Scottish Government Investment in Rural Community Development: A Community Capitals Approach
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JOB No. 217478 COVER SG Cover DATE 08/03/2012
(if applicable)
COLOURS RGB TEXT 30pp OPERATOR CW
SCOTLAND ACCOUNT
PROOF No. 5 SIZE A4 (WEB) Nadine B Gharbia
MANAGER
Scottish Government Investment in Rural
Community Development: A Community
Capitals ApproachScottish Government Investment in Rural
Community Development: A Community
Capitals Approach
This paper uses a community capitals approach to consider the means
by which the Scottish Government is investing in rural communities,
to help them identify and build on the assets that they have. It also
indicates the types of outputs and outcomes which might be expected
as a result of investment in community capitals, as a first stage in thinking
about measuring progress.
Angela Hallam
Rural Analytical Unit
Rural and Environment Science and Analytical Services
Scottish Government
March 2012
The Scottish Government, Edinburgh 2012© Crown copyright 2012 You may re-use this information (excluding logos and images) free of charge in any format or medium, under the terms of the Open Government Licence. To view this licence, visit http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/doc/open-government-licence/ or e-mail: psi@nationalarchives.gsi.gov.uk. Where we have identified any third party copyright information you will need to obtain permission from the copyright holders concerned. This document is available from our website at www.scotland.gov.uk. ISBN: 978-1-78045-694-2 (web only) The Scottish Government St Andrew’s House Edinburgh EH1 3DG Produced for the Scottish Government by APS Group Scotland DPPAS12707 (03/12) Published by the Scottish Government, March 2012
INDEX
Executive Summary 4
1. Introduction 5
2. The community capitals approach 5
3. The seven capitals – some issues to consider 8
4. Mapping policy actions onto community capitals 10
5. Scottish Government investment in individual community capitals 11
6. A vision for stronger rural communities 12
7. What does success look like? 15
8. Conclusions 16
Annex 1 – ‘Our Rural Future’ – mapping actions onto community capitals
Annex 2 – SNP Manifesto 2011 – mapping commitments onto community
capitals
3Executive Summary
1. Introduction
This paper uses a community capitals approach to consider the means by which the
Scottish Government (SG) is currently investing in, and planning to invest in, rural
communities to help them identify and build on the assets that they have.
2. The community capitals approach
The approach is a useful tool for assessing how we might expect policy actions to
impact on communities. This paper uses the seven capitals model: financial; built;
human; social; natural; cultural; political.
3. The seven capitals – some issues to consider
• Interaction between capitals. Any community, and the individuals who make up
that community, has stocks of capitals; each capital has connections with others.
• Where is the community starting from? It may be necessary to build up stocks of
certain types of capital, or fit ambition to what it is feasible to achieve.
• ‘Spiralling-Up.’ Success builds on success. Communities need to know where to
look for appropriate advice, support and training.
• Prerequisites for community dynamism. What matters to people in the
community? Different types of project are likely to appeal to different people.
• Rural/urban relevance of the capitals. The capitals are equally relevant to rural
and urban communities, although the nature of the asset stocks may be different.
• Who gains/should gain from the benefits flowing from community capitals? Much
depends on who holds, or owns, the stocks of capitals.
4. Mapping policy actions onto community capitals
The approach is also helpful in analysing how current and planned policy actions are
investing in the range of capitals. A mapping exercise was carried out to consider
the community capitals each relevant action/commitment in ‘Our Rural Future’ and
the SNP Manifesto 2011 is (or will be) investing in.
5. Both ORF and the Manifesto address all seven capitals, to some extent.
Financial capital is the main focus for action, but political, social, built and human
capital are also receiving substantial investment. There appears to be less
investment in cultural capital
6. A vision for stronger rural communities
It is important to focus on a vision for rural Scotland in which the characteristics of
vibrant communities are clearly linked to policy actions intended to deliver the vision.
7. What does success look like?
Considering the outputs and outcomes which might be expected from investment in
the various capitals may be helpful in setting indicators and measures.
8. Conclusions
The better information we have about the capitals the SG is investing in, the easier it
is to tie investment to desired outcomes. However, there are complex issues in
relation to ownership of capitals; and benefits from capitals; as well as how to build
and enhance capital stocks.
41. Introduction
Strong and vibrant communities are at the heart of a more successful Scotland: the
SNP Manifesto 20111 emphasises the importance of people being empowered to
make their life better, and includes a number of specific commitments intended to
support communities. ‘Our Rural Future’2 (ORF), which was published in March
2011 and is the current policy mechanism for delivering ‘a rural Scotland that is
outward looking and dynamic,’ also includes a range of actions and activities
designed to stimulate a healthy and diverse rural economy and active communities.
In the past, rural Scotland has often been seen as a series of problems and,
consequently, ‘rural’ has often been considered in negative terms3. Policy has
traditionally been directed towards addressing the deficits, in order to keep rural
communities alive. This new emphasis on considering rural Scotland in terms of its
assets represents a step change. It recognises the potential of individual
communities and rural Scotland more generally, and focuses on unlocking and
growing that potential. The challenge is to consider what this means in practice.
This paper uses a community capitals approach to consider the means by which the
Scottish Government (SG) is currently investing in, and planning to invest in, rural
communities to help them identify and build on the assets that they have. In this
paper, ‘investment’ is meant in its broadest sense (in terms of supporting
communities to build networks and capacity, and providing opportunities for creativity
and entrepreneurship, as well as direct financial investment).
Clearly, there is no right or wrong way to invest. However,the community capitals
approach to community development provides a useful tool for assessing where and
how we might expect policy actions to impact on communities. This paper begins by
introducing the approach and exploring a number of issues relating to the capitals. It
then maps the actions/areas of activity set out in ORF and the commitments in the
Manifesto onto the capitals, to explore which capitals the SG is investing in (explicitly
or implicitly). Issues relating to the outputs and outcomes resulting from flows of
goods and services from the various types of capitals are then discussed, to begin to
consider what success might look like.
It is also important to note what this paper does not do. It does not consider the
ORF actions and Manifesto commitments in terms of the types of policy levers the
SG is using to achieve the vision for rural Scotland. Although this would be an
important piece of work, it is outwith the scope of the current exercise.
2. The community capitals approach
There is a vast literature on the importance of developing an asset-based approach
to community development, and using community capitals is a well accepted
approach to analysis. A volume of recent work by the Carnegie UK Trust draws on a
rich source of evidence collected by the Trust. This explores the factors that are the
1
http://manifesto.votesnp.com/
2
http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Publications/2011/03/08135330/4
3 st
Scotland’s Futures Forum: How to Reperceive our Understanding of ‘Rural Scotland’ in 21 Century,
June 2009.
5prerequisites for vibrant rural communities, and showcases the Community Capitals
Framework as a way of categorising the types of assets communities may be able to
draw on4.
The approach highlights the importance of identifying and investing in community
capitals. Recent work by Harper and Price5 sets out a framework adopted by the
Social Impacts Taskforce of the UK Government Economic Service and Government
Social Research for understanding the social impacts of policy and their effects on
wellbeing. The framework usefully investigates the relationship between capitals
(the ‘stocks’ that have the potential to accumulate or depreciate) and the ‘flows’ of
goods and services derived from them, the consumption or experience of which can
contribute to overall wellbeing, at the same time as continuing to invest in the capital
stocks. This framework is set out in Figure 1, below.
Figure 1: conceptual framework showing stocks and flows6
Harper and Price focus on four capitals: produced; human; social; and natural.
However, in earlier work to develop a tool for analysing how communities work,
researchers found that those communities that were successful in supporting healthy,
sustainable community and economic development paid attention to seven types of
capital: natural; cultural; human; social; political; financial; and built7. The Community
4
The community capitals literature focuses on assets and capitals, though many papers use the
terms interchangeably. OECD defines ‘natural capital’ as comprising natural resource stocks, land
and ecosystems. Each component represents an asset, providing resource inputs and environmental
services for economic production (http://stats.oecd.org/glossary/detail.asp?iD=1730). In this paper,
assets refer to these individual components and capitals to the umbrella of combined stocks
5
Harper, G and Price, R (2011) A framework for understanding the social impacts of policy and their
effects on wellbeing, a paper for the Social Impacts Taskforce, Defra Evidence and Analysis Series
6
Taken from Harper and Price (2011)
7 nd
Flora, C and Flora J (with Fey, S) (2004) Rural communities: legacy and change (2 ed.) Boulder
CO: Westview Press
6Capitals Framework (CCF) was developed as a result of this work. As noted above,
the CCF has also been adopted by the Carnegie UK Trust, and underpins their
extensive work on enabling dynamic, vibrant and sustainable rural communities8.
This paper considers the seven capitals model of the CCF, because (as noted by
Carnegie) political capital, which influences how decisions are made in the
community, and cultural capital (shared identity – the things that make us feel like a
community) are particularly important in a rural context.
Table 1 lists the seven capitals, along with examples of the assets that contribute to
them and some examples of the goods and services the stocks of capital
produce/might produce. It should be noted that one capital included in the Harper
and Price model does not appear in the CCF: produced capital – the stock of
manufactured means of production, such as machinery, equipment and structures,
non-production-related infrastructure, non-tangible assets, and the financial assets
that provide command over current and future output streams. In the seven capitals
model, the scope of ‘produced capital’ is covered by financial and built capitals.
Table 1: Community Capitals Framework
Capital Examples of relevant Examples of flows of goods and services in a rural
assets context
Financial Income; wealth; security; • Models of finance – eg commercial loans; private
credit; investment sector partnerships
• Shares in the community shop
Built Housing; transport and • Broadband connection
telecommunications • Community transport
infrastructure; utilities; • Renewable energy
buildings
Human Self-esteem; education; • What you know can benefit your community – eg as a
skills; health local historian, folk musician, botanist
• Local leadership development programme
• Local schools encouraging place-based education
Social Leadership; groups; • Committee for the agricultural show
bridging and bonding • Farmers’ market
networks; trust; • Rural women’s network
reciprocity
Natural Natural resources; • Raw materials (eg land used for crops; water/barley
ecosystems (land; used for whisky)
minerals/energy; soils; • Food produced from the land
water) • Fish/farm stock
Cultural Language, rituals and • Festivals to celebrate significant local events
traditions, a sense of • Revival of indigenous language; respect for dialect
place • Place-based learning
Political Inclusion; voice; power • Local authority
• Community planning partnership
• Development trust
8
Carnegie Commission for Rural Community Development (2007) A Charter for Rural Communities,
Carnegie UK Trust; Carnegie UK Trust Rural Programme (2009) A Manifesto for Rural Communities,
Carnegie UK Trust
73. The seven capitals – some issues to consider
Interaction between capitals
The Community Capitals Framework highlights the diverse range of resources that
may be available to communities. While the capitals are separated into seven
categories, naturally they do not exist in isolation. Almost inevitably, a community
and the individuals who make up that community have stocks of several types of
capital and each capital has connections with others, so that they may be used in
combination. It is important to examine how they interact and build on each other.
For example, people wish to set up a community wind project. They will need stocks
of several relevant capitals; for example:
• Natural – the all important wind speed
• Social and human – a group of people with a range of appropriate skills who are
enthusiastic to take the project forward and to build support in the wider
community
• Financial – the necessary rights over a proposed site, and funding for the project
itself
• Built – ease of grid connection
• Political – to support the application through the planning process.
Where is the community starting from?
The wind project example highlights the stocks of assets relating to most of the
seven capitals which the community embarking on this project requires. However, it
is likely that the community does not have such a range of stocks at its disposal, at
least at first. For example, the group of wind project enthusiasts might be small in
relation to the opponents, and the opponents may include the landowner of the
proposed site. Since decision makers such as local authority planners are likely to
take note of community support or opposition, it may be necessary to build stocks of
social, human and political capital to champion the project, emphasise the potential
benefits to the community and the landowner, and consider the concerns raised by
those opposed to the project. In this case it may be that time is required to build
these assets, and the community will be ready to invest in the project within the next
couple of years. However, the project may not be feasible because the wind is not
strong enough, or there are problems connecting to the National Grid. It may be that
once the community is aware of the capital stocks at their disposal, they can
consider investing in other forms of renewable power generation.
‘Spiralling-Up’
There is evidence that ‘success builds on success’: for example, that the flow of
assets across capitals – that is, capital invested in a project leading to increases in
the stock of assets – can initiate an ongoing process of assets building on assets,
leading to the effect of an upward spiral9. However, it may not be possible to
develop the right skills for a particular project within the community. In this case, the
community needs to know where to look for appropriate advice, support and training.
9
Emery, M. and Flora, C. (2006) Spiralling-Up: Mapping Community Transformation with Community
Capitals Framework, Journal of the Community Development Society, Vol 37, No 1, Spring 2006.
8Prerequisites for community dynamism
Everything begins with the people who make up the community. Community identity
is key, since a sense of shared identity helps transform people into cohesive social
groups, and effective leadership depends on a shared sense of ‘us’ to be
represented, as well as the ability of a leader to articulate shared values and
priorities. All communities comprise a range of different types of people, including
enthusiastic activists pioneering innovations that promise to benefit their own and
others’ neighbourhoods. However, many people are happy not to act, and to let
others do the work, unless they are personally threatened (for example by adverse
weather events or the closure of the village shop). In order to think about how policy
actions can motivate people more effectively, it is important to understand:
• Attachment to place. Communities are complex and fluid – they include deeply
rooted local families, transient migrants, residents who spend much of their time
outside the community. Networks of non-residents may also feel they have, or
should have, a stake in the community: for example, second home owners;
regular tourists and visitors. The sense of attachment these groups feel is likely to
vary a good deal. For example, they may feel a deep emotional commitment to
the place; or be primarily interested in protecting a business investment.
• Meaning of place. The community may be a place of solitude, retreat and
tranquillity; it may be a stage for particular performed actions (such as crofting)
that give a sense of identity; it may be the site of a business interest; it could be a
symbol of wider values, such as Scottish national identity10.
Naturally all this has implications for the types of activity and the types of issues
most likely to galvanise people and this, in turn, has implications for how capitals are
converted into goods and services. Those with a lifelong attachment to the
community and its traditions might support a local history project; while people
retiring to a rural area might value, and be prepared to support, a one stop shop
providing a range of services and opportunities for social interaction. The SG focus
on place, and promoting Scotland’s cultural and creative vibrancy, highlights the
significance of cultural capital to rural communities.
Rural/urban relevance of the capitals
The focus of this paper is on community capitals in relation to rural communities.
However, it is worth noting that the seven capitals are equally relevant to urban and
rural communities. The nature of the asset stocks may be different: for example, in
relation to galvanising support for a community project, a town or city might have a
larger number of clubs to help with fundraising; and people living in an urban area
might be able to draw on a wider range of skills and experience; however, a small
rural community might be better at mobilising its available resources. The spheres of
political influence and opportunities for realising financial capital in urban and rural
communities are also likely to be different. Natural capital is primarily the preserve of
rural communities, whereas urban communities are more likely to have stocks of
built capital; however, the importance of built capital may be greater in rural areas
10 st
‘Community Empowerment in the 21 Century: Building a ‘can-do’ Culture’ Academic speakers at a
public policy seminar, Scottish Government and Economic and Social Research Council, 2010
9where affordable housing, high speed broadband and integrated community
transport may make the difference between the life and death of a community. It is
also important to note the interdependence of rural and urban communities. For
example, rural areas support the provision of clean water consumed in urban areas;
urban areas support the development of skills.
Who gains/should gain from the benefits flowing from community capitals?
Beneficiaries may be individuals (for example those who acquire new skills);
individual households (for example via home insulation schemes); individual
communities (for example if they are able to buy land); networks of communities (for
example via sharing expertise and experience). Even more broadly, those who
benefit may be a long way away; using clean water and electricity generated in rural
areas, for example.
Another important consideration is whether the capitals are held or owned by the
community, individuals, the place itself or by individuals or organisations far removed
from the community. This obviously has implications for who gains from the benefits
flowing from the capital stocks. For example, who should benefit from renewable
energy potential? A wind farm may contribute little to a community if it is wholly
owned by a major energy supplier. However, there is real potential for communities
to benefit from income from or shared ownership with commercially owned projects,
and to develop their own renewable energy projects. The stability of community
capitals is also an issue, since people may move away and take their skills,
experience, contacts, memories with them, depleting stocks of human and social
capital.
4. Mapping policy actions onto community capitals
As noted in the introductory section of this paper, both ‘Our Rural Future’ (ORF) and
the sections of the Manifesto focus on building on what rural communities have,
rather than focusing on what they lack. Although the Community Capitals Framework
(CCF) was developed as a tool to help communities identify and categorise their
assets, it also provides a helpful way to analyse how current and planned policy
actions are investing in individual community capitals. There is also an opportunity
for policy makers to consider how initiatives of the future might be targeted towards
particular capitals, or a wider range of capitals. For these reasons, a mapping
exercise was conducted to consider the community capitals each relevant
action/commitment is (or will be) potentially investing in.
ORF is specifically concerned with rural development, and the cross-cutting nature of
actions needed to foster vibrant communities, so all actions in the document were
included in the exercise. Consideration of the Manifesto commitments was limited to
the sections on Scotland’s food and drink; rural agenda; and communities. Many
commitments across portfolios have particular rural relevance (for example in
relation to investment in jobs; infrastructure, transport and connectivity; housing;
schools). However, all these areas should be covered in ORF, so the focus has
been narrowed to avoid unnecessary duplication. In all, 48 actions in ORF and 67
commitments in the Manifesto were included in the exercise. A worked example is
included below.
10Table 2: Capacity and skills development for communities: ORF priority action
Action Investing in the following community capitals
‘The Scottish Government will Definitely
continue to support the Financial – action is intended to make Third
development of the Third Sector, Sector organisations more financially sustainable
including development trusts Human – action aims to provide people within the
and social enterprises (eg single organisations with relevant knowledge and skills
contract for business
development support to provide Possibly
organisations with the Social – action aims to strengthen development
knowledge and skills they need trusts and social enterprises, which is likely to
to become more financially help build networks between them and their
sustainable).’ communities
As can be seen from Table 2, considering the potential for investing in community
capitals is to some extent a subjective assessment. It should also be borne in mind
that the consideration of potential presupposes an existing capital stock within
communities. Although every community has assets of some description, as
discussed earlier in this paper, the nature, supply and stage of development of these
assets will vary from community to community.
Figure 2: Investment in individual community capitals
5. Scottish Government investment in individual community capitals
The results of the mapping exercise are included in the tables in Annex 1 (ORF) and
Annex 2 (Manifesto). For ease of reference, the detail in the tables is summarised in
Figure 2, above. This indicates the number of actions/commitments which are
investing in each capital (by the size of the bubble). Figure 2 indicates that actions
and commitments are addressing all the capitals, to some extent. Financial capital is
receiving the most investment, with 41 out of 48 actions (ORF) and 62 out of
67commitments (Manifesto). The importance of investing in financial capital is clear,
since the economic sustainability of communities is the first priority for the SG.
However, current actions and commitments provide opportunities for enhancing a
11range of additional community capitals, as can be seen from the range of bubbles in
Figure 2 and the worked example in Table 2.
Because rural Scotland provides the raw materials for the food and drink industry, as
well as a wide range of natural resources, ecosystems and landscapes, it is, perhaps,
surprising, to find few actions in ORF investing in natural capital. One possible
reason for this may be because rural communities and land use policy colleagues
worked together to ensure the minimum of duplication between ORF and ‘Getting the
best from our land: a Land Use Strategy for Scotland,’11 which was being developed
at the same time.
Most notable in Figure 2 is the apparent lack of investment in cultural capital
particularly in relation to ORF actions. This is unexpected, given that ‘a sense of
place’ is fundamental to the rural Scotland of the SNP vision and, as noted earlier,
understanding attachment to place and fostering community identity are key to
strengthening communities. It may be that it is for communities to build cultural
capital via the decisions they make about the flows of goods and services. For
example, one ORF action ‘changes and improvements to ferry services to better
support island and peninsula communities’ potentially represents investment in
financial, built, social and human capital (giving small island businesses
opportunities to be more competitive, making it easier for island communities to build
relationships with communities on the mainland and sharing skills and experiences).
However, cultural capital could be built if islands decided to use improved ferry
services to attract people to festivals celebrating island culture. This example
highlights the dynamic nature of capital and the importance of recognising and using
it to accumulate further capital stocks.
6. A vision for stronger rural communities
It is useful to consider what the outcomes of anticipated changes in stocks of
community capitals will look like. Given that appropriate ways to measure progress
are available, we should be aiming for an overarching vision for rural Scotland. Two
visions have been set out in 2011. The Manifesto vision for rural Scotland focuses
on enhancing national and local economies, and strengthening communities in
material ways although, as we have seen, the Manifesto commitments have the
potential to invest in social, human and political capital in addition to financial, built
and natural.
The vision set out in ‘Our Rural Future,’ March 2011 includes a broader vision for
rural Scotland as a place where:
• Best use is made of all resources (people, land, seas, rivers and wildlife)
• Confident and diverse rural communities take control of local assets and provide
local services to generate income and employment
• Young people have the opportunity to build careers and prosperous futures in the
area where they grew up
• Services of the highest possible quality and with the greatest possible choice are
accessible to the whole community
11
http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Publications/2011/03/17091927/12
12• World-rated natural, cultural and built environments are managed sensitively to
balance development requirements with the vital need to manage precious
natural assets sustainably
• Rural Scotland participates fully in the global exchange of ideas and culture, with
the right connections to make this happen (including high speed broadband and
appropriate transport infrastructure)
• Rural businesses make best use of local assets to become more competitive and
enterprising.
Although this assumes some of the underpinning characteristics of a vibrant
community, the vision is fairly non-specific. The Carnegie UK Trust suggests that
the dynamic, vibrant, engaged, sustainable rural community of the future should
display a number of interrelated characteristics12. It may be worth considering
incorporating some of these into a vision for rural Scotland, especially as the focus of
actions of ORF indicates that Scotland is already thinking in terms of building these
characteristics. In the section below, the Carnegie characteristics are listed with
relevant ORF priority action areas included in italics in boxes below each bullet point.
• Identifying, utilising and optimising assets, using financial and other
instruments to take ownership of community assets and manage assets
responsibly and actively over time for public benefit
An asset-based approach to rural community development is already enshrined
in policy actions and commitments. A range of actions in ORF focus on more
community control of assets/resources.
• Achieving fairness for everyone, by being open, diverse, inclusive,
demonstrating a concern for equity and care for each other, in order to redress
and alleviate poverty and disadvantage
Actions relating to an improved supply of affordable housing; affordable motor
fuel; effective use of public transport; improving rural healthcare services; skills
training based on the needs of the local economy
• Empowering local governance will allow the community the play an active role
in shaping its own future through a revitalised system of elected and participative
governance at local community level
Actions relating to more effective partnership between communities and
community planning partnerships/local authorities; promotion of development
trusts and social enterprises.
• Increasing resources for community benefit, through capacity to access
investment from the EU, central and local government, the business sector,
lottery distributors and trusts and from a directly raised precept
Actions relating to local business growth and making best use of local
resources; public procurement opportunities for local businesses
12
Carnegie UK Trust; Carnegie UK Trust Rural Programme (2009) A Manifesto for Rural
Communities, Carnegie UK Trust
13• Enjoying locally relevant services. The community will enjoy equity of access
to essential services and have the ability to shape additional public, private and
third sectors services that are locally relevant
Actions relating to improving rural healthcare services; more community control
of assets/resources; promotion of development trusts and social enterprises;
capacity and skills development for communities; skills training based on the
needs of the local economy
• Enriching social capital and wellbeing. The community will display high levels
of volunteering and social action, high social trust and neighbourliness, and a
welcoming ethos that attracts people to remain or to move into the area
Actions relating to more community control of assets/resources; capacity and
skills development for communities
• Valuing local distinctiveness, the attractiveness of the landscape and culture
encouraging people to stay in a place they love and to be welcomed into the area
Actions relating to jobs and local business growth, making best use of local
resources; skills training based on the needs of the local economy
• Developing reliable infrastructure, including transport, broadband, connectivity,
energy and water, and a range of affordable housing to rent or buy
Actions relating to higher speed broadband; improved supply of affordable
housing; affordable motor fuel; effective use of public transport; renewable
energy developments with shared benefits.
• Enhancing environmental capacity, adapting to the needs of a low carbon
economy by reducing its carbon footprint, nurturing its biodiversity assets and
reaping the potential of community owned renewable energy generation
Actions relating to better partnership working to coordinate and agree on land
use purpose and priorities; renewable energy developments with shared
benefits
• Supporting a dynamic local economy, with farming integrated into a wider and
more diverse rural economy, a breaking out of the low skills low wages loop – in
part through the growth of local social enterprises and the entrepreneurial
development of local assets
Actions relating to better partnership working to coordinate and agree on land
use purpose and priorities; renewable energy developments with shared
benefits; more community control of assets/resources; promotion of
development trusts and social enterprises; local business growth, making best
use of local resources; skills training based on the needs of the local economy;
public procurement opportunities for local businesses
It can be seen that the characteristics link directly to the community capitals
framework, although many of the issues raised (such as ownership and
management of assets) raise a whole new set of questions. Interestingly, some of
the characteristics relate to the process of accumulating and using capitals to
increase capital stocks. This gives a sense of dynamism and forward movement to
community development.
147. What does success look like?
Mapping policy actions onto community capitals allows us to see where intervention
is/could be focused. However, we also need to know whether investment in the
capitals is effective. Work by Flora et al13 focused on how project staff and funders
of a regional programme of rural development work in Iowa have used the CCF to
understand the impact of interventions on rural people and places. Table 3
summarises the key elements of the model. It should be noted that the Flora
programme focused specifically on community economic development. However, it
provides a starting point for thinking about how progress might be measured.
Table 3: Community Capitals Framework: Context, Process, Outputs and
Outcomes
Capital Process (examples) Outputs and outcomes (examples)
Flows of goods and services Results of actions
Social Social capital investments: Changes in social capital:
Participation of organisations and Indicators: increased networks;
individuals; risks taken to express communication; cooperation; trust.
differences of opinion; building links Measures: new groups/partnerships;
with other more community cooperation; increased
communities/organisations participation; new/more effective leaders
Political Political capital investments: Changes in political capital:
Nature of relationship between Indicators: increased ability to secure
community and local authority, resources for the community through
Community Planning Partnership; elected officials
development trust etc; community Measures: new community and
presence on relevant boards government connections at various
levels
Cultural Cultural capital investments: Changes in cultural capital:
Sharing cultural identities (heritage, Indicator: cultural consciousness
history, ethnicity etc) Measures: new community festivals and
heritage projects; schools programmes
on cultural heritage; more schools
offering lessons in Gaelic
Human Human capital investments: Changes in human capital:
Work expertise and vocational skills Indicators: increased use of the skills
contributed to community and abilities of local people; increased
initiative, responsibility and innovation
Measures: new, marketable/transferable
skills acquired; new training programmes
established
Natural Natural capital investments: Changes in natural capital:
Preserving, restoring, enhancing, Indicator: healthy ecosystems with
conserving environmental features multiple community benefits
Measures: landscape; scenery; outdoor
recreational opportunities; soil quality; air
13
Flora, CB, Emery, M, Fey, S and Bregendahl, C (date unknown) Community capitals: a tool for
evaluating strategic interventions and projects, Iowa State University
15quality; water quality; wildlife; vegetation
preserved, conserved or restored; land
development policies adopted
Financial Financial capital investments: Changes in financial capital:
Presence and sources of financial Indicator: diverse and vital economies
support; mechanisms used for Measures: new jobs; new financial
leveraging financial support instruments established; outside funding
obtained to improve infrastructure and
business development; poverty reduction
Built Built capital investments: Changes in built capital:
Infrastructure, utilities and buildings Indicator: diverse and vital communities
used in community development Measures: infrastructure improved and
strengthened
It is important to ensure that appropriate mechanisms are in place to allow us to
measure the changes that will result in the outcomes which appear in relation to the
various capitals in Table 3.
As mentioned earlier in this paper, the UK’s Social Impacts Taskforce has developed
a conceptual framework to guide work on understanding the relationships between
the social impacts of policies, their effects on the UK’s underlying capitals, and
implications for wellbeing. The work of the Taskforce focuses on understanding how
the stocks of capital and flows of goods and services in the economy and society can
help us understand how social impacts affect the multi-dimensional aspects of
wellbeing: material living standards; health; education; personal activities; political
voice; social connections; the environment; a sense of security; a sense of freedom;
the opportunity to engage effectively with others, especially for a good purpose14.
8. Conclusions
The community capitals approach to community development provides a useful way
to categorise policy actions and areas of activity. The better information we have
about the capitals the SG is investing in, the easier it is to tie investment to desired
outcomes. However, as this paper has indicated, there are complex issues to be
considered in relation to ownership of capitals, benefit from capitals, as well as
building and enhancing capital stocks.
The next step may be to apply the community capitals approach to policy
development and delivery in three key areas: land reform, digital technology and
renewables. In addition, it may be useful to explore the types of levers the SG is
currently using to invest in rural communities, to allow policy makers to consider
extending the range or considering different approaches.
There is also a need to focus on what success will look like, and how progress can
be measured. In thinking about these issues, it is important to focus on a vision for
rural Scotland in which the characteristics of vibrant communities are clearly linked to
the policy actions intended to deliver the vision.
14
Harper, G and Price, R (2011) A framework for understanding the social impacts of policy and their
effects on wellbeing, a paper for the Social Impacts Taskforce, Defra Evidence and Analysis Series
16Annex 1 - Our Rural Future – mapping actions onto community capitals
Priority area Priority Actions Investing in the following
community capitals
Infrastructure Higher speed • Wider community use of existing public sector broadband Financial, built, social human
broadband infrastructure (eg as delivered through Pathfinder projects)
• Availability of next generation broadband for all by 2020 Financial, built, social, human
• Ensuring rural Scotland maximises income from funding at UK level Financial, built
re delivery of UK Government’s broadband strategy
Improved • Innovation and Investment Fund to support affordable housing Financial, built
supply of developments, particularly re procurement of cost-effective and
affordable energy efficient homes
housing • SG will consult on legislation to allow councils increased flexibility in Financial, built, political,
amount of council tax they charge on long-term empty properties
• Continue to strengthen partnerships between landowners, local Built, political,
authorities and housing associations re provision of affordable
housing
Affordable • Demand responsive and community transport schemes Financial, built
motor fuel; • Scottish Ferries Review will identify where changes and Financial, built
effective use improvements to ferry services can better support island and
of public peninsula communities
transport • Ongoing investment re Transport Scotland Financial, built
• SG will press UK Government to reduce rate of fuel duty in remote Financial
rural Scotland
Improving ‘ORF’ refers to report of the Remote and Rural Implementation Group,
rural which focuses on:
healthcare • Building-based services providing a range of services in innovative Financial, built
services ways; emergency air ambulance; better use of technology (eg e-
health and video-conferencing to support clinical decision-making)
• Rural and remote NHS Boards need to commit resources to Financial, built, political,
redesign of services, closer working with local authority partners
and other NHS Boards
• Education and training of health and related professionals need to Financial, human
consider issues re service delivery in remote and rural areas.
Land use Better • Natural resources require management. Strengthen links between Financial, naturalpriorities partnership activity and Single Farm Payments
working to • Funds for supporting management of land Financial, natural
coordinate and • Constructive engagement between relevant bodies, leading to Political, natural
agree on land mutual benefit, will be encouraged.
use purpose • Development of action plan to support Land Use Strategy. Financial, natural, political,
and priorities Objectives: land-based businesses working with nature to contribute social, human
more to Scotland’s prosperity; responsible stewardship of
Scotland’s natural resources delivering more benefits to Scotland’s
people; urban and rural communities better connected to the land,
more people enjoying the land and positively influencing land use
Community Renewable • Increase local ownership of energy by new loan scheme to help with Financial, built
participation energy pre-planning costs
priorities developments • Energy Efficiency Action Plan sets out measures to strengthen Financial, built, political, human
with shared impact of energy efficiency. Key actions include: improving energy
benefits efficiency of all housing stock to meet demands of the future;
establishing single energy and resource efficiency service for
Scottish businesses; developing public sector that leads the way
through exemplary energy performance and provides blueprint for a
low carbon Scotland; reducing transport energy demand; promoting
infrastructure improvements; ensuring people are appropriately
skilled to take up opportunities
• Two area-based home insulation schemes have been operating Financial, built
since 2009 to help householders reduce fuel bills, tackle fuel
poverty and cut carbon emissions
• Consider how community benefits from commercial or community- Financial, built, social
led renewable projects can be shared widely
• Support for onshore and offshore wind farms (in the right places) as Financial, built
part of the mix to meet Scotland’s renewable energy targets.
• Streamlined planning and consents system to speed up pace and Financial, built
delivery of large scale onshore renewables development.
• Support open and consensual approach to engagement at local Built, natural, political, social
level, to ensure that the potential impact on the natural and built
heritage is accurately assessed.
More effective • Taking forward two year programme to develop skills and Financial, human
partnership competencies in community engagement practitioners, throughbetween establishing national resource of training and learning materials (10
communities demonstration projects)
and • Database tool has been developed to help plan, record and monitor Political, social
community community activity, to make it easier for partnerships to monitor and
planning coordinate activity
partnerships/lo • Guidance for SOAs with CPPs highlights importance of engagement Political, social
cal authorities with communities
• Working with key partners to give every community council in Political, social
Scotland the opportunity to discuss more effective engagement
Capacity and • Continued investment in Third Sector, including the development of Financial, human, social
skills leadership skills
development • Sharing skills, opportunities and learning through social networks Financial, built, human, social
for such as Scottish National Rural Network
communities
Community More • Funding Development Trust Association Scotland to look at asset Financial, political, social
enterprise community transfer from local authorities to community groups
priorities control of • SG contributes to Scottish Funders Forum – this includes working Financial, political, social
assets/ with other funders to streamline application processes and share
resources good practice
• DTA work will include awareness raising re benefits of community Financial, political, social, human
ownership; dissemination of lessons from effective practice;
providing training and toolkits and developing networks
• Continue to monitor and promote provisions re community right to Financial, natural
buy and crofting community right to buy
Promotion of • SG has provided funding for Knowledge and Skills Exchange Fund Financial, social, human
development and Development Trust Resource Pack re how to create successful
trusts and development trust
social • SG will continue to support development of Third Sector, including Financial, social, human
enterprises development trusts and social enterprises (eg single contract for
business development support to provide organisations with
knowledge and skills they need to become more financially
sustainable)
• Support for Scottish Investment Fund will continue – providing Financial, social, human
additional investment into Scotland’s best social enterprises
• Put in place further direct funding, aiming to increase Third Sector Financial, social, humanorganisations’ ability to trade
• Sharing of ideas and celebrating success through Community Social, human
Empowerment e-newsletter
Business and Local business • Business interests to be encouraged to make better use of Financial, political, social
skills growth, opportunities in existing local resources and partnerships
priorities making best • SG has been calling for action on availability and affordability of Financial
use of local finance for business to ensure everything possible is done to get
resources banks lending again to viable companies
• Business Gateway can provide access to a range of advice and Financial, social, human
support, including mentoring where appropriate.
Skills training • Development of entrepreneurial skills, eg through Curriculum for Financial, social, human
based on the Excellence
needs of the • Skills strategy published 2010 aims to strengthen engagement Financial, social, human
local economy between learning providers, sector skills councils, employers and
learning providers, with the aim of improving match between skills
and job opportunities
• Employers and employees encouraged to invest in, and make better Financial, social, human
use of, skills to achieve stronger growth
Public • SG taking action to level the playing field for SMEs, social Financial, political
procurement enterprises etc to secure access to the public sector market
opportunities • SG working closely with UK Government to ensure that we lobby Financial, political
for local EU on procurement legislative requirements that adversely affect
businesses suppliers
• SG will reduce burden of tendering for public contracts Financial, politicalAnnex 2 - SNP Manifesto 2011 – mapping commitments onto community capitals
Priority area Priority Commitments Investing in the following
community capitals
Communities Funding • Social Impact Bonds – to offer form of public-social partnership, Financial, political, social
regeneration allowing for upfront investment in projects that will deliver real
benefits (3 pilot projects). Will consult with communities and social
partners to choose best projects
• Will expand social and charity banking and micro-finance to Financial, political, social
strengthen communities and support local businesses
• Will integrate funding streams more effectively. Pilot project will Financial, political, social
allow communities to submit proposals for local transformation that
encompass range of potential funders
Community • Sustainable Procurement Bill to make clear the legislative Financial, political, social,
Benefit framework for procurement decisions, and support greater use of natural
Clauses social and environmental benefit clauses
Empowering • Community Empowerment and Renewal Bill to make it easier for Financial, built
Scotland’s communities to take over underused or unused public sector assets,
people and and include measures to enable communities to deal more
communities effectively with derelict or unused property in their area
• Scotland’s Community Councils to be given more opportunities to Political, social, human
make a difference for the areas they represent.
• Will encourage the expansion of community radio in Scotland. Financial, built, political, social
Community • Wish to see Scottish Parliament take on responsibility for the Crown Financial, built, political
benefit from Estate Commission, so resources generated in Scotland can be
renewables used to support development of offshore renewable sector and be
re-invested in Scotland’s communities
• Will ensure that renewable energy projects developed on public Financial, built, political
land are leaders in the provision of community benefit
• Will establish Future Generations Fund so energy wealth provides Financial, built, political
benefits not only for today but for future
Community • Will look to move to a self-financing scheme based on new support Financial, built, social
development system that transfers grants to loans for projects that are
of renewables successful. This will enable communities to share their success with
others and further expand community renewables provision• Will ask Scottish Futures Trust to develop a national financing Financial, built
model for renewable heat schemes
• Will encourage development of mutualised local energy companies Financial, built
• Will take forward proposal for an effective public engagement Financial, built
strategy – to drive forward Scotland’s transition to a low-carbon
society.
Volunteering • Will continue to support Scotland’s volunteers and look to Financial, social, human
encourage more Scots to become involved in volunteering
Resilience • Will continue with efforts to promote community and national Financial, political, social, human
resilience
• Will work with the British Red Cross to take forward their proposal Financial, political, social, human
for a national Resilience Week in Scotland.
Scotland’s Growing • Will continue to work with supermarkets to publicise information on Financial, natural
Food and Scotland’s Scottish produce
Drink food and drink • Will give recognition to firms that properly reward primary producers Financial, natural
sector (this will include development of a ‘fair shares’ standard)
• Will encourage all Scottish outlets to sell local food and drink to Financial, natural, cultural
visitors
• Will work with industry to develop new ‘Scottish Food Fans’ grading Financial, natural, cultural
system for establishments that stock local and seasonal produce
• Will support efforts to establish national chain of community-based Financial, natural, social
food networks that link up local suppliers with catering outlets,
cafes, hotel and retailers
• Will make use of existing global networks to create series of Financial, natural, political,
Scottish Food and Drink Ambassadors to promote the nation’s social, cultural
produce across the globe.
• Will continue with efforts to improve food education in Scotland’s Financial, natural, social, human,
schools cultural
• Will reform legislation to ensure Scotland has more allotments and Financial, natural
to facilitate the sale of surplus produce
• New £1million Great Scottish Food Challenge to support
development of new products for market, to maximise value for rural Financial, natural
businesses and communities by delivering value-added products,
processed and developed in Scotland
• Will continue to invest in food technology and processing andpropose creation of new links between creative and food sectors to Financial, natural
improve packaging and labelling
• Propose a new ‘Added Value’ campaign to maximise economic
return from food production and enable creation of new jobs Financial, natural, human
Rural Growing the • Will take forward proposal for new £2.4 million fund to enable Financial, built
Agenda rural economy community investment in renewables projects
and creating • Will create new Rural Innovation Fund to support new community Financial, political, social, human
jobs enterprise initiatives in rural Scotland
• Will further expand tourism opportunities around outdoor activity, Financial, natural, social, human,
food and drink and Scotland’s culture cultural
• Will support the creation of rural co-operatives, including local Financial, built, political, social,
energy co-operatives to enable communities to take forward their human
own local renewables projects
• Will take forward proposals for a rural parliament, to enable rural Political, social, human
communities to engage more effectively with Government
Increasing the • Will continue to make case for radical reform of EU fisheries policy, Financial, natural, political,
value of our to give more control to fishing nations and fishing communities social, human
fishing • Will develop national strategy for Fisheries Dependent Areas to Financial, natural, political,
industry support economic development and encourage local authorities, social, human
along with fishing communities, to develop regional action plans to
strengthen local fishing-related economies
• In partnership with industry, will look to restore identity and status of Financial, natural, political,
fishing as occupation of choice, and continue to support research in social, human, cultural
fishing to help map out the most profitable future for the industry
• Will work with Higher Education institutions and industry to explore Financial, natural, political,
the establishment of centre of excellence for fisheries management social, human
• Will support the expansion of exports of quality Scottish fish and Financial, natural, human
shellfish and encourage more Scots to eat fish and shellfish as part
of the healthier eating strategy.
• Will work to support Inshore Fisheries Groups and ongoing increase Financial, natural
in value of inshore sales
• Will take forward a Small Harbours Initiative to help promote and
diversify small coastal communities Financial, natural, social, humanCommitment • CAP reform - will argue for the continuation of direct support and for Financial, natural, human
to food a move away from historic payment towards a regime that rewards
production and active agriculture and caters for new entrants
growing farm • Will publish agri-renewables strategy and will continue to support Financial, built, natural, human
businesses renewable energy solutions to increase sustainability and
profitability of farm businesses
• Will take forward action plan for organic food and farming Financial, natural
• Will encourage the creation of new crofts, especially on public land Financial, natural, cultural
• Will amend the Agricultural Holdings Act to support tenant farmers Financial, natural, social, human
and will work to encourage new entrants
Reducing • Will take forward proposals for a Funds Gateway – online portal and Financial, built
burdens on single point of access for fund applications
rural • Proposal for new £2.4 million fund to enable community investment Financial, built
businesses in renewables projects
• Will investigate the creation of a single IT platform for Scotland’s Financial, built, social
rural agencies to enable information to be shared more easily
• Will pilot a SEARS kitemark that will be recognised across agencies Financial
that a premises has reached an agreed standard.
• Will encourage agencies to move to a more risk-based assessment, Financial
and begin process of review of existing regulation to streamline
requirements within legal limits that exist
A fair deal on • Will continue to press UK Government to take action to lower fuel Financial
fuel prices in Scotland, with introduction of Fuel Price Regulator and
specific derogations to allow lower fuel duty levels in remote and
island communities, where pump prices are particularly high.
Aquaculture • Will build on the industry-government partnership and work to Financial, political
deliver continuing growth in sales
Freshwater • Will modernise management structures and continue investing in Financial, political
fisheries the Strategic Framework for Scottish Freshwater Fisheries.
Stronger rural • Have delivered post office diversification fund to help keep local Financial, built
communities post offices open
• Taking forward proposals to make sure there is a proper exploration Financial, built
of alternatives to rural school closure
• Will continue to roll out Emergency Medical Retrieval Service to Built
enhance access to consultants in emergency situations in ruralYou can also read
