Policy Options for Sustainable Food Consumption - Review and Recommendations for Sweden
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Policy Options for Sustainable Food Consumption – Review and Recommendations for Sweden Mistra Sustainable Consumption report 1:10 Elin Röös, Jörgen Larsson, Kajsa Resare Sahlin, Malin Jonell, Therese Lindahl, Erik André, Sarah Säll, Niklas Harring, Martin Persson The report is from a collaborative project involving Mistra Sustainable Consumption, SLU Future Food, the Beijer Institute of Ecological Economics, the Centre for Collective Action Research (CeCAR) at the University of Gothenburg and Chalmers University of Technology.
Mistra Sustainable Consumption Publication: Mistra Sustainable Consumption report 1:10
Publisher: Chalmers university of Technology
Mistra Sustainable Consumption – from niche to Year of publication: 2021
mainstream is a research programme consisting of Graphic design: Dahlbäck/Söderberg
researchers from: KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Photos: Unsplash
Chalmers University of Technology, Lund University, Translation from the original Swedish: Katherine Stuart
University of Gothenburg, Karolinska Institutet, Luleå (ToEnglish Pty Ltd)
University of Technology, The Swedish University of ISBN: 978-91-7873-787-1 (electronic)
Agricultural Sciences and Statistics Sweden. KTH is TRITA: TRITA-ABE-RPT-214
the programme host. The research is conducted in
cooperation with societal partners from businesses,
public authorities and non-governmental organisa-
tions.
Read more at:
www.sustainableconsumption.se
Policy Options for Sustainable Food Consumption –
Review and Recommendations for Sweden
Mistra Sustainable Consumption report 1:10
Elin Röös, Jörgen Larsson, Kajsa Resare Sahlin,
Malin Jonell, Therese Lindahl, Erik André, Sarah Säll,
Niklas Harring, Martin Persson
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Table of Contents
5 Foreword
6 Summary
9 Background
12 Structure of this report
15 Policy instruments in the Knowledge and Support category
15 Positive labelling
17 Negative labelling
18 Mandatory declaration of environmental footprints
19 Information campaigns
21 Consumer guides and dietary advice
22 Training of school chefs and other key actors
22 Educational tools
23 Nudging in public or private restaurants
25 Nudging in shops
26 Knowledge and support: Summarising discussion
28 Policy instruments in the category changed relative prices
28 Taxes: Consumer price increases
30 Subsidies: Consumer price reductions
31 Change in relative prices: Summarising discussion
34 Policy instruments in the category of regulation and requirements
34 Regulation of choice
35 Consumption allowances for meat
36 Regulation of marketing
37 Requirements for improved sustainability of food sold
38 Guidelines and environmental criteria for public sector meal services
39 Menu restrictions
40 Regulation and requirements: Summarising discussion
43 Discussion and conclusions
44 1. Intensify work in the public sector
45 2. Develop national targets for sustainable food consumption
46 3. Develop and implement effective and attractive policy instrument packages
50 Concluding comments
52 Bibliography
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Foreword
This report is the result of a collaborative great uncertainty surrounds future food
project involving Mistra Sustainable systems. There are ongoing discussions about
Consumption, SLU Future Food, the Beijer new ways of organising and managing the
Institute of Ecological Economics, the Centre food system, but these are not elaborated on in
for Collective Action Research (CeCAR) at this report.
the University of Gothenburg and Chalmers
University of Technology. The aim of the The authors of this report are Elin Röös,
project was to map the current state of Sarah Säll and Kajsa Resare Sahlin (Swedish
knowledge about policy instruments for University of Agricultural Sciences), Jörgen
environmentally sustainable food consumption Larsson and Erik André (Mistra Sustainable
and to identify what public actors already now Consumption, Chalmers University of
could do to promote a positive development Technology), Therese Lindahl and Malin
in this area. The report targets officials and Jonell (the Beijer Institute of Ecological
decision-makers in the area of food and Economics), Martin Persson (Chalmers
the environment, as well as researchers and University of Technology) and Niklas Harring
research funders. (University of Gothenburg, CeCAR).1 In
addition, Emma Moberg (Swedish University
We would like to point out that this project of Agricultural Sciences) contributed to the
began before the global COVID-19 pandemic content of the report through her extensive
broke out. Currently while writing this comments, Filip Danielsson (MSc student,
report, the sustainability of food systems in Chalmers University of Technology)
Sweden and globally has been brought into contributed to the sections on sustainability
focus from several new angles. In particular requirements for food sales, and the following
in terms of its resilience to various external people recommended literature and/or gave
shocks, animal husbandry in a world where feedback on the material: Anna-Karin Quetel
natural ecosystems are diminishing and (Swedish Food Agency), Pia Lindeskog
where humans and animals are getting (Public Health Agency of Sweden), Liselotte
closer and closer to each other, weakened Schäfer Elinder (Karolinska Institutet) and
international political cooperation, an Liv Fjellander (Swedish Environmental
upswing in local trade platforms for food and Research Institute). We thank all for these
a rapidly changing and unpredictable political contributions, but wish to make it clear that
landscape. We can conclude that sustainable the authors alone are responsible for the
food consumption is more in the limelight content of this report.
than ever before.
The policy instruments surveyed in this report
concern how sustainable food consumption
can be promoted given how today’s food
systems function; in other words, that food
is produced and consumed mainly as a
good traded nationally and internationally,
where the free choice of the consumer is
central, and where the production of food is
largely controlled by market forces. Given
the enormous environmental and health
challenges the global food system is facing,
and given the enormous shock the world is 1
The project was initiated by Jörgen Larsson and Elin Röös.
experiencing with the COVID-19 pandemic, Kajsa Resare Sahlin was the coordinator for the project.
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Summary
The environmental impact of the average 1. Intensify work in the public sector
Swede’s diet exceeds the planetary limits 2. Develop national targets for sustainable
for the food system in most areas. Over food consumption
15% of consumption-based greenhouse 3. Develop and implement effective and
gas emissions come from food in Sweden. attractive policy instrument packages
Sweden’s agricultural landscape has the largest
proportion of European Red List species of all The mapping and analysis show that there
landscape types in Sweden and food imports is a need for research on policy instruments
are associated with high rates of land use, for environmentally sustainable food
pesticides and veterinary antibiotics in other consumption, particularly when it comes
countries. Our diet is also not sustainable to combinations of instruments. However,
in terms of health – for example, 51% of there is a sufficient evidence base for the
Swedes are overweight and many of the most immediate development and implementation
common diseases and causes of death are of policy instruments to deal with the climate,
linked to diet. environmental and health impacts of food.
A focus on targets and policy instruments in
This report identifies and discusses policy the food area, as outlined above, is also fully
instruments that the state and other public in line with the EU’s new Farm-to-Fork
actors could introduce to steer food strategy. The policy instruments discussed
consumption in Sweden towards a more in the report can probably achieve only part
environmentally sustainable diet. Seventeen of the huge, transformative changes required
policy instruments operating either through to limit the production and consumption of
knowledge and support, changes in relative food to planetary limits, but a central issue
prices, or regulation and requirements have is how to do this. Part of the answer lies
been identified and previous research on in a change in food consumption and here
policy effectiveness, costs and acceptance we believe that we know where the answer
has been mapped out in a way that we hope lies: public actors ought to develop and
is clear and easy to understand. Based on implement a variety of policy instruments
the current state of knowledge, we have and systematically evaluate them – it is in
formulated three recommendations on what this more large-scale implementation that the
public actors could do to accelerate the real need for research lies. The challenge of
transition to a more sustainable food system. reducing the environmental impact of food
consumption in Sweden is considerable, but
there are good opportunities for nudging the
trend towards more environment-friendly and
health-friendly sustainable food consumption
through the deployment of new policy
instruments.
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1. Intensify work in the 2. Develop national 3. Develop and implement
public sector targets for sustainable effective and attractive policy
food consumption instrument packages
Eating habits established at a young age The use of policy instruments that seek Policy instruments by themselves often
can play a major role in the rest of one’s to control people’s behaviour through have a relatively weak effect. Instead,
life. Through meals in schools and other knowledge and support alone is not combinations or packages of instru-
public sector activities, knowledge and likely to change people’s diets sufficient- ments are needed that can balance
awareness of sustainable and healthy ly to achieve Sweden’s environmental goal conflicts and lessen the conflict
food can be spread, which can help to objectives and improve public health. between effectiveness and acceptance.
bring about a change of diet. The initia- Our assessment is that stronger policy It is also important to target instruments
tives already being used in the public instruments are needed, i.e., changes in to those actors who have the greatest
sector seem to work well, are (often) relative prices and changes in regula- opportunity to influence what we eat,
not expensive, and are generally very tions and requirements. In order to pave which means shifting the focus from
well accepted. However, efforts can be the way for the implementation of these end-consumers to also include retail
stepped up, for example by means of a kinds of instruments, national targets for trade and the food industry as well.
national education initiative on food and sustainable food consumption can be
sustainability for the country’s preschool important. A package of policy instruments for
and school chefs, and clearer controls sustainable food consumption could
on what food is served to minimise its Today, retail trade and the food industry usefully contain several different types
environmental impact; a greater con- already have a big impact on our food of economic, informational and regula-
nection between the school mealtime choices through pricing, marketing and tory instruments. The system in which
and teaching and learning activities and choice. Nevertheless, gaining public policy instruments are introduced, how
choice editing in all tax-funded activities acceptance of the state influencing our they are justified, and how tax revenues
such as indoor swimming pools and hos- food choices through targets and policy can influence their acceptance among
pital cafés. However, the public sector instruments can be politically sensitive the population. For example, differ-
accounts for only 4% of total food con- and fraught. Perhaps a clearer link be- entiating VAT on food based on the
sumption in Sweden, which means that tween the environment and public health food’s environmental impact and health
private food consumption also needs to could remedy this; often, improved impacts – which would increase the
change in order to achieve large-scale health and reduced environmental price of red meat but lower the price of
change. Although food in the public impact from food go hand in hand. The fruit and vegetables – would probably
sector has a certain direct impact on the overconsumption of food is one obvious enjoy greater support from the public,
environment and health, it is probably example, reduced consumption of red especially if it were preceded by a
its indirect value in terms of the signal meat is another. comprehensive information campaign,
it sends that matters the most: showing compared with simply introducing a tax
the way and providing inspiration for a Environmentally sustainable food con- on red meat alone. If the revenues from
sustainable lifestyle. sumption is dependent on sustainable economic instruments are also ear-
production of food – both in Sweden marked for investments in more sustain-
and in other countries. The development able production systems or for initiatives
of national targets for food consumption for people on low incomes, the research
must therefore take into account the shows that acceptance can be further
consequences in a number of areas of enhanced. On the production side, this
sustainability – environmental and public can be done, for example, by increasing
health of course, but also degree of food aid to grazing lands that are important
self-sufficiency, employment, equality, for biodiversity; by investing in produc-
health care costs, the profitability of ing more fruit, vegetables and legumes
Sweden’s agriculture and food industry in Sweden; and by investing in value
and other effects on the landscape and added production in the animal products
rural areas. sector in order to reduce the number of
animals while maintaining turnover and
employment.
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Background
Food production accounts for 20–35% of a lack of good data on the magnitude of this
global greenhouse gas emissions (IPCC, waste, but estimates show that as much as one
2019) and food production (agriculture, third of the food produced is discarded or not
fisheries and aquaculture) is a major driver consumed (FAO, 2011).2
of biodiversity loss globally (IPBES, 2019).
Most of the greenhouse gas emissions from In recent years, a growing number of research
food production occur in agriculture and reports have shown that achieving a more
consist of ruminant methane, nitrous oxide environmentally sustainable food system
from fertilization, and carbon dioxide requires improvements in production as well
from land use change (e.g., deforestation). as reduced food waste and changes in dietary
Emissions also arise from the use of fossil habits (Willett, et al., 2019). When it comes to
energy in agriculture and fisheries and in dietary changes, it is primarily a reduction in
subsequent stages such as processing, transport the consumption of animal products that has
and storage. Furthermore, food production great potential to reduce the environmental
accounts for about 70% of global freshwater impact associated with food, particularly in
use (Willet, et al., 2019) and agriculture uses terms of climate impact (Röös et al., 2017).
about 40% of the ice-free land area of the As for protecting biodiversity, it is important
planet (FAOSTAT, 2020), which displaces to avoid further expansions of agricultural
natural ecosystems and threatens many land, especially in tropical regions (Moberg
plant and animal species. Only 13 crops, et al., 2020) and to promote diversity in the
including palm oil and soya beans, cause 70% agricultural landscape through, for example,
of biodiversity loss due to agricultural land more varied cropping systems, maintenance
use (Chaudhary & Kastner, 2016). At the of biodiversity corridors, and the conservation
global level, roughly the same quantity of of traditional agricultural land use methods,
antimicrobials are used for food-producing such as grazing and mowing (Gustavsson et
animals as for humans, but the use of al., 2007; Lindborg et al., 2008). In addition,
veterinary antibiotics is a more prominent a more efficient use of resources (particularly
source of antibiotic resistance (van Boeckel when it comes to nitrogen but also other
et al., 2017). The Swedish diet moreover nutrients, water, soil and energy), reduced
has a great impact on the environment: for use of chemical pesticides and measures
the climate, biodiversity, land use and the to conserve and improve soil fertility are
application of nitrogen and phosphorus, the necessary improvements in production in
impact is many times greater than can be order to reduce the environmental impact of
considered sustainable (Figure 1). agriculture and to maintain future production
capacity. In the case of wild fisheries, it is
At the same time, today’s global agriculture, essential to ensure that they are limited to
aquaculture and fisheries produce large sustainable fish stocks and that any negative
quantities of food that give many people impacts on aquatic environments and
access to a varied diet throughout the year. greenhouse gas emissions are minimised.
Globally, enough food is produced to feed
all inhabitants of the world, but the food is
unevenly distributed: two billion people are
overweight while 820 million people have
2
As a result of increased attention on the issue, the FAO is
too little to eat (FAO, 2019). A significant developing two new indices: one for measuring losses arising
proportion of the food produced is never up to the point of sale (Food Loss Index – FLI) and one for
consumed – losses occur at all stages in the measuring waste in households (Food Waste Index – FWI).
According to the FLI, about 14% of all food produced is lost
agri-food chain, but in rich countries such as before it reaches trade. Work on the FWI is in progress. Read
Sweden, mainly at household level. There is more at: www.fao.org/food-loss-and-food-waste/en
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G H G e m i s s i o ns
Cr
e
at
op
nr
l an
t io
du
in c
se
Ext
ion
Wa
c at
ter
p li
ap
us
e
N
P a p p li c a t i o n
Figure 1: Graph from Moberg et al. 2020 which shows
the average diet in Sweden in relation to the planetary
boundaries according to the EAT-Lancet report (Willet et
al., 2019). The inner red circle shows the sustainable level
of environmental impact of the per capita diet in terms of
climate impact, land use, species extinction, water use,
and nitrogen and phosphorus use. Each dashed circle
indicates that this limit has been exceeded by 100%.
10 | M I S T R A S U S TA I N A B L E C O N S U M P T I O N R E P O R T 1:10More than half of all fish and shellfish are at risk of contributing to deforestation
consumed globally today are farmed (FAO, or to a higher rate of land use in tropical
2018) and thus indirectly dependent on regions (Moberg, et al., 2020). By choosing
wild fisheries and land-based agricultural organic products, the use of pesticides is
production. In order to achieve sustainability, significantly reduced. Reducing waste
it is therefore of the utmost importance that and reducing overconsumption are other
fish feed is produced sustainably and that the important measures for more efficient resource
anticipated expansion of aquaculture is made utilisation.
more sustainable, for example, by the use
of recirculating systems or fish and shellfish In addition to the environmental challenges,
species that are less dependent on feed. food consumption today poses major problems
for public health. Today, 51% of people in
There is no clear definition of the Sweden are overweight and average weight
term ‘environmentally sustainable food increased by 5.6 kg between 1995 and 2017; a
consumption’ because it depends on what is trend that is not sustainable in the long term
included in the term and in what context the (Hemmingsson, 2020; Public Health Agency
term is used. In Sweden there are no targets of Sweden, 2020). A healthy diet often goes
for sustainable food consumption, but in a hand in hand with a more environmentally
country like Sweden where the consumption sustainable diet. The Swedish Food Agency
of meat, seafood and dairy products is high recommends more vegetables, fruit and berries
from a global perspective, a reduction in and less red meat in its combined dietary
the consumption of animal products has the advice for health and environment (Figure 2).
greatest potential to reduce the climate impact
from diets (Röös et al., 2017). An important
measure for reducing the negative impact on
biodiversity is to reduce the consumption of
products from water scarce regions or which
More From To Less
• Vegetables • White flour wholemeal • Red meat and
• Fruit and berries • Butter-based plant-based cooking fats/oils cured meat products
• Fish and seafood • High-fat low-fat dairy products • Salt
• Nuts and seeds • Sugar
• Movement in everyday life • Alcohol
Figure 2: The recommendations of the Swedish Food Agency.
P O L I C Y O P T I O N S F O R S U S TA I N A B L E F O O D C O N S U M P T I O N | 11Structure of this report
The aim of this report is to map out The report deals with environmentally
and discuss policy instruments for more sustainable food consumption in a broad
environmentally sustainable food consumption sense, that is, both climate and other
and to identify what public actors could environmental aspects, but it does not cover
already be doing to promote a positive trend. the extensive literature on public health
Seventeen different instruments are presented. strategies.3 However, because there may be
They are categorised in Table 1 according to lessons to be learned from the health area
whether they can be considered to operate that are also relevant for steering consumers
mainly through knowledge and support, changes towards environmental sustainability, and
in relative prices, or regulations and requirements. because there are often synergies between
These are in line with classical ways of a healthy and environmentally sustainable
categorising the state’s exercise of power on diet, the report’s conclusions have to some
the basis of ‘stick, carrot or sermon’, that is, extent also been based on knowledge of policy
punishment, reward or persuasion (Vedung, instruments for improving public health.
1998). The authors have conducted a survey
of existing studies guided by the systematic The aim of this report is to discuss the policy
mapping method ( James et al., 2016). In effectiveness, costs and acceptance of policy
March 2020, a workshop was held in which instruments. However, the documented
ten researchers and two government agency knowledge about these aspects of various
experts participated. At this workshop, the instruments varies greatly in the literature.
participants were asked to supplement the Most studies only cover policy effectiveness.
mapping, and to evaluate a number of policy
instruments based on their effectiveness and Policy effectiveness refers to how well an
feasibility, and to present suggestions for instrument fulfils the goal of steering food
policy packages. The survey and the results consumption in a more sustainable direction.
from the workshop have provided the basis for It may be worth pointing out that policy
the content of this report. effectiveness can be understood in different
ways: on the one hand, how effective
The focus of the report is on policy an instrument is in reducing the overall
instruments that can be implemented by environmental impact of food consumption
national, regional or local governments. In and, on the other, how effective it is for
a recent report by the Swedish Consumer achieving a set target. An instrument such as
Agency (Lindahl & Jonell, 2020), state and sustainability requirements when purchasing
public actors (together with the retail sector) produce for school meals, may have a low
were identified as particularly important effectiveness in reducing the environmental
for steering food consumption in a more impact of Sweden’s food consumption in total,
environmentally sustainable direction. since school meals make up such a small a
Thus, this report does not include measures proportion of the total consumption of food;
implemented by private actors on a voluntary but it can be effective in achieving a set target
basis (for example, industry agreements, that applies only to school meals.
choice editing or nudging in shops), nor
instruments for more sustainable food
production (for example, aid and payments of
compensation as part of agricultural policy).
In the concluding discussion however, we 3
See, for example, Bergström et al., 2017. Insatser för att främja
discuss policy packages that could contain a hälsosamma matvanor och fysisk aktivitet. En kartläggande
litteraturöversikt. [Efforts to promote healthy eating habits
broader spectrum of policy instruments to and physical activity.A mapping literature review]. Karolinska
influence consumption. Institutet.
12 | M I S T R A S U S TA I N A B L E C O N S U M P T I O N R E P O R T 1:10Knowledge and support Changed relative prices Regulation and requirements
Taxes: Consumer price
Positive labelling Regulation of choice
increases
Subsidies: Consumer price Consumption allowances
Negative labelling
reductions for meat
Mandatory declaration of
Regulation of marketing
environmental footprints
Requirements for improved
Information campaigns
sustainability of food sold
Consumer guides
and dietary advice Guidelines and environmental
criteria for public sector
Training of school chefs meal services
and other key actors
Educational tools Menu restrictions
Nudging in public or
private restaurants
Nudging in shops
Table 1: Categorisation of the 17 policy instruments discussed in this
report based on three types of mechanisms that the state can use to
steer society towards sustainable food consumption.
The possibility of implementing policy Acceptance is a crucial aspect of the
instruments is moreover affected by several introduction of policy instruments, partly
other factors. One factor is the costs because it is important in principle in a
associated with a particular instrument. democratic society and partly because it is
Some instruments and measures may entail difficult to introduce instruments if public
significantly higher costs for reducing opinion is strongly against them. If strong
emissions by a certain amount compared with opposition exists, politicians – whose political
other alternatives. In order to minimise the survival and scope for action are based on
overall costs, in theory, instruments ought to popular support – will be wary of introducing
be introduced so that the marginal costs of them (Burstein, 2003).
emissions reductions are as low as possible,
meaning that reducing one more tonnes The legal aspects of the policy instruments,
of emissions ought to be done where it is that is whether they are feasible under current
cheapest. The costs to society and how these Swedish and international legislation, are not
are distributed between various actors also explicitly covered in this report. However,
affect feasibility, since instruments that entail we present some real-life examples of
high costs (especially for powerful actors) will instruments which thus have been proven to
encounter stronger resistance. be implementable.
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Policy instruments in the
Knowledge and Support category
Information and training tools can have Marine Stewardship Council (MSC) and
an impact mainly by building knowledge, Aquaculture Stewardship Council (ASC) (for
raising awareness and supporting consumers fish and shellfish). At present, the Swedish
to change their habits in an otherwise state does not impose any requirements on
unchanged food landscape. This is the main eco-certification and labelling for food that
type of policy instrument used by the public would help consumers choose food that is
sector in Sweden today, for example in the better for the environment. The Swedish
form of advice and guidelines from the state is only (indirectly) involved in the EU
Swedish Food Agency through dietary advice organic logo, as it is an Eu-wide label (based
(which also encompasses environmental on Regulation (EU) 2018/848). However,
aspects) and the training of school chefs in there are requirements for food to be labelled
different municipalities. Nudging is another with, for example, a list of ingredients and
supportive method where a certain behaviour nutritional value, and for some products (e.g.
can be promoted by changes in the choice meat, seafood and fruit) the label must state
architecture. the product’s origin.4
Increasing the individual’s knowledge through The Swedish Keyhole symbol is an example
providing information and thus contributing of nutrition labelling where the state, via
to a change in attitude is one of the oldest the Swedish Food Agency, administers the
and most frequently used methods for trying labelling. It was launched in 1989 and for
to change people’s behaviour (Kollmuss & many years now it also exists in Norway,
Agyeman, 2002). This report differentiates Denmark and Iceland. The Keyhole currently
between information provided directly to functions as a voluntary undertaking for
the consumer at the time of purchase (i.e. in businesses operating in the agri-food chain
a shop or restaurant, for example through and the label may be used on foods that
on-package labelling) and information that meet certain criteria for their sugar, salt, and
the consumer receives outside the food whole grain/fibre and fat content (LIVSFS
environment (e.g. information campaigns). 2015:1). The results show that the Keyhole
Front-of-package labelling can be either label steers consumers towards healthier
positive, negative, or demonstrate the choices and stimulates product development
environmental footprint of a product. Positive (Amcoff, 2012; Hedengren & Wassenius,
labelling generally signals that a particular 2015). A meta-analysis from 2019, which
product is better than others, that is, has a compiled and synthesised the results of 60
positive quality, while negative labelling previous studies from 11 countries, showed
signals that the product is worse than the that health-related labels have some effect on
average (Grankvist, 2002). consumer behaviour. Among other things, the
study showed that energy intake decreased by
6.6% and vegetable intake increased by 13.5%
Positive labelling after introducing the label (Shangguan, et al.,
Eco-labelling can reduce environmental 2019).
impacts in two ways: by producers changing
their production practices in order to get
certified, and through changing consumers’
choices. Examples of voluntary positive 4
https://www.livsmedelsverket.se/produktion-handel--kontroll/
labelling in Sweden are the EU and the information-markning-och-pastaenden?AspxAutoDetectCookie
KRAV organic logos, Rainforest Alliance, Support=1
P O L I C Y O P T I O N S F O R S U S TA I N A B L E F O O D C O N S U M P T I O N | 15that the majority of the studies did not include
an appropriate control group. There are also
a number of studies, for example Seufert et
Eco-labelling has been criticised for al. (2012), that have focused specifically on
being comparatively ineffectual in when and to what extent organic certification
helping the consumer make leads to environmental benefits. The research
the best choices” shows that organic farming has advantages in
terms of biodiversity and soil quality, while
the results in certain areas such as climate
There is a relatively large amount of literature impact are similar to those for conventionally
on who chooses eco-labelled products cultivated products (Seufert & Ramankutti,
(for example, Thøgersen 2000; Aertsen et 2017).
al., 2009), what consumers know about
different labels, and how this affects their One approach to evaluate the effectiveness
propensity to choose eco-labelled food (e.g. of eco-labelling is to look at the proportion
Grunert et al., 2014) and whether labelling of all food sold that is labelled as organic. In
influences consumers’ choices (e.g. Taufique Sweden, 9% of total food sold was labelled
et al., 2016). One example of the latter is a organic in 2019 (Ekofeb, 2020), which is one
randomised controlled study from Sweden, of the highest market shares in the world. In
which examined the effect of a qualitative Sweden, about 25% of all fish and shellfish
climate label on milk, i.e., a label signalling sold are also eco-labelled (in 2015, Ziegler
that the company in question is working to & Bergman, 2017). However, although
reduce its emissions. The results showed an a large proportion of Swedish consumers
increase in demand for the labelled option of value the environment highly, sales of eco-
6–8% (Elofsson et al., 2016). There are also labelled foods are limited because consumers
studies of how much more people are willing value taste, origin, price and shelf life (best-
to pay for an eco-labelled product ( Johnston before date) higher than that a product is
& Roheim, 2006; Didier & Lucie, 2008) organic/eco labelled (Magnusson et al.,
and how effective the labels are in reducing 2001, Swedish Food Agency, 2014). Positive
environmental impact on the production side labelling therefore has some but limited policy
(Blackman & Rivera, 2010). effectiveness. Eco-labelling has been criticised
for being comparatively ineffectual in helping
How certification/eco-labelling drives the consumer make the best choices because it
environmental improvements at producer (potentially) points out the best choice within
level has been studied in long-term studies a given product category (for example, one
comparing the environmental impact of fish versus another fish) but does not aim to
individual farmers/fishers before and after help consumers reduce their consumption of
certification (e.g. Gutiérrez et al., 2012) and the most environmentally damaging product
also in cross-sectional studies comparing categories, or products that are particularly
certified with non-certified producers (e.g. problematic from an environmental point of
Rueda et al., 2014). The majority of the view, such as red meat, air-freight food, or
studies published in this field are of relatively products that have caused tropical rainforest
low quality, as the long-term studies do deforestation ( Jonell et al., 2013).
not adequately analyse the impact on the
environment if agriculture/cultivation/ Private actors such as the retail sector, the
fisheries were not certified. An overview catering industry and the food industry also
study that compiled the results of previous play a key role for sales of eco-labelled foods
research focusing on the effects of the through how these foods are marketed, priced
certification of timber, coffee, fish and and displayed in groceries and supermarkets.
seafood, bananas and nuts showed positive One example is how big chains like Walmart
effects in 23 out of 30 studies (Chaplin- and McDonalds have used the MSC ecolabel
Kramer, et al., 2015), but with the proviso to ensure that the fish they sell adhere to a
16 | M I S T R A S U S TA I N A B L E C O N S U M P T I O N R E P O R T 1:10certain level of environmental sustainability
(Lubchenko, et al., 2016), while relatively few
consumers recognise the label or actively look
for it ( Jonell, et al.); 2016).
Negative labelling
Research has suggested that negative
information that signals some kind of
‘danger’ can be more effective than positive
labelling that signals an added value with the
product. An example of negative labelling
can be found in Chile, where compulsory
labelling of unhealthy foods in the form Figure 3: Negative labelling in Chile of foods with
of warning symbols has been introduced a high sugar, unhealthy fat, salt and calorie content.
Source: Wikimedia commons https://upload.wikime-
(Figure 3) on foods with a high content of
dia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7e/Etiquetado_min-
sugar, unhealthy fat, salt and calorie (Reyes, sal_Chile.jpeg
et al., 2019). Labelling has been combined
with restrictions on how these products are
allowed to be marketed and sold to children, negative labelling on food packaging (Biel
and in addition, the country has a tax on & Grankvist, 2010, van Dam & de Jonge,
sugar-sweetened beverages which was raised 2015). Grankvist et al. (2004) for example
from 13 to 18% in 2004 (Taillie et al., 2020). showed that consumers who were moderately
A number of countries, including Mexico, concerned about negative environmental
Uruguay, Brazil, Peru, Canada and Israel, impacts from food production were more
have introduced or plan to introduce similar susceptible to negative labelling. However,
warning symbols on food packaging (Reyes et those who were already more concerned about
al., 2019). the environmental impact of food were more
positively disposed to positive labelling, for
The labelling initiative in Chile was example, current eco-labels.
introduced in 2016 and so far few studies
have been published on the effectiveness of Negative labelling signalling a big
negative labelling combined with restrictions environmental footprint would, however,
on marketing and sales to children. Taillie et most likely be criticised by the companies
al. (2020) however, showed that the sales of producing these goods. The cost-effectiveness
beverages with a high calorie or sugar content of this kind of instrument is also not known.
have fallen by almost 25%. Concerning However, tentative results from Chile show
people’s attitudes to negative labelling, an a high potential impact and acceptance,
interview study in Chile before and after especially in combination with restricted
the introduction of the labelling (2012 and marketing and a tax on sugar-sweetened
2016) showed that people became more beverages.
positive to the labelling over time, while the
understanding of what the labelling means
remained low and did not change over time
(Gregori et al., 2019). A qualitative study
involving mothers of children aged 2–14 years
showed an in general a positive attitude to the Research has suggested that
labelling initiative and how it is being used negative information that signals
(Correa et al., 2019). some kind of ‘danger’ with the
product can be more effective than
A number of research studies have shown that positive labelling that signals an
consumers react differently to positive and added value with the product”
P O L I C Y O P T I O N S F O R S U S TA I N A B L E F O O D C O N S U M P T I O N | 17Mandatory declaration of
environmental footprints
Declaring the environmental impact of a
product, referred to as its environmental Since there are goal conflicts
footprint, is one way of trying to shift between different aspects of
consumer behaviour. Various initiatives sustainability,a one-sided focus on
to put a carbon label on food products has the climate issue risks exacerbating
been introduced in a number of countries, the situation in other areas”
including the United Kingdom where the
Carbon Trust was the first to introduce this
kind of labelling in 2007; and in France where long-distance journeys is to be introduced in
the state pilot-tested mandatory climate Sweden (Transport Analysis, 2020).
labelling (Grenelle II Law, Liu, et al., 2016).
Other countries that have voluntary labelling A number of studies have been carried out in
and where the state has been involved in the the area of consumers and climate labelling.
process in some way include Japan, Germany, Most of these are intervention studies where
Australia, Taiwan and South Korea (Liu et al., e.g. products are labelled with their carbon
2016). There are also companies that, on their footprint and the impact on consumer choice
own initiative, declare the climate impact of is investigated. At a university restaurant, it
their products directly on the food package was found that climate labelling in the form
g (for example, Oatly and Quorn) or parts of of red, yellow and green (traffic light) symbols
their assortment as retailers (for example, mat. resulted in only a marginal decrease in sales of
se). meals with a high climate impact and a slight
increase in sales of vegetarian food (Brunner
A conceivable form of state regulation et al., 2018). In total, emissions from food
could be mandatory on-package labelling served at the restaurant decreased by 3.6%
of the environmental footprint for a certain during the period studied. The long-term
product, similar to the EU’s mandatory effects are, however, unclear. Vanclay et al.
energy labelling.5 The energy label has been (2011) labelled goods in a grocery store with
regarded as a successful initiative given that green, yellow and black symbols, the latter
about 90% of all refrigerators, dishwashers representing the biggest carbon footprint. The
and washing machines achieved the highest results showed a 6% decrease in sales of black-
grade eight years after this labelling became labelled products and a 4% increase in green-
mandatory, and that the labelling has thus labelled products. However, the experiment
driven a change in production (European was limited to certain product groups (such
Commission, 2010). This labelling is in as milk and canned tomatoes). In a study
the form of a multilevel label and has been that focused on fish and other seafood and
considered to be as more effective than if environmental sustainability in a broader sense
only a single figure is communicated (Upham (e.g. whether the fish came from sustainable
et al., 2011; Thøgersen & Nielsen, 2016). fish stocks or was farmed sustainably),
According to the January agreement (a 73 products were labelled red for ‘worst choice’
point policy agreement between the Social (unsustainable), yellow for ‘proceed with
Democratic Party and Green Party coalition caution’, and green for ‘best’ choice (Hallstein
that secured support from the two centre- & Villas-Boas, 2013). Surprisingly, the
right parties, the Liberals and the Centre Party results showed that sales of all fish decreased,
so that a government could be formed in including those with the green label. The
Sweden), a mandatory climate declaration for authors’ analysis was that when negative
information is communicated, it might
be important to combine it with positive
information about other areas of sustainability;
5
Labelling from A to G depending on the energy efficiency in this case, e.g. the positive impacts on health
of an appliance. of eating fish and seafood.
18 | M I S T R A S U S TA I N A B L E C O N S U M P T I O N R E P O R T 1:10A new study focusing on Swedish consumers’
attitudes to climate labelling showed that
most were positive to climate labelling, but
that one third did not want information
about the climate impact of food (Edenbrandt
et al., 2020). Furthermore, results from the
same study that also included a purchasing
experiment showed that those who are
positive to climate labelling reduced the
climate impact from their purchasing choices
by 32%. An overview study of peoples’
attitudes to a range of sustainability labels
(including positive labels such as eco-labels)
demonstrated positive attitudes to eco-labels
and, in particular, labels indicating organic
production, probably due to the anticipated
positive effects on peoples’ health (Tobi
et al., 2019). The same study showed a
generally negative attitude to environmental
declarations in the form of carbon footprint
(only figures provided). According to the
authors, a possible explanation could be a
lack of knowledge about the approximate
greenhouse gas emissions of various products.
Labelling food with greenhouse gas emissions that all of 16 environmental dimensions are
per kg of product, either as a figure or as a included and that efforts are being made to
given level on a scale, presents a number of harmonise the methodology for calculating
technical challenges. Life cycle assessment, environmental impact, the initiative can be
which is generally the method used to an important piece of the puzzle in arriving at
generate environmental footprints, is time- a comprehensive environmental declaration.
consuming and the results can vary according So far, however, only a few food categories
to the methods chosen. In addition, climate have been approved in the pilot phase and
impact is the most widely used environmental methodology development for key foods such
dimension, since the methods for assessing as meat has been discontinued.6
greenhouse gas emissions are the most
widely accepted. This means that other
important sustainability dimensions, such as Information campaigns
biodiversity; nutrient leakage; water, land Large-scale information campaigns aimed at
and pesticide use; impacting the quality changing consumer behaviour have, together
of agricultural land; animal welfare; social with educational efforts, probably been the
aspects etc., are not included, which are most common method used to get people
included in broader certification programs, to eat differently. In Italy and the United
for example for organic farming. Since Kingdom there have been information
there can be trade-offs between different campaigns to reduce salt consumption and in
aspects of sustainability, a one-sided focus Denmark and Poland to increase consumption
on the climate issue risks exacerbating the of seafood (Capacci et al., 2012). In Sweden,
situation in other areas. The EU’s Product the association Mjölkpropagandan (Milk
Environmental Footprint (PEF) initiative is a promotion) was formed in 1923, which,
proposal for a common methodology for
calculating the environmental footprint of
products using a life cycle approach. Given 6
https://ec.europa.eu/environment/eussd/smgp/ef_pilots.htm
P O L I C Y O P T I O N S F O R S U S TA I N A B L E F O O D C O N S U M P T I O N | 192012). There are many important barriers for
changing habits (McKenzie-Mohr, 2000).
Some examples mentioned in the scientific
Information campaigns are rarely literature are an excess of information (Horne,
sufficient to change behaviour on a 2009; Neumann, et al., 2012) and consumer
large scale, especially in the case confusion (Chen & Chang, 2013). From
an international perspective, information
of food consumption, an area where
campaigns continue to be among the most
people can be particularly sensitive
common ways of trying to change human
to being preached at” behaviour. One reason is that they are
relatively easy to implement. Studies show that
the public has a relatively positive attitude to
using state funding, conducted campaigns information as a policy mechanism (Fesenfeld,
to increase milk consumption (see Jönsson, et al., 2020; Kwon, et al., 2019).
2005) and in most European countries there
have been campaigns to increase fruit and Although information campaigns probably
vegetable consumption. With the exception have limited policy effectiveness in steering
of the Swedish Food Agency’s campaign to people towards more environmentally
reduce food waste (2017–2019), we have not sustainable food consumption, a basic
found any examples of large-scale public awareness and information about a problem
information campaigns aimed at reducing – here the negative environmental impact
the negative environmental impact of food of food – can be important for enabling
consumption. However, there are examples consumers to make informed choices (Gifford
from the public sector where information & Nilsson, 2014). Research shows that public
has been provided in school dining rooms knowledge of food production and its climate
about the environmental impact of food (for impact is limited and that there is a tendency
example, Tulläng Upper Secondary School to underestimate the climate impact of food
in Örebro7). Major government information production in relation to other activities such
campaigns recently conducted in Sweden have as travel and accommodation (Bailey, et al.,
instead focused on, for example, the spread of 2014). However, there is reason to believe that
infections (for example, ‘Wash your hands’ in this knowledge has increased partly due to
connection with the COVID-19 outbreak in the increased attention in recent years on the
spring 2020). environmental impacts of food.
There are few rigorous evaluations of the To summarise, information campaigns are
impact of information campaigns on human rarely sufficient to change human behaviour
behaviour. Many information campaigns on a large scale, especially in the case of
that have aimed to change people’s food food consumption, an area where people can
consumption from a health perspective have be particularly sensitive to being preached
been evaluated, but most have not involved at. However, information campaigns and
a control group (Capacci et al., 2012). The continuous information (see for example
results show that although there is a temporary dietary advice in the next section) can be
increase in the level of knowledge in the an important building block for achieving a
community, there is only weak evidence that certain basic level of public knowledge about
people change their behaviour significantly, food, the environment and health. Potentially,
or for the effectiveness of the campaigns this knowledge base could help to change
in terms of health indicators such as body attitudes and norms and promote greater
weight or cholesterol levels (Capacci et al., acceptance of other forms of regulation such
as taxes and choice editing (cf. Bord et al.,
2000).
7
Tulläng Upper Secondary School in Örebro: www.svt.se/
nyheter/lokalt/orebro/vegetarisk-mat-pa-tullangsskolan
20 | M I S T R A S U S TA I N A B L E C O N S U M P T I O N R E P O R T 1:10Consumer guides and dietary advice overshadowing other sustainability dimensions
Another type of information outside the food that need to be illustrated quantitatively
environment is information that consumers (see section on mandatory environmental
themselves must seek out. WWF Sweden’s declaration, page 18), and that a systems
Meat Guide8, a number of fish guides and perspective on food security is lost. In
various types of recommendations in book addition, it can be expensive to calculate the
and digital form are concrete examples. Few environmental impact of a large number of
scientific evaluations of how and if these are foods at a detailed level, and the uncertainties
used by consumers to make more informed in these calculations are considerable. It is
choices have been found (Spendrup et al., also important that initiatives do not stop at
2017). However, the WWF’s Fish Guide is producing environmental data for different
used by the retail sector to create internal foods, but that there also are targets and
policy documents on which fish and shellfish guidelines on how the data should be used in
should be sold (Lindahl & Jonell, 2020). an effective way to steer the society towards
more environmentally sustainable habits.
An example provided by the state is the
Swedish Food Agency’s Eating habits and dietary In summary, it can be assumed that consumer
guidelines9 which aims primarily at providing guides and dietary advice are used to a
guidance when it comes to choosing healthy limited extent by individuals10, but can be
food, but also to a certain extent deals with important in that they provide easily accessible
the environmental impact of food (Fischer information about the environment and
& Garnett, 2016; Figure 2). As for the other health that is backed by the state. In addition,
consumer guides, we have found no evidence- they may have indirect positive effects when
based information on how much these dietary they are used by key players in the food
guidelines are used by the public and how system, thereby influencing the individual’s
effective they are in changing behaviour. One choices through, for example, choice editing.
can note however that prevailing food habits Given that dietary advice and other guides
are not in line with these advisories – less than provide information that consumers have to
one fifth of the population eat as much fruit, actively seek out for themselves, the level of
vegetables and whole grains as the advisories acceptance can be assumed to be high – only
prescribe (Riksmaten 2010–11, Amcoff, et those consumers who are interested in the
al., 2012). Except for the guidance from the information need to read it. More research
Swedish Food Agency, the state currently does into policy effectiveness, costs and acceptance
not provide any consumer guidance aimed at of guides and dietary advice, especially where
informing consumers about the environmental the state is the information owner, could
impact of food. The Swedish Food Agency increase knowledge of how such instruments
offers a food database with nutritional data can be used in the best way.
for different foods. The Agency uses this
database when they produce dietary advice
for the public and the public sector, and
to establish the legitimacy of the Agency’s
recommendations. A database summarising
the best available data on the environmental
impact of different foods could be a valuable
contribution – for interested members of the 8 www.wwf.se/mat-och-jordbruk/kottguiden
public but perhaps even more so for public and 9 https://www.livsmedelsverket.se/en/food-habits-health-and-
private enterprises and other actors. However, environment/dietary-guidelines
10 However, the Swedish Food Agency’s dietary advice for
there are a number of challenges associated meals provided within the public sector is used by Sweden’s
with establishing and using this kind of local government actors (municipalities and regions) to
database. One is that the environmental plan healthy and nutritious sustainable meals in the health
care system, schools and residential care (see the section
dimensions that are easy to measure and “Environmental criteria and guidelines for meals provided
include in a database (e.g. climate impacts) risk within the public sector”.
P O L I C Y O P T I O N S F O R S U S TA I N A B L E F O O D C O N S U M P T I O N | 21Training of school chefs and
other key actors
Although eating habits can change
throughout life, there is scientific evidence Although eating habits can change
that consumption habits created in our throughout life, there is scientific
younger years are an important explanatory evidence that consumption habits
factor for future eating habits (de Wild et al., created in our younger years are an
2015, Craigie et al., 2011). For this reason, important explanatory factor for future
school meals can play an important role in
eating habits”
ultimately steering the population towards
more sustainable food consumption. For
example, an experimental study in Finland
showed that children in the intermediate Sweden, an initiative is offering key players
level of compulsory school who had to taste in the retail sector training in climate-smart
a sample of vegetables weekly for ten weeks food consumption13 which indicates that there
reported after this repeated exposure that is some political support for implementing this
they liked vegetables they had previously type of measure.
disliked (Lakkakula, et al., 2010). Getting
more children to eat more plant-based foods We have not found any scientific literature
in preschool and at school can therefore on the training of chefs or other educational
be important for reducing the general initiatives for staff to steer the population
population’s consumption of animal products towards more environmentally sustainable
in the long term. Knowledge of how food food consumption. However, a number of
is produced and cooked can also be taught studies have been published in the area of
at young ages to stimulate healthier and health, for example the Live Well program
more sustainable eating habits (Whiteley & (LiveWell@School Food Initiative), which has
Matwiejczyk, 2015). had the aim of reducing obesity among school
pupils in Colorado, USA (Schober et al.,
The food being tasty and appealing is a key 2016); and the Chef Initiative in Boston where
factor if it is to be experienced as tempting a professional chef trained staff in school
and attractive to both children and adults cafeterias and developed new, healthier recipes
(Steptoe et al., 1995). Improving the skills (Cohen et al., 2012). Both of these initiatives
of preschool and school chefs in vegetarian have shown positive results, but more studies
cooking can therefore be an important piece are needed to evaluate their effects in the
of the puzzle in a shift to sustainable food long-term.
consumption, as limited knowledge of how
to cook tasty plant-based meals is a well-
known barrier (Graça, et al. 2019). In Sweden, Educational tools
there are several initiatives in both the public In Sweden today there are a number of
and private sectors aimed at increasing initiatives which aim to help educators to
skills in vegetarian cooking and knowledge increase pupils’ knowledge about food and
of sustainable foods, such as the City of its environmental impact. Swedish initiatives
Helsingborg’s SmartMat Hbg11. An example include the Swedish Food Agency’s project
from Denmark is Copenhagen’s Madhus12 which Hej Skolmat14 which has suggested lesson plans
uses chef training to increase the proportion and teacher guides revolving around school
of organic foods in public sector kitchens mealtimes. The most recent initiatives are
from 35 to 72% without increasing costs. In
addition, in the Västra Götaland Region in
13 www.klimat2030.se/klimatsmartmat
14 www.utbudet.se/storage/ma/dcb10a64a5d140b7b4f9803
11
https://helsingborg.se/forskola-och-utbildning/helsingborgs- b53fb6a1e/52bcd24c9e3c437087837c8c73b9bbd8/pdf/
stads-skolor/skolmat/smartmat-hbg C3069E77513D8C5896EB4F6EF6BA2869DB5C4759/
12 www.kbhmadhus.dk Hej%20skolmat.pdf
22 | M I S T R A S U S TA I N A B L E C O N S U M P T I O N R E P O R T 1:10You can also read
