Parent Depression Symptoms and Child Temperament Outcomes: A Family Study Approach
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Parent Depression Symptoms and Child
Temperament Outcomes: A Family Study Approach
Jeffrey R. Gagne1, Catherine A. Spann, and Jerry C. Prater
Department of Psychology
University of Texas at Arlington
Parent personality and depression, family conflict, and child temperament were examined
in a family study design including two children 2.5–5.5 years of age. Sibling resemblance for
temperament was also investigated. Parent personality and family conflict had minimal
significance for child temperament outcomes. However, parent depression was associated
with higher child activity level and anger, and lower inhibitory control. These findings were
supported by more rigorous regression analyses that included parent depression, child
gender, and age as predictors. Sibling resemblance for child activity, anger and inhibitory
control was also present, supporting a genetic etiology for child temperament. These
findings indicate that children of depressed parents may be at increased risk for experienc-
ing behavioral maladjustment related to anger, hyperactivity, and impulse control.
Introduction
The family study research design presents researchers with the unique oppor-
tunity to compare family members on relevant behavioral phenotypes across
multiple dyadic relationships, most commonly between siblings or parent to
child. This study focuses on parent personality, depression symptoms, and rela-
tionship conflict, and how these parent- and family-level variables relate to child
temperament development. Child temperament is defined as early emerging,
relatively stable, biologically based behavioral, and emotional characteristics that
make up the basis of adult personality (Goldsmith et al., 1987; Shiner et al.,
2012). Research on child temperament spans most of the subdisciplines of behav-
ioral science, including developmental, personality and clinical psychology, and
neuroscience (Gagne, Vendlinski, & Goldsmith, 2009). Developmental scientists
1
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Jeffrey R. Gagne, Department of
Psychology, University of Texas at Arlington, Box 19528, Arlington, TX 76019, USA. E-mail:
jgagne@uta.edu
175
Journal of Applied Biobehavioral Research, 2013, 18, 4, pp. 175–197
© 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.176 GAGNE ET AL.
typically study early temperament traits because of predictive relations to impor-
tant developmental outcomes including child behavior problems and psychopa-
thology (Caspi, Roberts, & Shiner, 2005; Goldsmith, Lemery, & Essex, 2004).
Therefore, investigating parent- and family-level behavioral phenotypes in the
context of child temperament has important public health relevance. If children
whose parents have increased levels of depression, negative personality traits and
high levels of family conflict are at risk for more adverse temperaments, these
family contexts can contribute to the development of subsequent child malad-
justment and psychiatric diagnoses. Comprehensive family studies of tempera-
ment that include parent and child measures can help clarify these issues, leading
to improved child and family assessment, earlier identification of risk factors, and
more effective clinical interventions.
Temperament is not a unitary construct, as specific domains or dimensions of
temperament represent different aspects of early developing behavior and
emotion. Thomas and Chess, who are credited with being the first modern
temperament theorists, defined nine temperament dimensions of activity, regu-
larity, initial reaction, adaptability, intensity, mood, distractibility, persistence/
attention span, and sensitivity in their theory (Chess & Thomas, 1984; Thomas,
Chess, & Birch, 1968). Some of these dimensions have been empirically supported
and persist in contemporary theory and research and others have fallen out of
scientific favor. Currently, the most commonly studied temperament dimensions
are activity level, anger/frustration, behavioral inhibition/fear, effortful or inhibi-
tory control, and positive affect (Gagne et al., 2009). Activity level refers to vigor
of movement; anger/frustration an approach-related negative affect; behavioral
inhibition/fear is distress or wariness toward novel or threatening stimuli;
effortful or inhibitory control is the ability to regulate impulses and activate
appropriate behavioral responses; and positive affect is defined as the experience
and expression of enjoyment. Most current research employs questionnaires
whereby the parent’s perception of child behavior is used as the primary tech-
nique for temperament measurement. Parent rating questionnaires of tempera-
ment are typically based on a dimensional structure, and questionnaire items are
organized into subscales that reflect these dimensions (Gagne, Saudino, &
Asherson, 2011). In general, parent ratings of child temperament are reliable and
valid, and are inexpensive and simple to use in a variety of studies (Gagne, Van
Hulle, Aksan, Essex, & Goldsmith, 2011).
In this investigation, we use a dimensionally comprehensive parent rating
with very specific questionnaire items to assess child temperament. One impor-
tant reason for this assessment strategy is that parent ratings of temperament in
family studies with siblings may be susceptible to contrast effects. These rater
biases occur when a parent rater overestimates differences between siblings as
demonstrated by very low or negative sibling correlations (Gagne, Van Hulle
et al., 2011). Parents, in effect propose that their children are of opposingPARENT DEPRESSION AND CHILD TEMPERAMENT 177
temperaments when we know that child temperament is genetically influenced
and therefore, there should be at least some level of sibling similarity across
temperament dimensions (as evinced by positive sibling correlations). Several
researchers have indicated that parent ratings of temperament that focus on very
specific behaviors (vs. global items) are less likely to show these contrast effects
(e.g., Goldsmith & Hewitt, 2003; Hwang & Rothbart, 2003; Saudino, 2003a;
Saudino, 2003b; Seifer, 2003).
As previously noted, researchers study early temperament because it is con-
sidered developmentally significant, and there exists an extensive literature on
cognitive development, education, and social development outcomes related to
temperament (Gagne et al., 2009). With regard to public health impact, early
child temperament is considered an important factor in the development of
childhood psychopathology and behavior problems (Goldsmith et al., 2004). In
general, low or high levels of temperament are shown to be risk factors for
problem behavior that may lead to psychopathology. For example, high behav-
ioral inhibition and fear dimensions have been consistently linked to internalizing
behavior problems, and high anger/frustration, activity level, and low effortful/
inhibitory control are related to externalizing behavior problems (Eisenberg
et al., 2001; Fagot & O’Brien, 1994; Gjone & Stevenson, 1997; Rothbart & Bates,
1998). Although as described, some temperament research focuses on subclinical
behavior problems in childhood, there are several investigations that assess spe-
cific psychiatric diagnoses in the context of temperament. These studies indicate
that negative affect (i.e., anger and fear) and behavioral inhibition are related to
anxiety, low positive affect and high negative affect are associated with depres-
sion, and high activity level and low effortful and inhibitory control are associ-
ated with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (Biederman et al., 2001; Brown,
2007; Campbell & Ewing, 1990; Clark, Watson, & Mineka, 1994; Durbin, 2010;
Gagne, Saudino et al., 2011; Hall, Halperin, Schwartz, & Newcorn, 1997; Kagan,
2001; Schachar, Tannock, Marriott, & Logan, 1995). Although we do not
examine the relationship between child temperament and child psychopathology
in the present study, these findings provide developmental and public health
relevance, as well as a strong rationale for examining links between parent mental
health (e.g., depression) and child temperament.
The study of individual differences in child temperament usually emphasizes
the child’s behavior and emotion, focusing on the assessment of temperament
dimensions in childhood samples. However, most researchers view the family
context as an important factor in the etiology and development of temperament.
When considering family effects on temperament, variables such as parent per-
sonality, parent affect, parent mental health, parenting style/sensitivity, family
interactions, and family socioeconomic (SES) status have all been explored in the
developmental literature. In this paper, parent personality, depression, and
family conflict experienced by the children in the study will be examined as178 GAGNE ET AL.
predictors of child temperament. Generally, positive parent personality traits,
low family conflict, and low parent depression predict more optimal levels of
child temperament.
Studies of parent personality traits and child temperament dimensions have
been somewhat limited, and many examine indirect effects or moderating vari-
ables. For example, maternal personality measures of negative control have been
found to interact with child inhibitory control to affect externalizing behavior
problems, such that children with low levels of inhibitory control who have
mothers with higher negative control have increased externalizing problems (van
Aken, Junger, Verhoeven, van Aken, & Deković, 2007). In a related study,
paternal personality and parenting style interacted differentially depending on
the level of effortful control in 36-month-old children (Karreman, van Tuijl, van
Aken, & Deković, 2008). Also, higher maternal extraversion (in the positive
direction) and lower parenting-related stress predict early childhood effortful
control (Gartstein, Bridgett, Young, Panksepp, & Power, 2013; Komsi et al.,
2008). Some research has suggested that parent views of their child’s tempera-
ment can affect their own personality development. Findings from one study
indicated that parent personality changes occur prenatally to postnatally as a
consequence of perceptions of their child’s temperament, with perceptions of
positive temperament predicting positive personality change in mothers and
fathers (Sirignano & Lachman, 1985). A more recent investigation examined a
similar model, finding that infant positive affect resulted in increases in parent
extraversion over a 5-year period, and infant activity level predicted decreases in
parent neuroticism (Komsi et al., 2008).
Belsky has proposed an interactive “process model” of parenting wherein
parent–child relationships are influenced by parent personality, child tempera-
ment, quality of marital relationship, social support, and career satisfaction
(Belsky, Rosenberger, & Crnic, 1995). Based on this theory and other similar
models, researchers have examined parent personality and child temperament as
predictors of relationship and parenting outcomes. Parent personality and child
temperament predict warmth in the parent–child relationship in adolescence
(Denissen, van Aken, & Dubas, 2009) and shared parent–child positive affect and
parental responsiveness in early childhood (Kochanska, Friesenborg, Lange, &
Martel, 2004). Anger-prone children who have optimistic mothers and fathers
high in openness receive more positive parenting (Koenig, Barry, & Kochanska,
2010), and fathers’ negative emotionality is associated with lower co-parenting
quality if their child has a difficult temperament (Laxman et al., 2013). In addi-
tion, positive parent personality traits and child effortful control are both asso-
ciated with positive dyadic child–parent interactions in 3- to 6-year-old children
(Wilson & Durbin, 2012), and positive parenting style interacts with high
effortful control to predict lower externalizing behavior problems in early ado-
lescence (Eisenberg et al., 2005).PARENT DEPRESSION AND CHILD TEMPERAMENT 179
With regard to direct and indirect family conflict predictors of child tempera-
ment, there have been a small number of investigations. High marital conflict has
been found to be directly associated with negative child temperaments, and low
conflict is related to positive temperament (Gharehbaghy & Vafaie, 2009).
Similar research showed that poor marital and family functioning was related to
high active-emotional temperament traits in female children (Stoneman, Brody,
& Burke, 1989). One of the few studies on this subject that used laboratory
measures of child temperament indicated that interparental conflict was indepen-
dently associated with subsequent lab-based assessments of behavioral inhibition
(Pauli-Pott & Beckmann, 2007). Children with more difficult temperaments also
have increased levels of problem behavior if they experience higher levels of
family conflict (Ramos, Guerin, Gottfried, Bathurst, & Oliver, 2005). Relatedly,
high interparental conflict and lower marital quality in the families of preschool
children with lower effortful control predicted increased problematic peer rela-
tions (David, 2009; David & Murphy, 2007). Toddler studies show that marital
hostility predicts increased levels of anger in children who experience more harsh
parenting styles (Rhoades et al., 2011), and measures of child negative reactivity,
activity level, and impulsivity are related to increased mother–toddler conflict
(Laible, Panfile, & Makariev, 2008). The general pattern of findings in these
studies illustrates that high family/interparental conflict is associated with
increased negative emotionality, activity, and lower control in children.
In addition to parent personality and family conflict, parent depression has
also been examined in the context of child temperament. Perhaps not surpris-
ingly, depressed mothers (and their partners) are more likely to perceive their
children as having a difficult temperament than nondepressed mothers and their
partners (Edhborg, Seimyr, Lundh, & Widström, 2000; Ventura & Stevenson,
1986). At least one laboratory study showed that behavioral assessments of low
positive affect in preschool were associated with a maternal history of depression
(Hayden, Klein, & Durbin, 2005). Several studies of the interactive and
moderating/mediating effects of parent depression, child temperament and
related outcomes have also been conducted. One successfully fit a model of
parent depression predicting anxiety and depression symptoms in 4-year-old
children, as mediated by parenting style and effortful control (Hopkins, Lavigne,
Gouze, LeBailly, & Bryant, 2013). Similarly, Gartstein and Fagot (2003) found
that higher levels of parental depression and more coercive/controlling parenting
style, as well as lower child effortful control, were related to externalizing behav-
iors in preschoolers. Measures of parental depressive vulnerability independent
of actual symptoms also have direct and interactive effects (across parent) on low
child effortful control (Pesonen, Räikkönen, Heinonen, Järvenpää, &
Strandberg, 2006). Finally, longitudinal models of temperamental regulation and
negative affect in infancy and parent depression status significantly predicted
depression symptoms in toddlerhood (Gartstein & Bateman, 2008).180 GAGNE ET AL.
The Current Study
A series of research questions were addressed in this paper. The overarching
goal was to examine parent- and family-level variables of depression, personality
and relationship conflict in the context of child temperament. We examined mean
gender differences for child temperament, and where appropriate, conducted
analyses that take gender into account. We predicted that significant gender
differences would be found for dimensions of child temperament that have previ-
ously shown these findings (see Gagne, Miller, & Goldsmith, 2013). For our main
analyses, we investigated how parent personality, depression and family conflict
are associated with one another, as well as with the child temperament outcomes.
In general, negative parent personality, parent depression, and family conflict were
hypothesized to be associated with negative temperament traits in children (e.g.,
anger, activity, low control). We also expected that our parent ratings of tempera-
ment would show sibling resemblance, indicating few parental contrast effects and
supporting the theory that temperament runs in families. Based on the results of
these findings and any gender differences in temperament, we then conducted
regression analyses on parent/family predictors of child temperament.
Method
Participants
Participants included 188 children assessed between 2.5 and 5.5 years of age
and their parents. The sample was derived from the Texas Family Study, an
investigation focused on the multi-method assessment of temperament, executive
functioning, and related behaviors in early childhood. All children were members
of sibling pairs, and both monozygotic (MZ) and dizygotic (DZ) twin pairs were
included in the sample (there was also one set of triplets, which were not included
in most of the analyses). Fourteen participants were MZ twins (7 pairs), 54 were
DZ twins (27 pairs), and 116 were full siblings (58 pairs). One child that exceeded
our upper age range by at least 6 months was dropped from analyses. There were
equal numbers of male and female (94: 94) participants and their mean age was
3.72 years (SD = 1.03). Mean age for the younger siblings was 3.14 (SD = .81) and
for older siblings was 4.32 (SD = .87). The racial distribution of the children in
the sample was 81.38% White, 7.45% Black, 0.53% Asian, 9.57% more than one
race, and 1.06% other race (86.17% were non-Hispanic or Latino and 13.83%
were Hispanic or Latino). Parent respondents were 98.9% mothers (although we
had demographic data for both parents). The mean age of the mothers in our
sample was 34.01 (SD = 5.34), and the mean age of the fathers was 36.90
(SD = 6.50). Mothers were 91.5% non-Hispanic or Latino and were categorized
by race as 83% White, 7.4% Black, 2.1% Asian, 6.4% more than one race andPARENT DEPRESSION AND CHILD TEMPERAMENT 181
1.1% other race. Fathers were 88.3% Non-Hispanic or Latino and were identified
as 81.9% White, 9.6% Black, 1.1% Asian, 5.3% more than one race and 2.1%
other. The average family income fell in the $60,001–70,000 category, and ranged
from $20,001 to “over $200,000” (the highest response possible). The mean
number of years of schooling was 15.62 (SD = 2.33) and 15.10 (SD = 2.68) for
mothers and fathers, respectively.
Procedure
Families were enrolled by a staff of experimenters from the Department of
Psychology at the University of Texas at Arlington beginning in late 2012.
Participants were recruited through notices posted on campus, at pediatrician’s
offices, daycare centers, etc.; internet posts; and telephone contact that had been
previously solicited. Initially, participants submitted a screening online before
data collection began. Once families were approved for the study and provided
consent, one of the parents completed all questionnaires online via our secure
website using SurveyMonkey. Online questionnaire data collection has shown to
be a reliable substitute for paper-based administration (Carlbring et al., 2007;
Vallejo, Jordan, Diaz, Comeche, & Ortega, 2007), and most of our participants
subsequently participated in a laboratory visit on campus. Therefore, we were
able to verify most all family data in-person and/or through verifying email and
home addresses. There were three sets of surveys (parent and family assessment,
sibling 1 assessment, sibling 2 assessment), and upon completion the family was
compensated ($25 gift card). Only families who completed all three online surveys
were included in analyses. Data from two parent assessments of child tempera-
ment, one parent personality inventory, one parent depression inventory, and a
family conflict scale were used in the present study.
Parent Ratings of Temperament
Toddler Behavior Assessment Questionnaire (TBAQ). The TBAQ
(Goldsmith, 1996) is a 120-item temperament questionnaire that contains 11
dimensional subscales of activity level, appropriate attentional allocation, inter-
est, perceptual sensitivity, sadness, anger, inhibitory control, object fear, social
fear, pleasure, and soothability. Unlike parent rating scales that use more global
items, the TBAQ employs items that describe concrete behaviors observed in
particular situations and asks the parent to rate these behaviors based on the
frequency of occurrence over the previous month. All items are formatted in a
7-point Likert scale that ranges from 1 (never) to 7 (always) and includes an
“N/A” option for the rater to select if the child was not in the described situation
recently. Internal consistency reliability for the TBAQ subscales was moderate to182 GAGNE ET AL.
high, ranging from .62 to .92. with only activity level and sadness having esti-
mates under .77. Typically, TBAQ alphas meet or exceed .80; therefore, our
reliability is fairly consistent with published estimates (Goldsmith, 1996).
Parent Ratings of Parent- and Family-Level Data
Big Five Inventory (BFI). Parent ratings of their own personality were con-
ducted using the Big Five Inventory (BFI; John, Donahue, & Kentle, 1991; John,
Naumann, & Soto, 2008), a self-report instrument that assesses five personality
traits of extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism and open-
ness. Using a 5-point scale (1 = disagree strongly, 5 = agree strongly), individuals
indicate whether they agree or disagree with 44 statements about personal char-
acteristics (e.g., “likes to cooperate with others”). Published reliabilities of the
BFI scales range from .75 to .90 (John et al., 2008). In our sample, internal
consistency reliability for the BFI ranged from .76 to .86.
Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D). The CES-D
(Radloff, 1977) is a 20-item self-report measure that assesses symptoms of depres-
sion experienced by the parent over the last week. CES-D items include cognitive,
emotional, behavioral, and positive affect attributes rated on a 4-point scale from
0 (rarely or none of the time/less than 1 day) to 3 (most or all of the time/5–7 days).
CES-D reliability in our sample was .83, with published internal consistencies
ranging from .84 to .90 (Radloff, 1977).
Family Conflict Scale (FCS). The Overt Hostility/O’Leary-Porter Scale
(Porter & O’Leary, 1980) was used by the parent to rate family conflict specific to
each child in the study. This is a 10-item instrument with a 5-point Likert scale
ranging from “never” to “very often.” It is designed to assess parent perception of
positive and negative family interactions displayed by partners in the presence of
the identified child. Internal consistency for this scale in our study was .74 (a
previous estimate with a sample of 65 individuals was .86).
Statistical Approach
Descriptive Statistics and Bivariate Correlations. Prior to formal analyses, the
data were screened for normality as well as univariate and multivariate outliers.
CES-D depression was slightly positively skewed with two univariate outliers.
Therefore, the depression variable was transformed using the square root func-
tion and this transformed variable was used in subsequent analyses. Screening for
multivariate outliers revealed one participant who was consequently removedPARENT DEPRESSION AND CHILD TEMPERAMENT 183
from further analyses. Descriptive statistics, mean gender differences, and bivari-
ate correlational analyses were calculated for all variables. Mean sex differences
and correlations were corrected for the nested nature of twin/sibling data. Gen-
eralized estimating equation models were used to test for mean differences (Liang
& Zeger, 1986; Zeger & Liang, 1986), and dyad-level correlations were calculated
following procedures outlined by Griffin & Gonzalez (Griffin & Gonzalez, 1995;
O’Connor, 2004). Effect sizes of mean gender differences were also estimated as
Cohen’s d, which expresses group differences in standard deviation units.
Sibling Intraclass Correlations. Sibling intraclass correlations were calculated
for the TBAQ and the FCS using a double-entry procedure. These analyses allow
for the estimation of sibling resemblance on the various subscales of the TBAQ
and the FCS. Positive intraclass correlations reflect resemblance, zero correla-
tions reflect no resemblance, and negative correlations reflect opposing
characteristics.
Results
Descriptive Statistics and Mean Gender Differences
The means and standard deviations of all parent-rated TBAQ temperament
dimensions and overall FCS scores are presented in Table 1 by child gender. In
addition, the effect sizes of mean differences between male and female children
for each variable are also displayed estimated as Cohen’s d. Overall, the effect
sizes indicate that differences between males and female temperament ratings and
family conflict were low. There were no significant gender differences for the
FCS. On the TBAQ, activity, interest, anger, and inhibitory control showed the
largest differences (ranging from 26% to 40% of a standard deviation), reflecting
what is typically seen in the literature. Males had higher levels of activity and
anger, and females had higher interest and inhibitory control.
Bivariate Correlations
Correlations were calculated for both child temperament and parent person-
ality, depression and family conflict variables and are displayed in Tables 2 and
3. Correlations between the parent/family variables of family conflict, parent
personality and depression are shown in Table 2. Table 3 displays relations
between the three parent/family-level variables and child TBAQ temperament.
With regard to the parent and family variables, several interesting associations
emerged (Table 2). Parents with higher levels of neuroticism and depression
reported significantly higher levels of family conflict. More positive aspects of184 GAGNE ET AL.
Table 1
Sample Sizes, Means (and Standard Deviations), and Effect Sizes of Gender
Differences for TBAQ Temperament Dimensions, and Family Conflict
Mean males Mean females Effect size
(SD) n = 94 (SD) n = 94 of gender
TBAQ activity 4.04 (.67) 3.76 (.74) .40*
TBAQ attention 4.56 (.74) 4.66 (.80) −.13
TBAQ interest 4.39 (.79) 4.63 (.82) −.30*
TBAQ perceptual sensitivity 2.62 (.80) 2.70 (.85) −.10
TBAQ sadness 3.58 (.86) 3.67 (.76) −.11
TBAQ anger 3.60 (.99) 3.35 (.90) .26*
TBAQ inhibitory control 4.13 (.95) 4.40 (.91) −.29*
TBAQ object fear 2.49 (.80) 2.74 (.81) −.31
TBAQ pleasure 5.70 (.76) 5.70 (.71) 0
TBAQ social fear 3.03 (1.15) 3.25 (1.14) −.19
TBAQ soothability 5.20 (.83) 5.11 (.85) .11
Family conflict 1.72 (.43) 1.81 (.43) −.21
Note. Effect size estimated as Cohen’s d express group differences in standard deviation
units.
*p < .05.
Table 2
Bivariate Correlations: Parent Ratings of Personality, Family Conflict, and
Depression Symptoms
Family conflict CES-D depression
BFI extraversion −.12 −.15
BFI agreeableness −.23* −.29**
BFI conscientiousness −.21* −.18
BFI neuroticism .31** .39**
BFI openness −.04 −.11
Family conflict .26*
Note. *p < .05. **p < .01.Table 3
Bivariate Correlations: TBAQ Parent Ratings of Temperament Dimensions With Parent Ratings of Personality, Family
Conflict and Depression Symptoms
BFI BFI BFI BFI BFI Family CES-D
Extra Agree Consc Neuro Open conflict depression
TBAQ activity −.01 −.10 −.13 .17 −.07 −.00 .30**
TBAQ attention .14 .00 .20* −.15 .07 −.03 −.18*
TBAQ interest .15 .07 .13 −.13 .06 −.08 −.13
TBAQ perceptual sensitivity −.14 −.00 −.23* .19* .02 .08 .24*
TBAQ sadness −.18* −.03 −.08 .09 −.06 .02 .15
TBAQ anger −.07 .05 −.06 .07 −.15 −.09 .18*
TBAQ inhibitory control .13 −.02 .19* −.08 .13 −.03 −.20*
TBAQ object fear −.09 −.03 −.05 .09 −.03 −.03 .13
TBAQ pleasure .06 .13 .04 −.01 −.01 .03 .09
TBAQ social fear −.05 .01 .07 .04 .01 −.06 −.04
TBAQ soothability .05 .07 .10 .03 .06 −.01 −.16
Note. Extra = extraversion; Agree = agreeableness; Consc = conscientiousness; Neuro = neuroticism; Open = openness.
PARENT DEPRESSION AND CHILD TEMPERAMENT
*p < .05. **p < .01.
185186 GAGNE ET AL.
personality were associated with minimal or low family conflict and fewer depres-
sion symptoms. Finally, the strongest association emerged for parent depression
and neuroticism (r = .39). Generally, parents with more negative personality
traits were more depressed and experienced more conflict in front of their chil-
dren. Considering all of the parent/family variables in the context of child tem-
perament (Table 3), family conflict and parent personality showed little
consistent relationship with temperament dimensions. However, parent depres-
sion symptoms were significantly associated with TBAQ Activity, Attention,
Perceptual Sensitivity, Anger, and Inhibitory Control. The children of depressed
parents had higher levels of activity, perceptual sensitivity and anger, and lower
attention and inhibitory control.
Sibling Intraclass Correlations
Sibling intraclass correlations (Table 4) for the FCS ranged from .93 to .99,
suggesting substantial resemblance across the sibling categories of MZ and DZ
twins and full siblings for family conflict. Although the parent rated each child
separately, family conflict was almost identical across siblings in our sample. For
the TBAQ temperament dimensions, both MZ and DZ correlations were mod-
erate for all dimensions of temperament. For full siblings, intraclass correlations
for the dimensions of activity, attention, interest, pleasure, social fear, and
soothability were somewhat low, but none were negative. Therefore, both
family conflict and temperament shows some resemblance across twins and
full siblings.
Regression Analyses
We conducted a series of multiple regression analyses to explore post hoc
hypotheses of whether parent depression significantly predicted child tempera-
ment based on the results of our correlational analyses. Given that research has
shown that child temperament levels are influenced by the child’s age and gender,
these two predictors were also included in the regression analyses. Therefore,
three multiple regressions were used to examine whether parent depression, child
age, and child gender significantly predict TBAQ activity level, anger and inhibi-
tory control as outcome variables. We selected these TBAQ subscales as out-
comes because of the fact that there is consistent evidence of links between these
dimensions of temperament and important child maladjustment outcomes. A
summary of individual predictors in all regression analyses is presented in
Table 5. First, parent depression, child age, and child gender significantly pre-
dicted child anger, F(3, 184) = 10.10, p < .001, accounting for 14.14% of the
variance in anger levels. Greater parent depression significantly predictedPARENT DEPRESSION AND CHILD TEMPERAMENT 187
Table 4
Sibling Intraclass Correlations: TBAQ Parent Ratings of Temperament Dimen-
sions, and Family Conflict
Full
Monozygotic Dizygotic sibling
(MZ) (DZ) (FS)
twin twin intraclass
intraclass intraclass correlations
correlations correlations (n = 116,
(n = 14, (n = 54, 58 full
7 pairs) 27 pairs) pairs)
TBAQ activity .88** .64** .15
TBAQ attention .79** .36** .08
TBAQ interest .89** .26 .00
TBAQ perceptual sensitivity .86** .64** .52**
TBAQ sadness .81** .58** .22*
TBAQ anger .79** .60** .29**
TBAQ inhibitory control .93** .46** .23*
TBAQ object fear .56* .70** .22*
TBAQ pleasure .74** .66** .16
TBAQ social fear .60* .45** .06
TBAQ soothability .90** .28* .16
Family conflict .99** .93** .93**
Note. *p < .05. **p < .01.
increased child anger, while older age was significantly associated with decreased
anger. However, the child’s gender did not uniquely predict anger levels. Second,
parent depression, child age, and child gender significantly predicted child activ-
ity level, F(3, 184) = 16.95, p < .001, accounting for 21.65% of the variance in
activity levels. Greater parent depression was significantly associated with
increased activity level, while older age was significantly associated with
decreased activity level. Gender was also a significant predictor of activity level,
with boys having higher activity levels than girls. Lastly, parent depression, child
age, and child gender significantly predicted child inhibitory control, F(3,
184) = 15.44, p < .001, accounting for 20.11% of the variance in inhibition levels.
Greater parent depression was significantly associated with decreased inhibitory188 GAGNE ET AL.
Table 5
Summary Statistics for Individual Predictors in Multiple Regression Analyses
Variable B (SE) t p value sr2
TBAQ activity level
CES-D depression .20 (.04) 5.14PARENT DEPRESSION AND CHILD TEMPERAMENT 189
supported with subsequent regression analyses, as parent depression significantly
predicted child activity level, anger, and inhibitory control in these models. In
addition, sibling intraclass correlations showed familial resemblance for child
temperament. These findings are somewhat novel, in that parent depression
emerges as the most significant parent/family factor in predicting aspects of
temperament that are relevant to child mental health in our study (parent per-
sonality and family conflict were less significant). Sibling resemblance supports
the theory that genetic factors play an important role in the etiology of child
temperament.
Several previous investigations found significant gender differences for child
temperament dimensions (Else-Quest, Hyde, Goldsmith, & Van Hulle, 2006;
Gagne et al., 2013), and child gender should be considered when examining
relations with other variables. In our study, gender differences for temperament
dimensions were fairly low (gender differences for family conflict experienced by
the child were not present). The temperament dimensions of activity level, anger,
interest, and inhibitory control were the only traits that showed significant sex
differences in our sample, a finding that is consistent with previous research. Boys
were rated as more active and angry, and girls were higher in interest and
inhibitory control. The effect sizes for these gender differences were similar, but
slightly lower than a twin study that focused on child temperament at age 3
(Gagne et al., 2013). Any sex differences that were present in our study informed
subsequent analyses, and our regression models included gender and age as
predictors.
The pattern of findings regarding relations across parent personality, depres-
sion, and conflict variables was consistent and as expected, parents with negative
personality attributes had increased levels of depression and family conflict, and
those with positive personality attributes showed the opposite effect. Specifically,
parents who rated themselves as more neurotic also rated themselves as signifi-
cantly more depressed (r = .39) and as displaying increased levels of conflict in the
presence of their children (r = .31). Those that judged themselves to be higher on
extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness were less depressed
and conflicted. Parents who displayed increased family conflict behaviors in front
of their children also showed significantly higher levels of depression.
When these domains of parent/family behavior were analyzed in the context
of child temperament, differential associations were found. Although several
studies have shown significant associations between the parent personality traits
of extraversion, neuroticism, and openness with child temperament outcomes
(Gartstein et al., 2013; Koenig et al., 2010; Komsi et al., 2008), we found few
consistent, significant relations between parent personality and child tempera-
ment. Similarly, at least one previous study found a direct effect of high marital
conflict on negative child temperament (Gharehbaghy & Vafaie, 2009), and
several showed family conflict to be a significant moderator between child190 GAGNE ET AL.
temperament and outcome variables like behavior problems. Family conflict was
not significantly related to any of the child temperament variables in our study.
These results may be partly due to lack of variation, or to the fact that we
examined direct effects of parent personality and family conflict on child tem-
perament, rather than more complex mediation and interaction models that seem
to be the predominant approach in other studies.
Parent ratings of their own depression symptoms did emerge as showing
significant associations with the child temperament dimensions of activity, atten-
tion, perceptual sensitivity, anger, and inhibitory control. These correlations were
fairly moderate, ranging from −.18 to .30. Parents with higher levels of depression
rated their children as having higher activity level, anger, and perceptual sensi-
tivity, and lower levels of attention and inhibitory control, indicating that parent
mental health is associated with child temperament. Based on these findings and
consistent evidence of activity level, anger and inhibitory control as important
child temperament predictors of behavior problems and psychopathology (e.g.,
Brown, 2007; Campbell & Ewing, 1990; Clark et al., 1994; Eisenberg et al., 2001;
Fagot & O’Brien, 1994; Gagne, Saudino et al., 2011; Gjone & Stevenson, 1997;
Hall et al., 1997; Schachar et al., 1995), we pursued additional regression analyses
using parent depression as a predictor and child activity level, anger, and inhibi-
tory control as outcomes. The results of our gender differences analyses and
concerns about developmental differences in temperament across age also
informed these analyses. Age and gender were included as predictors in the
regression models.
The results of our post hoc regression analyses confirm that in our sample,
parent depression is the most relevant parent/family predictor for important
areas of child temperament. Parent depression consistently and uniquely pre-
dicted child anger, activity level, and inhibitory control in these analyses. These
findings occurred in the same direction as the correlational analyses (i.e., higher
parent depression predicted higher anger). Gender effects were present for activ-
ity level only, with males showing higher activity level than females. Lastly,
developmental effects were also present in that child age was a significant pre-
dictor of all three child temperament traits. Older children had lower activity level
and anger, and higher inhibitory control. The gender and age findings are con-
sistent with the view that gender differences in temperament are common in
activity level, and older children tend to have less negative temperaments overall.
In addition to comparing parents and their children, our family study
included biologically related siblings from the same family. This allowed for the
analysis of sibling resemblance through the calculation of sibling intraclass cor-
relations. The idea that temperament is genetically influenced or biologically
based is a common thread in most contemporary theories and has been supported
by adoption, twin, and family studies (Goldsmith et al., 1987; Shiner et al., 2012).
If a trait is genetically influenced, family members who share genetic materialPARENT DEPRESSION AND CHILD TEMPERAMENT 191
should resemble one another. However, several studies have shown patterns of
full sibling or DZ twin correlations that are either very close to zero or negative,
suggesting that these children have opposing temperaments. This phenomenon is
a rater bias referred to as a contrast effect whereby parents overestimate differ-
ences between their children. Sibling intraclass correlations for temperament
dimensions in our family study were moderate to high for both MZ and DZ
twins. However, there were several low correlations for full siblings, suggesting
possible contrast effects. This finding is consistent with a similar sibling study of
temperament in children of the same age (Saudino, Wertz, Gagne, & Chawla,
2004). For the temperament dimensions that were associated with parent depres-
sion, full sibling correlations were positive and in most cases significant. There-
fore, parents in our study were not employing this rater bias for the child traits
that were most relevant to our research questions and analyses. Another impor-
tant issue that was addressed by these analyses is that family resemblance for
anger, activity level, and inhibitory control across siblings was present, implicat-
ing the possible role of genetic influences on these dimensions.
Our findings indicate that parent depression is meaningfully related to child
temperament. However, the use of parent ratings of temperament as the sole
strategy for assessment is somewhat limiting. A multi-method approach that
includes laboratory observations could be advantageous and has been pro-
moted by several temperament researchers (Goldsmith & Gagne, 2012). The
fact that contrast effects are not evident in the temperament domains that we
focused on is a positive sign, but our conclusions would be strengthened by
similar results employing objective behavioral data. Another limitation of our
study is that mothers were the primary respondents. Therefore, we cannot rea-
sonably interpret our findings as relating to father depression. This is typical of
most developmental research, and often researchers suggest that if mothers are
the primary caregivers and the primary respondents, the association between
maternal depression and child outcomes is most relevant. While we do not
disagree with this notion, it would be preferable to have complete depression
data for both mothers and father in our study. Lastly, our family study design
does not allow us to draw specific conclusions about the genetic and environ-
mental variance of temperament. Without sufficient numbers of MZ and DZ
twins in our sample, more sophisticated quantitative genetic analyses are simply
not possible. We do not view this as a large weakness, as many previous twin
and adoption studies have found consistent significant genetic influences on
temperament.
We view the results of this study as providing measured support for parent
depression status as being relevant to several child temperament dimensions that
are associated with mental health outcomes. The children of parents who are
depressed may be at risk for behavioral issues related to experiencing higher levels
of anger, hyperactivity, and poorer inhibitory ability. This study is not intended192 GAGNE ET AL.
to be definitive, but rather an initial contribution to research on specific contex-
tual family factors in the etiology and development of temperament. Many
temperament investigations have focused on either genetic or family environmen-
tal factors that contribute to etiology and development. Future goals for our
study include the completion of laboratory assessments of temperament and
executive functioning, DNA collection and candidate gene analysis, and
expanded child and parent mental health assessments. This data will allow for
more comprehensive multi-method and integrated gene by environment interac-
tion analyses, ultimately leading to stronger conclusions about child tempera-
ment and important health sequelae.
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