ORIGINAL ASSOCIATION FOOT MORPHOLOGY AND PERFORMANCE IN RHYTHMIC GYMNASTICS ASOCIACIÓN ENTRE MORFOLOGÍA DEL PIE Y RENDIMIENTO EN GIMNASIA RÍTMICA
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Rev.int.med.cienc.act.fís.deporte - vol. 20 - número 79 - ISSN: 1577-0354
Sierra-Palmeiro, E.; Bobo-Arce, M.; Fernández-Villarino, M.; Alonso-Tajes, F.; González-Martin,
M.C.; Gómez-Rivas, L. (2020) Association Foot Morphology and Performance in Rhythmic
Gymnastics. Revista Internacional de Medicina y Ciencias de la Actividad Física y el Deporte vol.
20 (79) pp. 567-583 Http://cdeporte.rediris.es/revista/revista79/artasociacion1177.htm
DOI: http://doi.org/10.15366/rimcafd2020.79.012
ORIGINAL
ASSOCIATION FOOT MORPHOLOGY AND
PERFORMANCE IN RHYTHMIC GYMNASTICS
ASOCIACIÓN ENTRE MORFOLOGÍA DEL PIE Y
RENDIMIENTO EN GIMNASIA RÍTMICA
Sierra-Palmeiro, E.1; Bobo-Arce, M.1; Fernández-Villarino, M.2; Alonso-Tajes,
F.3; González-Martin, M.C.4 y Gómez-Rivas, L.5
1
Profesoras Titulares. Departamento de Educación Física Deportiva. Facultad de Ciencias del
Deporte. Universidad de A Coruña (España) elena.sierra@udc.es, marta.bobo@udc.es.
2
Profesora Contratada Doctor. Departamento de Educación Física Deportiva. Facultad de
Ciencias de la Educación y del Deporte. Universidad de Vigo (España) marianfv@uvi.es
3
Profesor de Escuela Universitaria. Departamento de Ciencias de la salud. Facultad de
Enfermería y Podología. Universidad de A Coruña (España) falonso@udc.es
4
Profesora Contratada Doctor. Departamento de Ciencias de la salud. Facultad de Enfermería
y Podología. Universidad de A Coruña (España) cristina.gmartin@udc.es
5
Graduada en Podología. Departamento de Ciencias de la salud. Facultad de Enfermería y
Podología. Universidad de A Coruña (España) lucia291195@gmail.com
Spanish-English translators: Interlingua Traduccións, rosacamina@mundo-r.com
Código UNESCO / UNESCO Code: 5899 Educación Física y Deportes / Physical
Education and Sport
Clasificación Consejo de Europa / Council of Europe classification: 17.
Rendimiento deportivo
Recibido 17 septiembre de 2018 Received September 17, 2018
Aceptado 23 de agosto de 2019 Accepted August 23, 2019
ABSTRACT
The objectives of the study were to determine the influence of foot morphology
on performance in Rhythmic Gymnastics and to analyze the influence of years
of practice. The sample consisted of 48 gymnasts who had practiced federated
gymnastics and competed during the last year. The results indicate that the
gymnasts have predominantly a neutral foot and with a normal footprint,
presenting enough asymmetry between feet, not significant, which may be a
567Rev.int.med.cienc.act.fís.deporte - vol. 20 - número 79 - ISSN: 1577-0354
consequence of asymmetric work and should be corrected in training. Only the
range of amplitude of the talocrural joint seems to be a characteristic of foot
morphology that affects technical performance and seems more an innate
characteristic. The practice of rhythmic gymnastics might not be as decisive a
factor as could be supposed in the morphological modifications of the footprint.
KEY WORDS: Rhythmic gymnastics; performance; foot morphology.
RESUMEN
Los objetivos del estudio fueron determinar la influencia de la morfología del pie
en el rendimiento en Gimnasia Rítmica y analizar la influencia de los años de
práctica. La muestra estaba compuesta por 48 gimnastas que habían practicado
gimnasia federada y competido durante el último año. Los resultados indican que
las gimnastas tienen predominantemente un pie neutro y con huella normal,
presentando bastante asimetría entre pies, no significativa, lo que puede ser
consecuencia de un trabajo asimétrico y debería ser corregido en el
entrenamiento. Sólo el rango de amplitud de la articulación talocrural parece ser
una característica de la morfología del pie que incida sobre el rendimiento técnico
y parece más una característica innata. La práctica de la Gimnasia Rítmica
podría no ser un factor tan decisivo como podía suponerse en las modificaciones
morfológicas de la huella plantar.
PALABRAS CLAVE: Gimnasia Rítmica; rendimiento; morfología del pie.
INTRODUCTION
The anthropometric characteristics of the foot is an interesting topic of research
for sport, given the clinical and technical implications that their functionality
involves. The normal foot and associated muscles guarantee the static and
dynamic functions of the lower body, not only fulfilling an important role in
preventing injuries but also playing a part in sports performance. A foot with no
morphological alterations within the ranges considered normal is deemed
“safer” for taking part in sports activities, as biomechanically it is better designed
to absorb impacts, thus avoiding the appearance of injuries, not only to the foot
itself, but to other lower limb articulations and the spinal column as well. On the
contrary, in “unnormal” feet, exertion is more likely to be concentrated on certain
parts of the foot, increasing the risk of injury (Queen, Mall, Nunley and
Chuckpaiwong, 2009). In the same way, a “normal” foot favours the
biomechanics of all of the actions of the foot as protagonist and, consequently,
improved performance by the athlete when carrying out these actions.
There are a number of studies that focus on evaluating the characteristics of
sportspeople’s feet with relation to injuries (Alfaro, 2017; Martinez-Amat et al.,
2016; Cimelli and Curran, 2012; Padilla, 2011; Bennell et al, 1999). However,
there has been some limited research on evaluating the structure of the foot in
568Rev.int.med.cienc.act.fís.deporte - vol. 20 - número 79 - ISSN: 1577-0354
relation with the level of experience, the specificity of the training and sporting
success (Spink et al.,2011; Jeanna, 2009). Specific sport and the subsequent
training requirements ultimately determine the ground reaction forces and the
mechanical demands placed on the body, which leads us to assume that such
demands are capable of influencing the structure of the foot, or vice versa.
Rhythmic Gymnastics (RG) is a sport with highly-difficult technical content,
being almost unique in that gymnasts train bare-footed or with gymnastics
shoes that offer little protection. During competition exercises, as well as
handling apparatus, gymnasts perform chosen from within the three most
important body groups with the best execution possible, a value that is
determined by a jury. The three main body actions that determine performance
in RG (FIG, 2017) are Jumps/Leaps, Balances and Pivots/Turns, and in all
three correct foot biomechanics are essential for perfect technical execution.
Furthermore, not only is the behaviour of the foot analysed and evaluated by
judges in the time spent interacting with the floor, but it still continues working
when off the ground and not in contact with any surface.
The starting and performance age in sports such as gymnastics has become
increasingly lower and, bearing in mind the intense training programmes
gymnasts follow from an early age, it would only be reasonable for them to
show skeletal muscle adaptations, as they begin intensive training regimes,
involving the stretching and strengthening of foot muscles, before other athletes
do, and when the skeletal muscle system is immature.
Research in other sports has found that elite male artistic gymnasts had a
significantly lower foot arch in comparison with athletes from other sports, as
well as with a non-athletic control group (Aydog et al., 2005a). Fascione (2005)
found that distance runners had higher arches than sprinters. A study of
sprinters (Jeanna et al., 2009) discovered a link between performance and
some foot parameters that may suggest a competitive advantage or a
consequence of an extensive training regime that may or may not be
advantageous. These findings lead us to conclude that it could be an advantage
for an athlete to have a specific type of foot for a particular sport, depending on
the demands of that sport. We have found no specific RG study on the link
between the plantar print and the gymnast’s level of experience and
performance success. The aim of this research is to determine this link:
To determine the morphology of the foot of our gymnasts and the influence
of its characteristics on RG body technique execution.
To find some podiatric pattern linked to body technique performance.
To analyse the influence of experience as gymnasts on foot morphology.
569Rev.int.med.cienc.act.fís.deporte - vol. 20 - número 79 - ISSN: 1577-0354
METHODOLOGY
We carried out a cross-sectional, observational prevalence study among a
group of gymnasts of different ages and levels. The sample was made up of 48
gymnasts who complied with the following inclusion criteria: to have been
affiliated in the year prior to the study and to have competed in RG in the 2016-
2017 season, not to have played any other sport outside RG, to sign the
informed consent form to take part in the study and to have done gymnastics for
at least a year.
The exclusion criteria adhered to was as follows: non-signature of the informed
consent form, feet that are non-asymptomatic at the time of the study or having
had surgery in the ankle and foot or knee complex.
Table 1. Gymnasts general description
Mean±SD
Years 14±2,8
Years practicing Rythmic Gymnastic 7,15±3,339
BMI Healthy 91,7%
Overweigth 8,3%
Dominance Rigth 81,3%
Left 18,8%
SD: Standard deviation; BMI: Body mass index
We determined the body weight status (healthy and overweight) from the BMI,
taking the Cole standards as a reference (Cole, Bellizzi, Flegal and Dietz,
2000).
Justification of sample size: The total number of gymnasts affiliated in Galicia
in 2017 was 205. A sample size of 48 was considered necessary. Such a size
enabled us to estimate the prevalence of the variables studied with a margin of
error of ±15% and a 95% confidence level.
The sample selection was made via inclusion or convenience, as we included
all of the gymnasts who wanted to take part, in compliance with the inclusion
criteria, without selecting them randomly.
Procedure: Prior to measuring, a document was filled out with all of each
participant’s data, and then height and weight were measured. The following
variables were determined:
Weight and height: A SECA height measuring rod (SECA Ltd, Germany) and
SECA stand-on scales (SECA Ltd, Germany) were used to describe the
anthropometric characteristics of a population. Weight was measured twice with
an error of margin of 0.1 kg. Height was measured twice and rounded to the
nearest millimetre.
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Foot morphology: In order to analyse foot morphology, the following
parameters were determined:
Static foot morphology evaluated via the six-category Foot Posture Index
(FPI-6, Vijayakumar and Senthil Kumar, 2016). This is a method to classify the
foot in five sections: highly supinated, supinated, neutral, pronated and highly
pronated.
The six categories used to determine classification are: talar head palpation,
supra and infra lateral malleoli curvature, calcaneal frontal plane position,
prominence in region of TNJ, congruence of medial longitudinal arch and
abduction/adduction of forefoot on rearfoot. Each one of these categories are
valued on a scale from -2 to +2, where supinated features are given negative
values (-2 and -1), neutral features 0 and pronated features positive values (+1
and +2). The value of this test will be verified via their sum in each foot
(Vijayakumar and Senthil Kumar, 2016). In order to make comparisons of other
variables with the FPI-6, we included the “highly pronated” in “pronated” and the
“highly supinated” in “supinated”.
Type of print: We took the plantar print of both feet using a Harris mat.
Participants stood on the rubber membrane of the Harris mat imprinter and the
pressure exerted by the weight of the leg transferred the ink to the membrane,
recording the image of the insole surface area (Gómez et all., 2003). This
procedure enabled us to classify the print as normal, flat or cavus, following the
criteria of the HC method (Hernández Corvo, 1989).
Foot length and width: Length was established via the foot-measuring device
from the heel to the longest toe; and width by using a ruler placed perpendicular
to a wall, with participants standing on the ruler with the outside of the foot
against the wall and measuring the visibly widest point of the inner foot. Both
measurements are in centimetres (cm).
Talocrural articulation (tibia, fibula, talus) range: this is determined by the
Lunge test (Jeon, Kwon, Cynn, and Hwang, 2015), whose procedure is as
follows:
1. Place a piece of sticky tape on the floor to the wall and another on the wall
itself to form a 90% angle. Using a ruler, make a mark on the tape on the
floor 10 cm from the wall.
2. Place one foot on the tape on the floor with the longest toe at the 10 cm
mark. Place the other leg in a comfortable position behind. Hands must be
placed on the wall.
3. Move the knee towards the tape on the wall without lifting the heel from the
floor.
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4. If the heel lifts, move the foot further forward until the test can be completed
without lifting it.
5. Once this has been successfully achieved, an inclinometer is used to
measure the angle in degrees of the tibial tubercle, thus marking the ankle
joint dorsiflexion.
The distance at which the test is carried out with respect to the wall depends on
height, so doing it at the stipulated 10 cm would not necessarily mean there is
articular limitation. The test would be negative (limitation of talocrural
articulation) in the event the angle in degrees marked by the inclinometer was
less than 35º (Jeon et all., 2015).
Body technique
In order to evaluate the variables relating to body technique, an observational
methodology was used by applying an observation checklist to five technical
elements: two jumps/leaps, two balances and one turn/pivot. Elements with a
lower level of difficulty (Code of Points, FIG 2017) were chosen to minimise to
the greatest extent possible the influence that other variables, such as technical
level or physical qualities, might have. The jumps used were the “split leap
forward” and the “deer leap”, the balances, “passé releve” and passé balance
with slow turn on the ball of the foot and, as a turn, “full turn in passé”.
The gymnasts carried out two repetitions of each of the technical elements,
which were recorded on video and then given scores in accordance with the
current Code of Points (FIG, 2017) by two widely-experienced international
judges.
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Fig 1. Technical elements performed
The parameters evaluated in the body elements in accordance with the Code of
Points were:
Jumps: Height and a defined and fixed shape during the flight.
Balances: A defined and fixed shape (1 second).
Turns: Degrees rotation in a defined and fixed shape.
Each parameter was evaluated starting from a maximum score of 10 points,
and penalty points were deducted (Code of Points, FIG, 2017) in accordance
with the deviations in gymnasts’ executions in respect of the correct technical
execution, adding together the score achieved for each body group and for the
total score corresponding to body technique. The intra and inter-observer
reliability was evaluated with the intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC), with a
95% confidence interval (CI), obtaining values of 0.91 and 0.80, respectively.
Statistical analysis
A descriptive analysis of study variables has been carried out: the qualitative
variables are represented through frequency and percentage and the
quantitative variables through mean ± standard deviation. The homoscedasticity
and normality of the variables were tested using the Levenne and Kolmogorov-
Smirnov tests, respectively. An independent t-test was used to evaluate
differences between the two feet.
All of the possible associations between qualitative variables via the statistical
analysis of variance (one-way Anova) were analysed. In order to analyse the
relationship between the quantitative variables, the Pearson correlation
coefficient (r) and linear regression was used.
Ethical aspects
All of those who took part did so voluntarily, having been informed previously of
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the aim and purpose of the study and the types of tests they were going to be
subjected to in an information booklet. The informed consent on behalf of the
subjects in the study was required. Authorisation from the legal guardian was
required if the subject was a minor.
The confidentiality of the information obtained in the study was guaranteed by
the existing law (Organic Law 15/1999, of 13 December, on Personal Data
Protection), anonymising the record sheets and the questionnaires for data
handling and dissemination of results.
The Declaration of Helsinki’s good clinical practice guidelines were followed and
the study was given a favourable report by the Office of the Vice-Chancellor for
Scientific Policy, Research and Knowledge Transfer at A Coruña University
(UDC).
RESULTS
With regard to the gymnasts’ foot morphology (table 2), the frequencies on the
FPI-6 for the right foot were as follows: 72.9% had a neutral foot, 2.1% a
supinated foot and 25% a pronated foot. The FPI-6 for the left foot showed that
75% had a neutral foot, 2.1% a supinated foot and 22.9% a pronated foot.
Table 2. Foot morphology and plantar print frequency (FPI-6)
Rigth Left Rigth Left
Foot morphology n % n % Plantar print n % n %
p 0,569 p 0,659
Neutral 36 72,9 35 75 Normal 34 70,8 35 72,9
Supinated 1 2,1 1 2,1 Flat 1 2,1 1 2,1
Pronated 11 25 12 22,9 Cavus 13 27,1 12 25
In respect of the type of plantar print (table 2), for the right foot we found 70.8%
had normal prints, 2.1% were flat and 27.1% cavus. For the left foot, 72.9%
were normal, 2.1% flat and 25% cavus. The differences between the right and
left foot were not significant, either with regard to the type of foot or the type of
print.
If we analyse the relationship between the type of foot, the print and years spent
doing the sport (table 3), we can find differences that are only significant for the
type of foot between the two groups. We can see that 74.4% of gymnasts with
more than five years in the sport have neutral feet as opposed to 66.7% in those
with less than five years. The percentage of pronated feet is higher in gymnasts
who have been in the sport fewer years, 33.3% opposed to 23.1%.
574Rev.int.med.cienc.act.fís.deporte - vol. 20 - número 79 - ISSN: 1577-0354
Table 3. Type of foot frecuency, type of print and years of practice
Rigth foot Left foot Rigth foot Left foot
p 0,008* p 0,007* p 0,585 p 0,469
Type of n % n % Type of n % 6 66,7
foot print
Less tan Neutral 6 66,7 6 66,7 Normal 5 55,6 3 33,3
5 years Pronated 3 33,3 3 33,3 Cavus 4 44,4 9 100,0
Total 9 100,0 9 100,0 Total 9 100,0 29 74,4
More tan Neutral 29 74,4 30 76,9 Normal 29 74,4 1 2,6
5 years Supinated 1 2,6 1 2,6 Falt 1 2,6 9 23,1
Pronated 9 23,1 8 20,5 Cavus 9 23,1 39 100,0
Total 39 100,0 39 100,0 Total 39 100,0 6 66,7
*p: significative
The remaining qualitative variables (length, width of both feet and talocrural
articulation range) are shown (table 4) via their mean, median and standard
deviation. Although differences between the right and left foot exist, they are not
significant for length, width and the lunge test.
Table 4. Statistical of length, width of booth feet and talocrural articulations range
Mean and SD p
Rigth foot length 23,050±1,2167 0,020
Left foot length 22,931±1,2656
Rigth foot width 8,185±0,7949 0,030
Left foot width 8,285±0,8508
Lunge Test rigth foot 48,625±3,3633 0,556
Lunge Test left foot 48,844±4,1932
SD: Standard deviation; *p: significative
Table 5. Statistical of length, width of booth feet and talocrural articulations range and years of
practice
Mean and SD p
Less tan 5 years Rigth foot length 22,211±0,8023 0,159
Left foot length 22,067±0,7263
Rigth foot width 7,944±0,7248 0,272
Left foot width 8,078±0,8363
Lunge Test rigth foot 46,133±3,36674 0,907
Lunge Test left foot 47,178±4,4488
More tan 5 years Rigth foot length 23,244±1,2208 0,046
Left foot length 23,131±1,2854
Rigth foot width 8,241±0,8087 0,866
Left foot width 8,333±0,8576
Lunge Test rigth foot 49,200±3,0577 0,471
Lunge Test left foot 49,228±4,0953
SD: Standard deviation.
575Rev.int.med.cienc.act.fís.deporte - vol. 20 - número 79 - ISSN: 1577-0354
Table 5 shows results for the length, width and lunge test variables according to
years of training. Although differences in the two groups can be observed, they
are not significant.
And, lastly, we show the results that correspond to the variables relating to body
technique (table 6), reflected in the three main groups of body elements
pertaining to RG: Jumps/Leaps, balances and rotations. Each body element
executed was evaluated under two criteria, determined by the current Code of
Points (FIG, 2017) from 10 to 0 points. The summations of the data from the
overall rating of the Jump/Leap, Balance and Rotation elements are shown as
the summation of all the body elements.
Table 6. Statistical of the body technique elements
Mean and SD
Leap Height Scissors Leap 6,38±,981
body Defined and Fixed shape Scissors Leap 6,79±1,010
group
Height Stag Leap 6,52±,967
Defined and Fixed shape Stag Leap 6,83±1,209
Total Leap Body Technique 26,8750±3,55
Balance Cleary Fixed Passé Balance 6,56±1,303
body Shape Passé Balance 6,77±,994
group
Cleary Fixed Tour Lent Passé 6,10±1,153
Shape Tour Lent Passé 6,23±1,036
Total Body Balance Technique 25,9583±3,97
Rotation Degrees of rotation Passé Rotation 6,40±1,250
body Shape and fixation Passé Rotation 6,46±1,148
group Total Body Rotation Technique 12,9792±2,14
Total Body Technique 65,0417±9,84
SD: Standard deviation.
The results of studying the associations between qualitative variables and body
technique (Table 7, one-way Anova) show us that there is no significant
relationship between foot morphology, the type of plantar print and the body
technique results.
Table 7. Results of association between body technique, foot morphology and type of foot print
F F F F
BT Global BT Leaps/Jumps BT balance BT Rotations
Rigth F Left F Rigth F Left F Rigth F Left F Rigth F Left F
Foot 0,572 0,998 0,607 0,654 0,603 1,102 0,514 0,855
Type p:0,569 p:0,377 p:0,549 p:0,525 p:0,551 p:0,341 p:0,602 p:0,432
Footprint 1,309 0,465 0,476 0,883 0,684 0,542 0,837 0,399
Type p:0,280 p:0,631 p:0,247 p:0,625 p:0,510 p:0,585 p:0,440 p:0,674
BT: Body technique; F: foot; **: p significative ≤ 0,01; *: p significative ≤ 0,05
The results of studying the associations between quantitative variables and
body technique (the Pearson correlation) are not significant for foot length and
width, although there is a significant result between the lunge test with overall
576Rev.int.med.cienc.act.fís.deporte - vol. 20 - número 79 - ISSN: 1577-0354
technique, jump technique, balance technique, and with rotation technique in
both feet. And the results are always higher for the right foot than for the left.
Table 8. Pearson correlation results between body technique and morpho-structural changes in
the feet and the Lunge test
r BT Global BT Leaps/Jumps BT Balance BT Rotations
** ** **
Lunge Test RF ,406 ,387 ,371 ,390**
* * *
Test de Lunge LF ,351 ,310 ,290 ,330*
r : Pearson Correlation; BT: Body technique; RF: Rigth foot; LF: Left foot; **: p significative ≤
0,01; *: p significative ≤ 0,05
The linear regression analysis shows us that the lunge test has a low predictive
value with regard to the body technique results (R squared 0.165 right foot and
R squared 0.123 left foot).
DISCUSSION
The foot morphology and footprint of the female gymnasts studied show non-
significant asymmetries in a similar way to other studies (Lichota, Plandowska
and Mil, 2013), (Elvira, Vera-García, Meana and García, 2008) which obtained
significant differences between both feet. Franco, Nathy, Valencia and Vargas
(2009), in a study with a sample of sedentary subjects and athletes, also found
a high percentage of non-symmetrical individuals (58% as opposed to 42%),
higher in the sample of athletes. The explanation of Elvira et al. (2008) as to
why this was so was that the athletes were always forced to run or walk in the
same direction round the circuit. However, in a study carried out with 497 boys
and 534 girls of school age, Delgado (2015) found no significant differences in
the comparison between the two feet in the majority of the variables analysed.
In our study, although the differences are not significant either, they could be
due to the type of specific technical effort involved, which causes the gymnasts
to bear the weight on one foot (the good leg) more than on the other (Batista,
Bobo, Lebre and Ávila-Carvalho, 2015). This one-sided effort can put gymnasts’
harmonious development at risk and possibly lead to injury (Zetaruk, Violan,
Zurakowski, Mitchell and Michell, 2006) on account of imbalances, which is why
it should be corrected in training.
Our results with respect to the type of foot (FPI-6) show that the neutral foot is
predominant (75%), followed by the pronated foot (22.9%). Martínez Nova et al.
(2014) evaluated the foot posture index (FPI) in different sporting groups,
finding similar results to ours in respect of the normality of static foot
morphology, although with a greater tendency towards pronation in basketball
players and runners than in handball players, who show a greater tendency
towards supination.
Our gymnasts show a mainly normal footprint (72.9%), followed by a pes cavus
print (25%), as opposed to other studies, such as the one by Berdejo-del-
Fresno, Lara, Martínez-López, Cachón and Lara (2013), which found that the
imprints of both feet tended towards flat in female hockey players, and
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modifications in the dominant foot of female indoor football players, whereas
sedentary females showed no footprint differences. Another study makes
reference to a significantly lower arch in elite gymnasts (artistic gymnastics) in
comparison with athletes from other sporting fields, as well as a non-athletic
control group (Aydog et al., 2005b). These authors found significant differences
not only in the arch but also in the muscular strengths of the ankle dorsiflexion,
which are lower in gymnasts than in healthy non-athletic controls. The type of
surface artistic gymnasts exercise on, which is elastic, may explain these
differences. Other authors (Franco et al., 2009) compared the foot imprints of
sportspeople from different sports, such as swimming, weightlifting, athletics
and sedentary students. The results coincide with those found in our study, in
that both sportspeople and sedentary subjects tend towards a normal-cavus
type of foot and that doing sport is not an influential factor in the modifications
relating to symmetries or asymmetries in an individual’s footprint.
Hernández Guerra (2006) evaluated the type of foot in the group comprising
boys and girls from 9-12 years of age, ages near those in our study, finding a
greater prevalence of normal and cavus feet since the childhood stage. Other
studies (Elvira et al., 2006), (Wegener, Burns and Penkala, 2008) found a
prevalence of cavus feet, and conclude that the activities carried out in the
terrestrial environment, especially if they are repetitive and lasting, involve an
extra work load and more stress for the foot and that certain muscular skeletal
adaptations to the sportsperson’s foot that tend to mould it, creating a higher
foot arch than that found in sedentary subjects, are necessary. Martinez-Amat
et al. (2016) point out in their study that the participants, both trained and
untrained, were mainly shown to have pes cavus, although they specify that this
could be a controversial result given the high degree of variability between the
measurement techniques used to evaluate the footprint that could alter the
results. This variability might provide an explanation for the contradictory data
between the different studies in the bibliography and ours.
The results obtained by our gymnasts with regard to foot width and length are
slightly lower than those shown by Delgado (2015) and Mazoteras (2017) in
samples of Spanish schoolchildren younger than our gymnasts. The reason for
this could lie in the constitution required for this particular sports discipline, that
is, to be slim and not very tall. Other authors (Martinez-Amat et all., 2016),
(Elvira et all. 2008) obtain significant differences in foot length and width as
opposed to non-sportspeople, which could be due to the mechanical demands
they are subjected to. These kinds of adaptations would not seem to occur in
gymnastics. It could be that the work of the bare foot on a non-deformable non-
elastic surface is the cause and this would require a more in-depth study.
We have found significant differences between foot morphology and years of
experience in our study for the type of foot and not for the type of print. And
although there are differences related to experience in foot width and length,
they are not significant and it could be that the more years spent in the sport,
the older the gymnast and, therefore, the bigger the foot. Jeanna et al. (2009)
found significant differences between the measurements of the footprint (length
578Rev.int.med.cienc.act.fís.deporte - vol. 20 - número 79 - ISSN: 1577-0354
and width) and the experience and results in runners and between quicker and
slower sprinters. These results may suggest an adaptation of the type of foot to
the specific demands of a particular sport. Martinez-Amat et al. (2016) found
that the years spent training in sprinters, distance runners and swimmers have
not caused modifications to foot curvature or type. Other studies within one
sport (Berdejo et all., 2013, López, Alburquerque, Santos, Sánchez and
Domínguez, 2005) concluded that there were no differences between the type
of foot in footballers from different categories. In our study, the age of the
gymnasts may be a factor that, together with the years spent in the sport,
explains the morphological alterations found.
The relationship of the foot with sports performance variables was only
significant for the lunge test with the three body groups characteristic of this
sport’s body technique. The lunge test measures the talocrural articular range
during dorsal flexion (Jeon et al., 2015). Dorsiflexion (DF) of the talocrural
articulation allows dorsal flexion movement in the sagittal plane and is one of
the foot’s most important and complex articulations. An adequate DF range is
necessary to enable the correct execution of sports activities whose protagonist
is the lower body. Evaluation of the range of motion for talocrural dorsiflexion is
essential to identify the risk factors involved in a number of injuries to the lower
limbs (Alfaro et al., 2017), (Matthew and Patrick, 2011). However, there are few
references in literature that link it to performance factors. Spink et al. (2011)
showed that the range of motion for dorsiflexion is significantly linked to balance
and functional ability in basic movements such as climbing a step and walking
quickly.
Hamilton, Hamilton, Marshall and Molnar (1992) found greater ankle
dorsiflexion range in professional dancers. In a study of dancers, Bennet et al.
(1999) produced similar results to ours, finding a 25% greater ankle dorsiflexion
than in non-dancers. And they did not find significant correlations between
range of motion and years of training and number of hours per week of training,
which was similar to our study’s findings and, therefore, we cannot consider it to
be a case of the foot adapting to training. On the contrary, Russell, Kruse,
Nevill, Koutedakis and Wyon (2010) make reference to the loss of ankle
dorsiflexion range with experience, a relationship not observed in our gymnasts,
perhaps because of their young age, and the result, among other causes, of the
specificity of pointe work in ballet.
The results for the lunge test obtained by our sample are clearly higher than
those referenced in the bibliography (Morales 2017, Jeon et al., 2015, Matthew
and Patrick, 2011), which could represent an advantage when gymnasts are
executing technical elements in which talocrural dorsiflexion is of vital
importance, such as jumps, leaps or turns.
579Rev.int.med.cienc.act.fís.deporte - vol. 20 - número 79 - ISSN: 1577-0354
CONCLUSIONS
Our study’s results show that gymnasts predominantly have one neutral foot
with a normal print, showing a fair degree of asymmetry between one foot and
the other, which could be the consequence of asymmetric work and should be
corrected in training. Foot width and length are slightly lower than the average
for schoolchildren of similar ages.
None of these variables is significantly linked to performance and would not
seem to respond to adaptations to training as a consequence of years of
practice. The ankle dorsiflexion range of motion is greater in our gymnasts than
that referred to in literature and does have a significant link to technical
performance but not to the years of training.
RG might not be as decisive a factor in the morphological modifications of the
footprint as might be assumed. Only a greater talocrural dorsiflexion range
would seem to represent a foot morphology characteristic that could affect
technical performance, and it would not appear to be an adaptation to training
or years’ experience in the sport.
A wider sample and greater age range would enable us to carry out a more in-
depth analysis of gymnasts’ foot morphology. More detailed information on the
quality and quantity of training would allow us to better understand the specific
effects of dose-response on such training, instead of being inferred from self-
reporting by the subjects. A cross-sectional study design makes causal
attribution problematic and a longitudinal study design would be better suited to
enable us to confirm the nature of the results found.
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Número de citas totales / Total references: 35 (100%)
Número de citas propias de la revista / Journal's own references: 3 (8,57 %)
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