious value. In addition, the notion that
that analysts could understand the past movements of The ASTOR requirement evolved because
ASTOR could prove valuable information for managing national
their targets. of three major pressures: the budget; the
civil crises such as flooding and serious disruption to national
realisation that airborne battlefield C2
And important lessons emerged about the airborne platform. logistics, gained considerable political support.
would never be doctrinally acceptable in
A high-speed aircraft did indeed enable better SAR image the UK; and the decree that the Army and
“ But there was the question of cost. The TDP had cost
formation. And to increase the line-of-sight to the target areas, the RAF work together £10.2 million; the British trial radars were at an early stage of
and to avoid the turbulence that could affect radar resolution
Mike Burstow, RSRE development, and still without effective data-linking. The MOD
despite the application of phase correction techniques, a high-
was unwilling to bear the expense of a full-scale development,
flyer was preferable. The radar range limit was thought to be
and wanted an off-the-shelf solution.
about 220km at 35,000 feet, but this increased to 300km at
The Global Express was one of the new, high-flying
business jets that were developed in the mid-1990s
10 Sentinel | CHAPTER TWO Sentinel | CHAPTER TWO 11
the radar system plus onboard workstations? Indeed, what was A NATO study group soon ruled out development of a new Raytheon – delivered their ideas for a generic specification, to boost the UK content of its proposal. The first aircraft would
the desirable balance between having onboard versus ground- platform for AGS, and examined existing candidates. JSTARS was and also their own costed proposals to meet the requirement. be modified at the Greenville, Texas facility of E-Systems, the
based operators? Could these new jets accommodate the longer top of the list, and the US was pressing the alliance to make They were remarkably similar, according to the MOD. very experienced systems integrator that Raytheon had acquired
antenna required for MTI? Could they additionally accommodate a quick commitment while the E-8C was in production for the Both had validated the concept of using a high-flying in 1995. (LMUKGS proposed to modify all five Gulfstream Vs in
a long-range electro-optical imaging sensor – and was this US Air Force. (By now, the JSTARS prime contractor Grumman business jet and suggested that five would be required. the UK at Marshall Aerospace in Cambridge).
desirable? And even at 50,000 feet, would they be vulnerable had merged into Northrop, and radar supplier Norden had been That would be enough to provide 24-hour coverage of
to attack by modern surface-to-air missiles? bought by Westinghouse. In 1996 Northrop Grumman acquired one area on orbit at significant range. The two primes had also agreed that three onboard
Westinghouse, thereby assuming responsibility for the JSTARS workstations would be desirable, each with two screens.
Another six months passed before a Cardinal Points radar as well as its airborne platform). But the two primes chose different airframes. Lockheed Martin A mission controller would sit at one of these. He would handle
Specification (CPS) was generated and Invitations To Tender for opted for the Gulfstream V business jet, which was about to be inflight replanning to accommodate urgently-requested tasks,
the PD phase were sent to eight potential prime contractors in But JSTARS was very expensive, and many observers questioned which might reach him by radio from the ground (the MOD
March 1994. Seven of them responded. Finally, in January 1995, the wisdom of converting 30-year old Boeing 707 airframes for called these ‘Quickfire’ tasks). He might also communicate
two competing consortia were given PD contracts. They were the mission. NATO officials made clear that whatever system directly with other airborne assets such as attack helicopters or
led by the British subsidiaries of two large American defence was chosen for the UK ASTOR requirement would also be fast jets. Image analysts would sit at the other workstations.
companies: Loral (soon to be acquired by Lockheed Martin) and considered for AGS. For its part, the MOD believed that ASTOR
Raytheon. was the only planned system that could meet NATO’s need.
The MOD stipulated that contenders for ASTOR should be fully
These two consortia were given 17 months to recommend Lockheed Martin chose the Gulfstream V
inter-operable with JSTARS, including its ground stations.
the most cost-effective options. Meanwhile, the MOD would as the platform for its ASTOR proposal
It became UK policy to offer ASTOR – once it was in service –
continue to study various issues, including human factors such as a contribution-in-kind to NATO AGS.
as the man-machine interface; the system information flow; certified by the FAA. Raytheon chose the Bombardier Global
command and control; and aircraft vulnerability. The MOD Express, a direct competitor to the Gulfstream V with the
The UK MOD and the competing contractors thought that the
would also conduct a Combined Operational Effectiveness and same BMW/Rolls-Royce BR710 turbofan engines and similar
ASTOR business jet concept was best-suited to meet NATO’s
Investment Appraisal (COEIA). Then there would be an open performance: a cruising speed of Mach 0.8 at 50,000 feet and
requirement for an Alliance Ground Surveillance (AGS) system
competition to select a single prime contractor, who would an endurance of about 14 hours. That was more than enough
take responsibility for the whole ASTOR system – aircraft, radar, A cutaway drawing of Raytheon’s proposed
for ASTOR, since the MOD envisaged a standard nine-hour
datalink, ground stations and training. cabin layout on the Global Express
mission: seven hours on-station plus one-hour transits from and
ASTOR’s relationship to allied systems was another thing for to the airbase.
The MOD had specified the Common Data Link (CDL) made
the MOD to consider. NATO had recently developed its own The Global Express had only just flown for the first time, but by Unisys (sold to L3 Communications in 1999) for wideband
requirement for an Alliance Ground Surveillance (AGS) system, Bombardier was aiming for certification in early 1998. That high-rate air-to-ground transmission of the radar data. The
that could be funded and operated in similar fashion to the would be in time to meet the MOD’s stated timescale for ASTOR: MOD had left the primes free to suggest the type of secondary,
NATO Airborne Early Warning (AEW) fleet of Boeing E-3A initial capability in 2001 and fully in service two years later. narrowband air-ground datalink that might be provided.
aircraft. During the recent conflicts in the former Yugoslavia, this Moreover, Bombardier owned the Short Brothers aircraft factory Raytheon had suggested a Broadcast MTI Data Link (BMDL) that
AEW fleet had provided an excellent ‘recognised air picture’, in Belfast, which was manufacturing 25% of the Global Express Cubic Defense Systems would develop from the SCDL that it had
but the NATO countries had collectively recognized “alarming In September 1996 the two prime contractors chosen for airframe. Raytheon proposed to convert all but the first jet there, supplied to the JSTARS.
shortcomings” in achieving a recognised land picture. the ASTOR project definition phase – Lockheed Martin and
12 Sentinel | CHAPTER TWO Sentinel | CHAPTER TWO 13
The MOD also required the ASTOR aircraft to have a satellite headquarters. There would also be number of fully mobile The Lockheed Martin Skunk Works also briefed the MOD on
communications system that could include (for instance) the Tactical Ground Stations (TGS) that could receive radar imagery an ASTOR version of the U-2. This was not much different from
ability to transmit compressed single radar images via the in the field. The MOD had also specified that all the ground the version currently serving the US Air Force and therefore a
UK SkyNet satellites. If none of these links were available or station modules be transportable by C-130 airlifters and CH-47 much cheaper solution, according to the Skunk Works. It offered
suitable, the radar data could be recorded and stored onboard, Chinook helicopters. (The number of ground stations was agreed six aircraft including sensors and datalinks, plus one main
for later transmission or post-flight analysis. in 1999 – two OLGS and six TGS). transportable ground station and 50 small ground terminals, for
just over £200 million. But the MOD was never really inclined
Lockheed Martin opted for Leyland four-tonne trucks and 14- to accept the radically-different modus operandi of the very-
foot ISO container shelters, to be converted by MSI. It included high altitude U-2, with its single, pressure-suited pilot and no
Logica in its team to provide communications integration and possibility of onboard processing and exploitation.
image processing expertise. Raytheon opted for 20-foot shelters
and Steyr-Pinzgauer vehicles that would be provided by Marshall In March 1997 the MOD successfully submitted the latest plan
Specialist Vehicles. Motorola – the provider of the JSTARS for ASTOR to the Equipment Approvals Committee. Ministerial
ground stations - would provide software to Cossor, a Raytheon approval followed. Then the MOD invited fixed-price Best and
UK subsidiary, to integrate into the ASTOR ground stations. Final Offers (BAFOs) for full development and production from
LMUKGS and Raytheon, rather than invite the other primes that
The two primes proposed rather different radar solutions. A U-2 pilot in his pressure suit, in front of the ASARS had previously expressed interest to make proposals based on
nose of the high-flying spy plane the now-defined requirement. The MOD had budgeted to pay
Mindful of the MOD’s demanding MTI specification, as well as a about £750 million to acquire the ASTOR system, including the
desire to demonstrate the maximum participation of UK industry, first two years of in-service support.
Hughes therefore proposed extending it to 16 feet, and boosting
Lockheed Martin chose as radar partner the British company
the radar’s power. In the UK, GEC Marconi at Edinburgh would
Connectivity to ground stations was an essential part of Racal – which had just bought the Thorn EMI sensors division
be subcontracted to design the antenna casing, mounting and
the ASTOR system, as this Raytheon drawing illustrates that had been working with the RSRE. Racal claimed to now be
gimbals. (Both primes were proposing a ‘1D’ antenna, that
“the UK centre of excellence for surveillance radar.” However,
rolled through 180 degrees to provide imaging on either side
two key radar items would be subcontracted to the US – Texas
The MOD had also decreed that Marconi Electronic Systems of the aircraft, without the need for it to turn around).
Instruments would supply an active electronically scanned
supply the Defensive Aids Sub-System (DASS). This comprised antenna (AESA). The SAR processing algorithms would be During the PD phase, the US government pressed the UK
radar and missile warning receivers; a countermeasures subcontracted to the former Goodyear radar facility at Phoenix, government to consider buying JSTARS. MOD officials were
dispenser; and a towed decoy. AZ that was now owned by Lockheed Martin. briefed by Northrop Grumman and the US Air Force, and they
As for ground stations, both primes followed the MOD’s flew on the airplane. But many factors weighed against it: cost;
On the other hand, Raytheon responded to the MOD’s desire to
preference for the adaptation of existing shelters and vehicles size; its lower cruising altitude; the old airframes; the unique, The MOD asked the Lockheed Martin Skunk Works to
save money and avoid risk by including as much off-the-shelf
rather than all-new designs, and the adoption of as much low-bandwidth datalink; and the inferior SAR performance of its make an alternative proposal for ASTOR with the U-2
technology as possible, by choosing Hughes, the maker of the
commercial-off-the-shelf (COTS) technology as possible for the radar, when equally good performance in dual modes was a key
U-2’s ASARS-2 radar, based at El Segundo, California. By now,
requirement for ASTOR. For instance, the MOD wanted analysts
“
data processing, displays and workstations. The MOD concept Hughes had added some MTI capability to that radar, but its
comprised at least one Operational Level Ground Station (OLGS) to be able to select an area of interest within a large-area ASTOR is not only affordable for a nation
passive electronically-scanning antenna wasn’t long enough to
housed in shelters, which might be located at an Army Division MTI image and, if the moving target stopped, call for a high- of our size, but we believe it also has “
meet the MTI specification for ASTOR.
resolution ‘spot SAR’ scan to try and identify it. significant potential around the world
Wg Cdr Hamilton Johnston, MOD OR15 (Air), 1997
14 Sentinel | CHAPTER THREE Sentinel | CHAPTER THREE 15
Raytheon’s radar proposal for ASTOR was based on the
ASARS-2 radar that was already producing excellent imagery
from the U-2 platform. A wide-area SAR map of Mojave Airport,
California, is shown (main picture) with an enlargement (left CHAPTER THREE
top insert) and a spot image (centre top insert) of stored Boeing
747 airliners there. Some MTI capability had been added to
ASARS (bottom right, overlaid on a SAR map), but the radar
THE WINNER
antenna (bottom left, being installed in a U-2 nose) would have Although ASTOR was not an expensive procurement compared to many MOD projects, it was a high-
to be extended to meet the demanding ASTOR specification. visibility project. The two project definition competitors had briefed the media and lobbied intensively,
especially at the Farnborough Airshow in September 1996 and the Paris Air Show in June 1997.
They had both claimed to offer the best technical solution. They had both claimed to be offering
‘smart procurement’ – that was the new buzz-phrase in the corridors of the MOD. They had both
claimed the creation of thousands of jobs in the UK via their proposals.
But in the autumn of 1997, the project became even more survived the new Labour government’s defence review,
political, after President Clinton lobbied new British Prime published in July 1998.
Minister Tony Blair to allowed Northrop Grumman to re-enter
the contest. This time, the pitch was not for JSTARS on a Boeing In August 1998, Northrop Grumman finally revealed publicly
707, which had just been firmly rejected by NATO as a solution some details of its bid, which it named ‘Wizard’. It opened a
to the AGS requirement. Instead, Northrop Grumman was demonstration and briefing centre in London that contained
proposing to put a modified JSTARS radar on one or other of mockups of the aircraft and the ground station. The following
the business jets proposed by Lockheed Martin and Raytheon. month, it took these to the Farnborough Airshow.
It recruited British Aerospace as the airframe integrator. But Northrop Grumman claimed to be offering a radar with
Northrop Grumman withheld any significant detail of its plan “extraordinary performance derived from the advanced
from public view. technology that the US government has made available as
ASTOR program officials at the MOD were highly annoyed at part of a US-UK co-development programme.” This was a
this intervention from on high. They questioned whether this reference to a new and classified AESA radar with the acronym
was a good example of ‘smart procurement’. Lockheed Martin RTIP (Radar Technology Insertion Programme) that the company
and Raytheon were also annoyed, since they were spending was due to develop as an upgrade for JSTARS. It boasted that
their own money to keep their bid teams together, while the SAR resolution, MTI revisit rate and MTI location accuracy
awaiting the MOD’s request for Best And Final Offers (BAFOs). of RTIP were all much better than the ASTOR requirement,
and that an inverse SAR mode would also be included.
Somehow, Northrop Grumman defined its proposal in time Northrop Grumman also claimed unique high performance
to join Lockheed Martin and Raytheon in providing their from a suite of five communications links. The Wizard proposal
BAFOs to the MOD in late February 1998. At the MOD’s specified high-end operator workstations, but in other respects
request, the BAFOs included options for four or five aircraft. was similar to that of the other two bidders with respect to the
The briefing and lobbying continued. But at least ASTOR ground segments.
16 Sentinel | CHAPTER THREE Sentinel | CHAPTER THREE 17
with the highest UK content. It is an innovative design that Raytheon also said it would begin marketing the ASTOR system
will provide an independent national surveillance capability,” worldwide, notably to NATO for the ongoing AGS requirement. THE WINNING TEAM
said the MOD’s Defence Procurement Agency. Referring to the MOD officials supported that ambition, but said that ensuring
airborne platform’s origin as a business jet, an MOD official interoperability between ASTOR and AGS was the first priority. Raytheon Systems Ltd – programme management,
joked that “the leather sofas and cushions are unlikely to be design authority, ground station integration, logistics
The MOD admitted that because of the long delays in selecting support system, training system
included!”
a winner, the in-service date for ASTOR had slipped from 2003
to 2005. RAF Waddington was nominated as the ASTOR base; Bombardier Aerospace – Global Express airframe
In more detail, the reasons for choosing the Raytheon-led team
Northrop Grumman’s controversial late ‘Wizard’ bid for included the 30% greater cabin floor area and much greater it already housed the RAF’s E-3 Sentry AEW fleet. Detailed BMW Rolls-Royce – Global Express engines
ASTOR was based on the Gulfstream V electrical power and redundancy offered by the Global Express; contract negotiations began, and ended with a signing in
December 1999. Rather than a two-year initial logistics support Raytheon E-Systems – airframe integration
the good reputation of E-Systems in modifying many different
The Gulfstream V would be the airborne platform for Wizard. airframes for special mission roles, including ISR; and the lesser contract, the MOD and Raytheon agreed a ten-year deal worth Raytheon Aircraft Services Ltd – airframe integration
development risk that was ascribed to modifying the Hughes about £140 million.
In an otherwise aggressive media briefing, Northrop Grumman Raytheon Systems Co (ex-Hughes) – radar
officials were vague on when it could deliver on this proposal, ASARS-2 radar. (In fact, the radar was now directly under
whether it could meet the £733 million procurement cost ceiling the control of Raytheon, which had bought Hughes in GEC Marconi – radar components, defensive aids system
for ASTOR that the MOD had recently been publicizing, and December 1997).
British Aerospace Systems and Equipment (BASE) –
whether the US would ever allow Wizard to be exported beyond As for UK content and employment, Raytheon claimed that its satcom and radar antenna radomes
the UK. They did admit that system design authority would selection would drive the growth in the UK of a world-leading
have to remain in the US, although they described key partners Data Sciences – software interfaces to UK military
electronics system integrator. In the previous year, Raytheon communications systems
British Aerospace and Computing Devices as “sister design
had established Raytheon Systems Ltd (RSL) to fully integrate
authorities”. DERA Malvern – design consultancy on motion
its British acquisitions, thereby matching Lockheed Martin’s
compensation and autofocus of the radar, ground station
The two other contenders for ASTOR reacted predictably, staging UK-based profile. RSL already employed nearly 2,000 people
design and sofware
a fresh set of briefings to press the merits of their proposals. In at eight British locations. They included the Hawker Beechcraft
late February 1999, Lockheed Martin and Raytheon presented factory at Broughton in North Wales, which Raytheon planned L3 Communications – wideband Common Data Link
their cases to the House of Commons Defence Select Committee to develop into a special missions conversion facility. The UK (CDL)
in a closed hearing. The contenders sent some unsolicited bid content was 75% of the entire ASTOR system, Raytheon said.
Cubic Defense Systems – Broadcast MTI Data Link
clarifications and modifications to the MOD, and the promised But it would place work with UK firms worth the entire value Leaders of the winning Raytheon team at the Paris Air Show in (BMDL)
decision was put off several times. British Defence Secretary of the contract. That value was a fixed price £800 million, June 1999. Left to right: Peter Robbie, Director of Surveillance and
George Robertson requested and received an unprecedented according to the MOD. Ultra Electronics – BMDL subcontractor to Cubic
Reconnaissance, RSL; Dr Richard Anderson, Programme Director,
personal briefing from all three contenders. ASTOR; and Peter McKee, Managing Director, RSL Motorola – ground station design and software lead
Raytheon also noted that UK companies (such as Dowty and
Finally, during simultaneous media briefings in London and Lucas) contributed more to the Global Express airframe than to Marshall Specialist Vehicles – transportable ground
at the Paris Air Show in June 1999, the MOD announced that
Raytheon was the preferred bidder. “The chosen ASTOR solution
is the most cost-effective and operationally flexible solution
the Gulfstream V. (Raytheon had dropped Short Brothers as the
converter of the second and subsequent aircraft in favour of its
own operation at Broughton airfield in North Wales).
“ ASTOR is a big deal for the armed forces, a
big deal for the companies concerned, and
a big deal for the United Kingdom.
“ station vehicles
Racal-Thorn – mission support system
Logica – information systems support
George Robertson, UK Defence Secretary, June 1999
18 Sentinel | CHAPTER FOUR Sentinel | CHAPTER FOUR 19
CHAPTER FOUR
One of the first SAR maps obtained by ASTOR
DEVELOPMENT
showed the Greenville flight test base
Raytheon started work on the ASTOR contract in January 2000. But it was not long before the company
realised that the “ASARS 2-Plus” radar solution might not meet the demanding ASTOR specification after
all. Despite a late change from dual transmitters to power amplifier modules, the radiated power was
still insufficient. Moreover, the required growth path would be difficult to achieve.
During 2000-01, Raytheon solved the problem – at its own the additional weight; and whether the Global Express carried
considerable expense – by designing an active electronically enough engine oil for the extra flight time. But in any case, the
scanned antenna (AESA) that was 14 feet long. Transmit/Receive jet already offered sufficient endurance to meet the ASTOR time-
(TR) modules from Texas Instruments – another company whose on-station requirement.
defence business was now owned by Raytheon – would perform
the transmitter function. Bombardier provided the prototype Global Express to the
Raytheon Aircraft Integration Systems factory (formerly
But the new antenna was heavier than its predecessor, and E-Systems) in Greenville, Texas, where dummy upper and lower
needed more cooling. The weight margin of the Global Express radomes were fitted. From July 2001, some 300 hours of
was being eroded. Partly for this reason, the option to add an aerodynamic flight tests were logged, and RAF pilots flew the
Dual Mode Radar Receiver/Exciter electro-optical sensor was now dropped. It could have made business jet for the first time. Some minor modifications to the
the ASTOR at least a partial replacement for the RAF’s small airframes to be converted were deemed necessary – a 15-inch
and ageing Canberra PR.9 fleet. But there were also concerns extension to the fin height and two ventral fins under the rear
over the very high data rate required to send the imagery to the fuselage. These restored the handling to that of a standard
ground. And if it were processed and analysed in the aircraft, Global Express.
that would require additional crew, workstations and safety
equipment, thus adding to the all-up weight. Raytheon established a Systems Integration Laboratory (SIL)
at Greenville and prepared to modify the first ‘green’ Global
Another option that had also been kept open, was also dropped Express airframe there. It arrived in February 2002 and would
at the preliminary design review stage. This was the air-to-air make its first flight after conversion in 2004. But a complication
refuelling system. It had been included to allow operations now arose when Raytheon sold the Greenville facility to L3
from short runways and a faster climb to altitude, as well as Communications. After the sale in March 2002, L3 continued to
greater endurance. Questions arose over the safe routing of support the ASTOR programme as a subcontractor to Raytheon.
the pipework through the cabin; the need for additional crew;
Antenna Array
The Global Express prototype was used at Greenville from The Dual Mode Radar would be carried in
July 2001 for aerodynamic flight tests of the radomes a long canoe radome under the fuselage20 Sentinel | CHAPTER FOUR Sentinel | CHAPTER FOUR 21
The System Critical Design Review was completed in late Raytheon officials explained that the company would be to it for the first time until December 2004, a few months
2002, a little behind schedule. But Raytheon still expected to responsible for all support at the second level and below, plus later than planned because of some mechanical problems.
meet the In-Service Date (ISD) of September 2005 (defined as all the training of maintainers and operators. They noted that a The other four aircraft were now all at Broughton, and the
the acceptance of to aircraft and two ground stations). Final number of its British employees were on long-term secondment number two conversion was well underway. It first flew in July
deliveries would be made in 2008. to Greenville, and described the plan to transition the Design 2005, externally-modified but without the systems installed.
Authority for the system to the UK. The ISD had to be postponed until late 2006, with Full
By early 2003, the first ‘green’ Global Express (construction Operational Capability to follow in late 2008.
number 9107, to be serialled ZJ690 in RAF service) was at Meanwhile, Raytheon formally offered ASTOR to NATO.
Greenville for conversion. The second (9123/ZJ691) was at The alliance was dithering over the AGS platform, with some Flight tests to fully integrate the ASTOR system continued at
Broughton for conversion. countries favoring an expensive solution offered by Northrop Greenville throughout 2005. The first data-gathering flight took
The second ASTOR airframe taking off from Broughton for
Grumman and based on an Airbus A321. In May 2004, that place in October, and there was a successful ‘end-to-end’ test
Meanwhile, Raytheon was working at Waddington on a Greenville in March 2006
solution prevailed, without a formal competition. of the SAR mapping function in December. The clarity of the
headquarters building for the new ASTOR squadron, plus a imagery was outstanding. The Anglo-American team then moved
facility to house the rear airborne crew trainer and the ground The RAF nominated No 5 Squadron to operate the system. It on to MTI testing; electromagnetic interference and compatibility
stations crew trainer, and the classrooms. A target generator re-formed in April 2004. The squadron’s head count would rise testing; and tests of the Defensive Aids Sub-System (DASS). To
and radar simulator were part of the set-up. This work was to 300, by adding 140 Army personnel that would part-man the help speed the flight-test programme, the second aircraft was
completed on schedule in 2004. The first course began in ground stations to the unit’s 160 blue-suiters. Some 50 MOD flown from the UK to Greenville in March 2006.
January 2005. As for pilot training, a procedural flight deck civilian staff and 40 contractor staff would also be assigned to
trainer was being provided at Waddington, which could be Waddington. In service with the RAF, the ASTOR aircraft would Meanwhile, the testing of both types of ground stations
linked to the other two ground training devices. But it had been be named Sentinel R.1. continued at various locations in the UK. It was completed in
decided to qualify the aircrew at Bombardier’s Montreal facility, mid-2006.
taking advantage of the full-motion simulator there. The first flight of ZJ690 took place at Greenville in May 2004.
But the first production Dual Mode Radar (DMR) was not fitted The Sentinel made its major public debut at the Farnborough The public debut of the ASTOR-Sentinel system took place
In March 2003, Raytheon held a ceremony and media briefing Air Show in July 2006 when the last aircraft ZJ692 flew from at the Farnborough Air Show in July 2006
at Broughton to open the new Hangar 119 there. Defence Broughton to appear in the static park. A mobile TGS was also
Procurement Minister Lord Bach noted that that ASTOR would on display. In briefings at that time, Raytheon officials expressed
be part of the developing Network-Enabled Capability (NEC) complete confidence in meeting the ASTOR specifications. They
that the MOD was seeking. He said that the ‘Open Systems’
that were a key feature of ASTOR would support emailing and
web-browsing by the operators which would be surprisingly
ZJ690 took to the air for the first time in May 2004 reminded their audiences that the system featured the world’s
first active antenna on an ISR radar. And although the transmit/
receive modules were fabricated in the US, significant parts
“ The ASTOR test flights mark a major
milestone in UK industrial participation in
this advanced technology programme for
necessary. One of his officials explained that the of the radar were being built in the UK. RSL was building the the MOD. It is a great example of the high
£1 billion cost that had recently been ascribed to ASTOR low-voltage power supply and the receiver/exciter at Glenrothes level of competence that RSL has acquired “
included the Government-Furnished Equipment (GFE). Raytheon in Scotland. Selex-Galileo (formerly GEC Marconi) was providing in systems integration capability
was still working to a firm-price contract worth £800 million. the antenna gimbal. The end product would be a dual-mode Rob Crook, ASTOR Programme Director, RSL, 2005
radar with unprecedented capability.22 Sentinel | CHAPTER FIVE Sentinel | CHAPTER FIVE 23
CHAPTER FIVE
SERVICE
The first fully-configured Sentinel R.1 aircraft (ZJ690) arrived at Waddington from Greenville in late
January 2007, flown by a mixed crew from the RAF and Raytheon. It was formally handed over to the
RAF in March 2007, and by June, No 5 Squadron was flying up to five times per week on this single
aircraft. At the end of that month, the last but one of the ground stations was delivered, the squadron
was officially stood up, and Raytheon’s logistics support contract took effect. It provided for 3,200 hours
flying each year.
By now, the third aircraft (ZJ692) had joined the second at The Sentinel cockpit trainer at Waddington
Greenville from Broughton. Engineering development flights of
the radar continued to produce excellent results, as different
altitudes, angles and ranges were explored. Over the Army’s
Razorback training range in Arkansas, Russian MiG-29 aircraft
and SA-2/6 surface-to-air missile systems were visible in the
swath SAR mode, and confirmable in spot SAR mode. The level
of fuel in storage tanks was clearly visible in the same mode.
It was taking under one minute for the radar to collect a Spot
SAR image.
Raytheon had leased a farm in Texas on which to place its
own targets for detection: vehicles and other corner reflectors.
There were only a few test flights to go – but these had to prove
the most demanding requirement. That was the detection of
small targets moving slowly, and in clutter. disengage it at 200 feet upon returning to land,” said one of
them. The aircraft endurance was effectively 11 hours, though
This having been accomplished, the second and third aircraft missions of nine hours became typical. “Most of our job is about
returned to the UK and were delivered during the autumn. programming the aircraft systems, and most of our training is
No 5 Squadron was chosen to operate the Sentinel aircraft and The fourth jet quickly followed. about mastering emergency situations, should they arise,” the
ASTOR system, It was one of the oldest squadrons in the RAF, pilot added. Every six months, the pilots were doing check rides
and two of its previous types are shown here in formation with No 5 Squadron embraced its new role. For the two pilots,
in the Global Express simulator. Rather than going to Canada for
a Sentinel over RAF Waddington – a Hurricane and a Tornado flying the Sentinel was a straightforward task once mastered.
this, they were now using one operated by CAE in Sussex.
F.3. The new squadron headquarters building that Raytheon “We can engage the autopilot at 400 feet on climbout, and
provided can be seen below the Sentinel24 Sentinel | CHAPTER FIVE Sentinel | CHAPTER FIVE 25
experience.”This is my first tour using MTI…a lot of it is The Operational Level Ground Stations (OLGS) in their 20-foot It was not until April 2008 that No 5 Squadron was ready
self-taught,” said one of the airborne IAs. And although the containers offered greater processing power. They could be to spread its wings. The first two trained aircrews flew three
SAR imaging is of very high quality, the IAs were discovering airlifted – as plannned – by C-17 or C-130 transports. There ‘Capability Assurance Missions’ (CAMs) out of Greenville to
significant differences compared with ‘conventional’ electro- were three workstations in each OLGS container. check the system performance against contractual requirements.
optical or video images. The stand-off distance (or range A C-17 airlifted the third TGS to Greenville to receive the
to target) could be much greater, and they had to get used to This SAR image of vehicles moving along a road on Salisbury Plain downlink. The missions also downlinked to JSTARS ground
the fact that SAR data is processed so that its presentation was obtained during Exercise Maple Dagger, the 2008 ‘capability stations to prove inter-operability.
onscreen is always in plan view eg the IA is not looking down assurance’ test of the ASTOR system
The onboard rear crew comprises a mission the line-of-sight. The TGS was then moved from Greenville to China Lake,
commander and two image analysts California, to join the Sentinel in the US-led Exercise Empire
The ground station set-up was modular. The Tactical Ground Challenge. This was a deployment rehearsal that also served to
Stations (TGS) were mounted on the same Pinzgauer 6 x 6 further refine how the ASTOR system could work with JSTARS,
Unlike some other ISR aircraft, the rear crew enjoyed a spacious
wheeled vehicles that the Army was using for other specialised and with UAVs that produce ISR data, such as the Reaper.
feel to the main cabin. The air mission commander and his two
transport tasks. A typical TGS convoy would comprise two Meanwhile, three more CAMs were flown in the UK, against
airborne image analysts (IAs) sat facing the port side at three
vehicles each containing two workstations for the analysts, a targets provided by the Army on Salisbury Plain.
workstations arranged in a line. These were identical to those
communications vehicle, a support vehicle, plus trailers for the
found in the ground stations, so that tasks could be swapped In the six missions, 4,870 scenes were tasked and 4,600 actually
datalink ground terminals and the generators.
between the airborne and ground-based teams. collected. Ninety percent of the requests for information
A Tactical Ground Station (TGS) vehicle towing a generator were answered. MOD officials expressed their satisfaction,
But, as a senior squadron officer noted, “the processing
even though the ISD for ASTOR system had slipped by nearly
horsepower is on the ground. The airborne mission crews offers
three years.
redundancy, and are better placed to manage the sensor and
the communications. It’s basically a multi-user network with After absorbing the lessons learned from this flurry of activity,
In another image generated during Exercise Maple Dagger, an
servers and processors.” and receiving its fifth and final aircraft in September 2008, No 5
analyst has overlaid MTI data and comments on a digital map
Squadron prepared for its biggest test to date. In mid-November
“My job is to work with the two IAs to achieve the mission
2008 an Operational Level Ground Station (OLGS) was airlifted
plan and the collection plan,” said one of the air mission
to Camp Bastion in Afghanistan, and two Sentinels were flown
commanders. “I must ensure that the aircraft is in the right place
to Seeb airbase in Oman.
at the right time, bearing in mind the various constraints, such The datalink terminal is being towed
as the stand-off distance from the sensor to the ground, the behind one of the support vehicles
An Operational Level Ground Station (OLGS) was airlifted to
angle of view, and the sensor mode of operation,” he added.
Afghanistan in late 2008 and remained there for nearly six years
He described how he co-ordinated with the pilots to optimise
the flight path. “There isn’t a school that teaches you this –
most of our training has been on-the-job,” he added.
The same was true for the image analysts. Although their
basic training course included some interpretation of radar
reconnaissance data, they were also learning through26 Sentinel | CHAPTER FIVE Sentinel | CHAPTER FIVE 27
before sending them to the mission planning facility which
was co-located with the Sentinel aircraft. After another round
of clarification and prioritisation, the mission plan would be
The fleet of RAF Sentinels based at Waddington
created up to 24 hours before takeoff.
grew to five aircraft between 2007 and 2009
However, the tasking process was dynamic, so that additional
RFIs would follow during the mission itself. In some cases, this
required an adjustment in the flight path. Meanwhile, radar
images generated by the pre-planned tasking would be flowing
down the datalinks. “Our first priority was to get the real-time
reporting out,” explained a ground-based image analyst. This
was done informally via email-style chat, or by standardised
reporting formats.
In a typical scenario, three ASTOR analysts might be monitoring
a river running down a long valley, each one watching for
The airborne crew would adjust the mission plan to
movement over a particular bridge. A surveillance UAV would
accommodate short-notice requests for information,
only be able to cover one bridge at a time. Moreover, its
known as ‘Quickfire’ tasks
video sensor could be degraded by cloud or dust. “During our
deployment, ASTOR was sometimes the only sensor available,
due to bad weather,” recalled the image analyst. due to terrain masking. By now, the aircraft had a full suite
of secure HF, VHF and UHF radios; medium data-rate Satcom;
The work of the IAs did not finish, once the Sentinel had JTIDS and Link 16. As for the ground stations, they were fully
departed the area and returned to base. All of the imagery was able to communicate with the Army’s Bowman, Cormorant and
stored for further analysis. A second shift would take over in the Ptarmigan radio networks.
During a five-week deployment, the squadron flew 18 missions southern Afghanistan, but whose sensors have a much smaller
OLGS after each mission. Typically, they would replay some of
over Helmand and Nimruz provinces. This was the first time that field of view. Moreover, the ASTOR ground stations could import
the MTI data, looking for indications of the ordinary, and the A second deployment to fly over Afghanistan followed from
British deployed forces had enjoyed such a wide-area search processed video stills from these UAVs, so that the IAs could
exceptional. In the ISR business, they call this “establishing the February to April 2009. In late June 2009, as more crews
capability. ASTOR provided over 107 hours of MTI coverage, compare it with the SAR and MTI product. (The ASTOR ground
pattern of life.” Once this pattern is understood, it becomes were trained, a third deployment was made. This one became
stretching across 71,650 sq km. Almost 150 SAR images were stations could also receive, process and display electro-optic
easier to spot threatening behaviour – such as a group of semi-permanent, with the system remaining in-theatre until the
provided, covering nearly 2,700 sq km. “This type of surveillance imagery from the Raptor reconnaissance pod carried by some
Taliban descending from the hills to infiltrate a village. British (and NATO) withdrawal from Afghanistan five years later.
spans the range from strategic to tactical. We could pinpoint RAF Tornados).
“
exact locations, provide force protection, and identify whether Although the ASTOR system was not conceived as a command
the local population was coming forward to meet our troops on Most of the ASTOR tasking in Afghanistan came directly from We haven’t even begun to explore
and control platform, it did act as an airborne relay. For instance,
patrol, or retreating,” said an Army intelligence officer. 3 Commando Brigade, in the form of Requests for Information ASTOR’s potential to help in a
the Sentinel was flying high enough to maintain radio contact
(RFIs) transmitted to the OLGS, together with an indication of humanitarian crisis, such as severe “
with troops on patrol in the mountains of southern Afghanistan,
Moreover, the ASTOR system was able to ‘cue’ the Reaper and their relative priority. The analysts there – up to nine of them, flooding or an earthquake.
who could not communicate with their own headquarters
Hermes 450 surveillance UAVs that were also operating over led by a ground mission commander – would process the RFIs Gp Capt Harry Kemsley, commanding officer,
No 5 Squadron, 2009You can also read
