Policy Brief Hosting the 2010 World Cup: What have we learned? Some South African Reflections
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Policy Brief Hosting the 2010 World Cup: What have we learned? Some South African Reflections June, 2012 Research Group of Urban Development and Sustainability BRICS Policy Center / Centro de Estudos e Pesquisa BRICS
Policy Brief Hosting the 2010 World Cup: What have we learned? Some South African Reflections June, 2012 Research Group of Urban Development and Sustainability BRICS Policy Center / Centro de Estudos e Pesquisa BRICS
BRICS POLICY CENTER – POLICY BRIEF
Hosting the 2010 World Cup: What have we learned?
Some South African Reflections
Autor: Janis van der Westhuizen
Hosting the 2010 World Cup: What have we learned?
Some South African Reflections
1. Introduction industries: Tiger Woods’ combined annual
income for 2003 was US $ 76.6 million,
A remarkable consequence of the while Bhutan’s GDP amounted to US $ 68
growing salience of the BRICS in the million, whilst the multiyear baseball,
global economy is the coincidental basketball, American football and
frequency with which major sports events European soccer contracts regularly
are also being hosted in these new surpass the GDP’s of countries like
centres of economic power. The 2008 Botswana or Belize and the franchise
Olympics in China, the 2010 FIFA values of leading clubs like Real Madrid,
(Federation Internationale de Football Manchester United or the New York
Association) World Cup in South Africa Yankees are larger than the GDP of many
and the 2014 FIFA World Cup and 2016 developing countries like Zambia,
1
Olympics Games in Brazil, the 2014 Honduras or Paraguay
Olympics in Sochi, Russia and finally the
XIX Commonwealth Games in India in Despite the economic significance
2010 are cases in point. Of course, given of mega-sports events, their growing
the potential economies of scale in many frequency and the seemingly ever-
of these states, but especially in ‘monster increasing competition to host them. state
countries’ like Brazil, India and China, and elites’ appetite to embark on the costly
the consumptive capacity of their middle process of both bidding and if successful,
classes entails growing sources of actually hosting major or even mega-
disposable income towards the global events are driven in part by the perceived
leisure market and no less so in relation to need to appropriate these events as a
the political economy of sport, major means of generating interest and
sports events and its associated industries awareness of the state on the assumption
with both forward and backward linkages. that the kind of publicity only such events
Consider the following as indicative of the can generate on an unprecedented scale
size of these increasingly transnational will further enmesh the state into the
3BRICS POLICY CENTER – POLICY BRIEF
Hosting the 2010 World Cup: What have we learned?
Some South African Reflections
Autor: Janis van der Westhuizen
financial, productive and consumptive accrued considerable prestige from
dynamics of the international political hosting a major sport event, since the late
economy and will be verifiable through twentieth century, the economic
promising trade and tourism figures, imperatives behind it have become ever
student exchanges, conventions, major art more significant.
and cultural festivals, film and advertising
processes, culinary competitions, gay This policy brief provides a brief
pride festivals, and major rock concerts. Of glimpse into the complexities and
course, as certain destinations become contradictions that often emerge in the
more sought after, it heightens their run-up to, and the hosting of, mega-events
capacity and appeal to host even more in ‘rising powers’ of the South. The focus
events in future. The success with which is on South Africa’s hosting of the 2010
states and specifically cities, ‘plug into’ Soccer World Cup, concluding with brief
capital’s circulatory processes, and reflections on similarities and differences
enhance prospects for the development of with Brazil’s bid to host the World Cup in
post-Fordist industries in the advanced 2014 and the Olympics in 2016. Both
developed but even de-industrialising countries represent the possibility of
sectors of the developing world, also helps massive new markets – more so in the
to attract and ferment growing numbers of Brazilian case – juxtaposed against glaring
what Florida has termed ‘the creative (and especially in the South African case)
2
class’ . These consist of scientists, growing inequalities. These issues will be
engineers, architects, poets, designers examined according to three analytical
and university professors and those dimensions. Firstly, questions of identity
involved in high-tech industries that, in and how these are constructed; secondly,
turn, impact upon urban and regional debates about the costs and benefits of
development and hence heighten the hosting mega-events and finally, the
international allure of the cities in which extent to which non-state actors such as
they live. In short, nearly all states beyond FIFA abrogate states’ sovereignty, even if
those traditionally classified as ‘least only for the two to three week duration of a
developed’, compete in various ways – tournament.
akin to brightly coloured anemone’s on the
ocean floor - for whatever possibilities 2. Constructing identity
there may be to entice various types of
capital by enhancing their international The concept of marketing power helps
appeal3.Whilst key cities have always relate both the domestic and international
4BRICS POLICY CENTER – POLICY BRIEF
Hosting the 2010 World Cup: What have we learned?
Some South African Reflections
Autor: Janis van der Westhuizen
dimensions whereby identities are When South Africa began bidding
constructed and projected during mega- for the World Cup, its 2003 bid book,
sports events. As a kind of two-level game loudly proclaimed the then president,
marketing power internally, the concept Thabo Mbeki’s vision of the bid as being ‘a
refers to attempts by state elites to shore- resolve to ensure that the twenty first
up political legitimacy, reinforce a sense of century unfolds as a century of growth and
national identity and placate those development in Africa’.6 Even the FIFA
constituencies adversely affected by the Inspection Report contended that
growing internationalization of domestic awarding the event to South Africa would
7
issue areas. In other words, hosting mega- assist in unifying the country. In keeping
events demonstrate the benefits that with this pan-Africanist theme, the official
accrue from an intensified connection to slogan of the 2010 FIFA World Cup has
the global economy. Marketing power also been called ‘Ke Nako’ meaning “it’s time”.
8
serves an external political purpose since The slogan celebrates Africa as the
state elites justify the huge costs of destination of ‘humanity and as a
hosting an event on the basis of its contributor to every sphere of human
potential to ‘export’ the country and ‘put it endeavour’, whilst the official mascot of
on the world map’. However as state and the 2010 FIFA World Cup, ‘Zakumi’ is a
business elites seek to enhance their leopard whose name comprises of ‘ZA’
legitimacy by prevailing on the states’ which represents South Africa and ‘kumi’
sources of marketing power, these efforts translates into the number ten in various
9
can often exacerbate or expose divisions, languages across Africa. According to
disputes and some exceptional cases FIFA, the mascot represents the people,
even impact upon these elites’ lack of geography and spirit of South Africa, and
legitimacy and/or inefficiency. Moreover in personifies in essence the 2010 FIFA
the context of the hard earned glare of the World Cup. Ironically, the mascot was
global media attention these events marred in controversy. Not only was it not
generate, embarrassments are concealed being manufactured in South Africa, but
4
with greater difficulty . In short, generating reportedly in a Chinese factory – linked to
marketing power is not without risk, since FIFA’s branding company, Global Brands
political or social embarrassments may Group (GBG) – where workers toiled
also diminish rather than boost a state’s under poor working conditions. Moreover,
5
prestige. the factory, Shangai Fashion Plastic
Products, was ‘contracted by a South
African licensee company that is owned by
5BRICS POLICY CENTER – POLICY BRIEF
Hosting the 2010 World Cup: What have we learned?
Some South African Reflections
Autor: Janis van der Westhuizen
11
a member of Parliament from the African Africa as an African state. In May 2008
10
National Congress’. an outbreak of xenophobic attacks
occurred in Alexandria Township, on the
Nowhere is the confluence of outskirts of Johannesburg and spread
commercial marketing and appeals to countrywide, leaving over 40 people dead
12
South African national identity as crudely and some 16 000 displaced. These
obvious in the slew of television widely publicised attacks, fuelled
commercials aired in the last weeks’ run perceptions of a tainted image, and the
up to the World Cup kick-off. In fact, so anticipation of much lower visitor
tightly is the depiction of South African attendance figures for the the2010 FIFA
sports fans and commercial products and World Cup, not only from North America
services interwoven that it becomes very and Europe – where concerns about crime
difficult to conceive of the South African even prompted the German coach to insist
World Cup identity in the absence of its that his players use bullet proof vests
many products and sponsors. The when leaving their hotel – but also
television commercial for mobile amongst football supporters from other
13
telecommunications giant, Vodacom, African countries. More recently, the
enitled ‘Jan and Elton: Bafana Bling’ is a mayor of the Western Cape municipality of
case in point. Featuring two men rapping Theewaterskloof (between Cape Town
and enveloped in commensurate ‘bling’ and Mossel Bay), suggested displaced
attire, the two rappers call upon the nation foreigners complain ‘that Western Cape
to support the national football team, provincial police and municipal officials are
‘Bafana Bafana’, reminding viewers that covering up the spate of violent attacks on
the World Cup ‘is like 1995 all over again’, them because of the approaching FIFA
14
referring to the outburst of national pride World Cup’. Concerns were also
when South African won the Rugby World expressed that following another incident
Cup. in Imizamo Yethu, Hout Bay, residents
feared that xenophobia would flare up
Yet set against the backdrop of after the World Cup, particularly if South
such elite-driven efforts to deploy South Africa lost and as anti-foreigner sentiments
Africa’s marketing power, at the societal increased. Fortunately these apocalyptic
level, xenophobic attacks directed visions proved exaggerated, and the
particularly towards Africans cast heavy World Cup was largely from a logistical
doubts about the success with which point of view, widely acclaimed to have
Pretoria has sought to reconstruct South been a success. Indeed, one of the most
6BRICS POLICY CENTER – POLICY BRIEF
Hosting the 2010 World Cup: What have we learned?
Some South African Reflections
Autor: Janis van der Westhuizen
significant, if intangible legacies of the 20%, between R2.8 and R3.4 billion, with
World Cup has been its symbolic value of a large part of budget overruns attributable
enhancing South African pride. Not only in to the speed with which the planning
the country’s ability to successfully host an process was undertaken, consequently
event of such magnitude, but of particular using provisional sums instead of
20
significance to South Africans, as a rare specifics.
opportunity – however fleeting -- to
celebrate a sense of national identity. Despite dire predictions of the
However, in terms of the costs versus eventual costs government would incur,
benefits debate, the outcome has proved research consultancies employed by the
to be less optimistic, at least over the short local organising committee pedalled
term, than had initially been anticipated. inflated projections of returns. Foreign
tourist arrivals, a key dimension in these
In general, FIFA World Cups have had models, were estimated at 235 000 in
only limited positive effects on local 2003, 480 000 in 2008 and then revised
economies or more likely to be non- downward to 373 000 on the basis that
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significant or even negative. In South although fewer tourists would arrive than
Africa, government almost exclusively expected in earlier projections, they will
covered the tab for the construction of stay longer and spend more21. More recent
stadiums and related infrastructure, US $ post-hoc studies have now determined
1.38 billion for stadiums and 1.6 billion that these figures have turned out to be
16
pounds for infrastructure. . In 2006, R8.4 considerably lower at between 90 000 to
billion was allocated for stadium 118 000 persons22. The contribution of the
construction, supply of utility and services World Cup to GDP in 2011 over the short-
to the stadiums and for FIFA overlay items term has been assessed to be a mere 0,1
17
in the stadium. A further R6.7 billion for %. What proved to be methodologically
infrastructure, including transport, was problematic in terms of the research
18
allocated in the 2006 budget. However, consultancy’s model was the inclusion of
in the 2007/2008 budget speech, the total money spent on infrastructure
contribution by government was R17.4 improvement (including development of
billion (R8.4 billion on stadia and R9 billion stadiums) as a form of income, rather than
19
for transport and infrastructure. By the a cost. Moreover the impact and
end of 2007, concerns were growing that employment multipliers did not specify
as a result of cost escalations the 2007 whether employment stimulated by the
budget could be exceeded by more than tournament would be long or short-term or
7BRICS POLICY CENTER – POLICY BRIEF
Hosting the 2010 World Cup: What have we learned?
Some South African Reflections
Autor: Janis van der Westhuizen
how jobs would be affected by the of the R 600 bn infrastructure spend was
23
seasonal variation in demand . What to upgrade the country’s dated road
explains these lower than expected network and improve public transport,
passenger arrivals? The first and most including significant refurbishment of
obvious is the impact of the global airports26.
financial crisis, exacerbated by South
Africa being a long-haul and therefore 3. Abrogating sovereignty
more expensive destination; concerns that
the country is a ´dangerous´ location as One of the most remarkable complexities
well as the so-called ´crowding out of hosting mega-sports events is the
effects´. These relate to both the effect of extent to which a non-state actor such as
crowding out regular travellers (say on FIFA - in the realm of ´low politics´, namely
business) as well as the effects of sport - abrogates host countries´
anticipated price increases. Du Plessis sovereignty, even if for only the duration of
and Maennig for example, illustrate that the tournament. As part of the bidding
even after the Competition Commission process, the South African government
intervened to force price adjustments in had to provide a series of guarantees and
the industry and the airlines realised that undertakings to ensure that the
sufficient bookings are unlikely to requirements for hosting would be met.
materialise, flights were at least 50% more The guarantees include, amongst others;
expensive than during non-World Cup exempting FIFA personnel from work
24
periods . These have knock-on effects permits; guaranteeing customs and other
throughout the tourism sector. Hence in tax, duty and levy exemption;
some parts of the country, anecdotal guaranteeing the safety of FIFA
evidence suggests that hotel occupancy in delegations; guaranteeing certain media
25
the three major cities were only 60% . and related rights, and undertaking to
promulgate new laws if required to
Whilst South Africa incurred excessive accommodate the event and guaranteeing
cost over-runs – the cost of the Cape FIFA’s intellectual property rights27.To
Town stadium was initially estimated at R facilitate these guarantees, the
2,5 billion (bn), it eventually cost R 4,5 bn; government had to introduce new
Soccer City’s refurbishment cost R 3,2 bn; legislation and amend existing legislation
Nelson Mandela Bay R 4bn – one of the to remove obstacles that impeded their
positive aspects of the World Cup implementation. For example, two Special
preparations was that a significant portion Measures Bills were designed to give
8BRICS POLICY CENTER – POLICY BRIEF
Hosting the 2010 World Cup: What have we learned?
Some South African Reflections
Autor: Janis van der Westhuizen
effect to the guarantees and were later terms are ‘procedurally unfair, unlawful
refined and introduced as two new Acts and unconstitutional’28.
and two amended Acts, viz. the 2010 FIFA
World Cup Special Acts (No. 11 of 2006) Critics of South Africa´s bidding process
and the Second 2010 FIFA World Cup have also noted the fact that public
Measures Act (No. 12 of 2006). The participation in the process – if not entirely
amended Acts include the Merchandise participatory – was decidedly uneven. For
Marks Act (No. 17 of 1941) which provides example, FIFA insisted that the Cape
the basis for protected event status and Town Stadium in Green Point become the
the Revenue Laws Amendment Act (No. official competition venue and not Athlone
20 of 2006) which gives effect of the as was initially suggested by the provincial
guarantee to provide a supportive financial government. Having Athlone as a match
environment (tax exemptions etc.). These venue, it was hoped, would fast-track
regulations in effect secures the smooth infrastructural development projects in an
running of the event, however it is also area that had historically higher levels of
apparent that FIFA’s rights and that of its unemployment than around the affluent
partners and sponsors are of primary Green Point area. However according to
concern and are an integral component of one report, a FIFA official lamented that
the guarantees. Some of these measures Athlone would be unsuitable since ´a
have also come close to skirting billion television viewers don´t want to see
constitutional infringements. FIFA for shacks and poverty on this scale´29.
example retains the right to unilaterally Moreover, none of the meetings between
withdraw the rights of journalists who may the FIFA delegation and Cape Town
be considered by FIFA to harm the officials were open to the public.
Federation´s reputation. Although FIFA’s
preamble and terms and conditions states Being the first African country to
that ‘nothing in them is intended to be, or host a World Cup and a common
shall be interpreted as restricting or perception of South Africa being more
undermining the editorial independence of ´crime prone´ than many other countries –
freedom to report and comment of a reputation it shares with Brazil – meant
accredited parties’, the South African that the issue of securitisation was
Media Interest Group contended that probably a more pronounced concern both
under South African law ‘a prior restraint to FIFA as well as the South African
on publication’ is unlawful and that FIFA’s government. In fact, Donaldson & Ferreira
found that the perceived crime rate was a
9BRICS POLICY CENTER – POLICY BRIEF
Hosting the 2010 World Cup: What have we learned?
Some South African Reflections
Autor: Janis van der Westhuizen
potential deterrent for many prospective expenses for security amounted, to
30
visitors . Hence the need to demonstrate approximately R1.3 billion. This amount
South African capability to host an event of excluded provincial and local municipal
such magnitude involved at the same time, expenses (and excludes unanticipated
the capacity to visibly be seen to manage costs such as R 665 million spent on
the crime problem. As Cornelissen argues, overtime salaries for officers and
the securitisation of mega-events in the reservists, sparked in part by stadium
global South involves a dual function: to guard strikes)32. Nevertheless, some of the
highlight the state´s capacities to the beneficial effects included improvement in
international community (and underscore police infrastructure and human resource
its sovereignty) but at the same time to capacities (ranging from forensic
reinforce the idea of the state to domestic laboratories, surveillance by CCTV,
audiences31. Securitisation in short, offers vehicles and larger numbers of recruits) as
an opportunity for state-building especially well as anecdotal evidence of considerably
in areas where the state´s monopoly is reduced crime levels for the duration of the
often undermined, by criminal networks, World Cup33. Ironically, the withdrawal of
gangs and the like. Rio de Janeiro´s local these measures post-World Cup and
government efforts to pacify favela´s once reports of increased/previous crime levels,
under the control of drug lords, emerges underscored the extent to which efficiency
as a case in point. over the short-term translates into dashed
expectations amongst the broad public if
One month before the start of the the state is unable to maintain its level of
tournament the announced security plan efficiency over the longer term, after the
envisaged the deployment of 44 000 event.
police officers to the nine host cities and at
all land, air and sea ports of entry, 4. Conclusion
providing 24 hour police protection to the
national teams and their entourages, no-fly Unequivocally, the most outstanding
zones in areas proximate to stadia and the memory of South Africa´s hosting of the
like. ´Movement control systems´ were first African World Cup remains the extent
instituted at international airports and entry to which South Africans felt extremely
points, a special event visa created to proud of the achievement of their soccer
ease border entry and control, and 56 team ‘Bafana Bafana’ (even though they
special World Cup courts were created to did not qualify for the finals) and of the
hear cases of petty crime. Total national country´s ability to successfully host a
10BRICS POLICY CENTER – POLICY BRIEF
Hosting the 2010 World Cup: What have we learned?
Some South African Reflections
Autor: Janis van der Westhuizen
games of such magnitude. The country´s trumpeted by the research consultancies
most ardent critics – notably the foreign hired by state and business elites. Most
press and British tabloids in particular revealing in this regard is the apparent
(who envisaged thousands of tourists (temporary?) termination of South Africa´s
falling victim to the country´s reputed interest in hosting major events which has
crime rates or even a sensationalist ´racial continued since the country´s emblematic
war´) had to concede to the success with hosting and historic victory of the 1995
which the Cup had been organised. This is Rugby World Cup. For example, although
not to deny that some smaller logistical the International Olympic Committee (IOC)
problems did occur (such as the president Jacques Rogge indicated that
expeditious selling and distribution of the IOC would welcome a bid to host the
tickets and an unexpected strike by 2020 Olympics from Africa and Durban
stadium security staff). However, overall emerged as the South African city of
South Africa´s hosting of the 2010 Soccer choice, it was estimated that at least US $
World Cup proved to be a unanimous 4,5 billion would have to be spent on new
success as a means of enhancing the venues to enable Durban to host an
country´s marketing power: it provided a Olympic Games. Against rising public
rare opportunity for a society with a very protests against the lack of service
nebulous sense of national identity to delivery (water, sanitation, better schools)
celebrate what it meant to be South for the poor – which had already
African whilst the Cup offered an manifested during the run-up to the 2010
unprecedented means to signal and World Cup - Cabinet announced that
project this identity to millions around the South Africa would not bid to host the
world. 2020 Olympics. A Government
spokesperson noted ´It is better for the
The more contentious dimension country to consolidate the gains of the
relates to the more tangible aspects of 2010 Fifa World Cup for now and rather
hosting an event of this magnitude and focus the country´s attention on the
whether the enormous costs could be said delivery of basic services to all South
to justify such incredible expense Africans’34.
particularly in a society as unequal as
ours. The South African case seems to
1
Nauright, J. ‘Global games: culture,
echo much of the mega-events literature´s
political economy and sport in the
scepticism of the anticipated long-term globalised world of the 21st century’, Third
returns frequently and optimistically World Quarterly 25 (7) 2004, p. :1334.
11BRICS POLICY CENTER – POLICY BRIEF
Hosting the 2010 World Cup: What have we learned?
Some South African Reflections
Autor: Janis van der Westhuizen
2
Florida, R. 2002 The Rise of the Creative d3069&art_id=nw20080519175438324C1
Class: And How its Transforming Work, 36970. Accessed: 12 June 2008.
14
Leisure, Community and Everyday Life. Ibid.
15
Basic Books: New York, NY. Allmers S.& Maennig, W. South Africa
3
Van der Westhuizen J. & Swart K, ‘Bread 2010: Economic Scope and Limits.
or circuses? The 2010 World Cup and Hamburg Contemporary Economic
South Africa’s quest for marketing power’, Discussions, issue 21 (2008),
The International Journal of the History of http://econpapers.repec.org/paper/hcewpa
Sport 28 (1), January 2011, pp. 168-180. per/021.htm. Accessed: 15 September
4
Black D. & Van der Westhuizen J., ‘The 2009; Hiller, H. ‘Assessing the Impacts of
allure of global games for ‘semi-peripheral’ Mega-Events’: A Linkage Model’, Current
polities and spaces: a research agenda’, Issues in Tourism 1 (1), 1998, p. 47-57;
Third World Quarterly 25 (7) 2004, pp. Maenning W. & Schwarthoff, F. ‘Stadium
1191-1195. Architecture and Regional Economic
5
Marketing power is not entirely akin to Development: International Experience
‘soft power’. For an elaboration, see van and Plans for Durban’, International
der Westhuizen, J ‘Marketing the Association of Sports Economists.
“Rainbow Nation: The Power of the South Working Paper Series no.08-16, 2008.
16
African Music, Film and Sport Industry’, Ibid. Maennig & Scwarthoff, ‘Stadium
pp. 64-83 in K. Dunn & Shaw T., (eds.) architecture and regional economic
2001 Africa’s Challenge to International development: International experience and
Relations Theory. Palgrave: Basingstoke. plans for Durban’, 2008.
6 17
South Africa Department of Sports and Davies, ‘Managing the alchemy of the
Recreation, 2010 FIFA World Cup South 2010 Football World Cup’, in Development
Africa, p. 1. and Dreams: The Urban Legacy of the
7
Black, D.‘The symbolic politics of sport 2010 Football World Cup, (ed.) U. Pillay,
mega-events: 2010 in comparative R. Tomlinson and O. Bass. Cape Town:
perspective’, Politikon 34 (3)2007, pp. HSRC Press, 2010, pp. 33-51.
18
261-76. Minister of Finance cited in Davies, 2010.
8 19
Government Communication and Ibid.
20
Information Service, no.date, p. 3 Ibid.
9 21
’Zakumi’- Mascot Cornelissen, S. 2010 ‘The Economic
unveiled’,Fifa.com,www.fifa.com/worldcup/ Impact of South Africa’s 2010 World Cup:
organisation/media/newsid=887044.html, Ex ante ambitions and possible ex post
accessed 11 Jan. 2010. realities’. Unpublished paper.
10 22
Ibid., Zhen and Mulvenney, Mail & Du Plessis S. & Maenning W., ‘The
Guardian Online, 10 March 2010. 2010 World Cup high-frequency data
11
Van der Westhuizen, ‘Popular culture, economics: Effects on international
discourse and divergent identities: tourism and awareness for South Africa’,
reconstructing South Africa as an African Development Southern Africa 28 (3),
state’, African Identities 6 (1) 2008, pp. 45- September 2011, pp. 349-365.
23
62. Ibid. Cornelissen, 2010.
12 24
‘Xenophobic violence rock Alex’, Ibid., Du Plessis & Maenning, p. 356
25
Independent Online Web, Ibid. Cornelissen, 2010
26
http://www.iol.co.za/index.php?set_id=1&cl Ibid.
27
ickid=3069&art_idnw20080512090323769 Davies, G. ‘Managing the Alchemy of
C488407. Accessed:8 June 2008. the 2010 Football World Cup’, in
13
V. John ‘Xenophobia won’t deter fans- Development and Dreams: The Urban
LOC’, Cape Times, legacy of the 2010 Football World Cup,
www.iol.co.za/index.php?set_id=1&click_i (ed.) U Pillay, R. Tomlinson and O. Bass.
12BRICS POLICY CENTER – POLICY BRIEF
Hosting the 2010 World Cup: What have we learned?
Some South African Reflections
Autor: Janis van der Westhuizen
Cape Town: HSRC Press, 2010, pp. 33-
51.
28
‘Media Groups Voice Concern over Fifa
Restrictions’, Mail & Guardian, 29 January
2010,
www.mg.co.za/printformat/single/2010-01-
29-media-groups-voice-concern-over.
Accessed: 18 February 2010.
29
P. Joubert, “green Point gamble’, Mail &
Guardian Online, 12 January 2007,
www.mg.co.za/article/2007-01-12-green-
point-gamble. Accessed: 20 February
2007.
30
Donaldson R., & Ferreira S. 2009 ‘(Re-
)creating urban destination image:opinions
of foreign visitors to South Africa on safety
and security?’, Urban Forum, 20, pp. 1-18.
31
Cornelissen, S. ‘Mega-Event
Securitisation in a Third World Setting:
Glocal Processes and Ramifications
during the 2010 FIFA World Cup’, Urban
Studies 48 (15), pp. 3221-3240.
32
Ibid.
33
Ibid.
34
Business Day 27 May 2011.
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