Ocean acidification increases the agony of the Baltic Sea
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NO.1, MARCH 2021
Improved air quality
could save 200,000 lives
per year
Reducing urban air pollution in 31 Eu-
ropean countries to below the WHO
recommended levels could prevent more
than 50,000 deaths per year.
► Page 6
EU Clean Air Outlook
The annual health benefits the additio-
nal measures needed to achieve the 2030
national emissions ceilings are estimated
© LARS-ERIK HÅKANSSON
at €12–43 billion, up to 31 times higher
than the estimated costs.
► Page 8
Renewables have
reduced environmental
pressures in EU
A new study shows that the increase in
renewable electricity has reduced the Ocean acidification increases
the agony of the Baltic Sea
EU’s climate change impact.
► Page 10
Air pollution and Covid-19 Because of low alkalinity and high primary production, the
Policies that protect the population from daily fluctuation of pH in the surface water is already high,
the effects of air pollution are also likely
and ocean acidification is projected to increase this varia-
to protect against Covid-19 deaths pos-
sibly attributable to air pollution. tion further.
► Page 15 The ever-increasing carbon dioxide at early life stages. While OA can have
(CO₂) concentrations in the atmosphere negative effects on some species, others
Net zero air travel? result in global warming. Yet a signifi- may benefit from it. Possible benefiters
Climate-positive ham- cant share of the CO₂ is also taken up include macroalgae due to improved
by surface oceans. This buffering effect carbon availability
burgers? mitigates climate change, but at the OA is controlled by alkalinity – the
Carbon offsetting under the CDM pro- cost of causing ocean acidification (OA), buffering capacity – of the water. The
duces extraordinary claims. Don’t believe
or shifts in the acid-base equilibria of higher the alkalinity of the water, the
them, says the Swedish broadsheet Da-
seawater. OA means that the pH of the smaller the changes in pH when CO₂
gens Nyheter.
ocean is decreasing. dissolves in it, and the lower the alkalinity,
► Page 18
This is bad news for marine organisms. the larger the changes in pH.
The reduced calcium carbonate (CaCO₃) The Baltic Sea is considered to be
Phasing out fossil gas saturation state impairs calcification rates especially vulnerable to OA because its
power stations in Europe of plants and animals that use carbon- alkalinity is considerably lower than that
by 2030 ate to build their shells and skeletons. of the oceans, although total alkalinity
Presenting a list of gas-fired power stations OA can also induce other physiological of the surface water has increased over
in the EU and the UK that should be clo- maintenance costs, which can in particu- recent decades. The change in alkalinity has
sed within the next 10 years. lar be reflected in growth and survival been highest in the low-saline northern
► Page 24 Page 3
A newsletter from the Air Pollution & Climate
Editorial
Secretariat, the primary aim of which is to Marine areas around the world face to continue, at the expense of marine
provide information on air pollution and its
dramatic changes related to the release of animals and plants already at the limit
effects on health and the environment.
greenhouse gases. Some of these changes of their salinity tolerance levels.
Anyone interested in these matters is invited — such as marine heat waves already There is also an unfortunate interplay
to contact the Secretariat. All requests for
proven devastating to coral reefs — are between eutrophication and salinity,
information or material will be dealt with to
the best of our ability. Acid News is available directly related to the temperature regimes namely oxygen depletion. In short, the
free of charge. experienced by the organisms. In addition, water column in parts of the Baltic Sea
In order to fulfil the purpose of Acid News, there is a whole list of other changes that is permanently stratified into a deeper,
we need information from everywhere, so if occur concurrently. more saline, layer, and a surface layer of
you have read or heard about something that These changes are not, however, the same less saline water. As oxygen from the sur-
might be of general interest, please write or in all marine waters, nor are their effects face cannot penetrate to the deeper layer,
send a copy to:
on ecosystems. Coastal areas and regional oxygen will eventually be depleted from
Air Pollution & Climate Secretariat seas, for instance, often have their own this layer. The rate at which the oxygen
Första Långgatan 18, 413 28 Göteborg, unique characteristics that will shape the is depleted is dependent on the amount
Sweden
way they respond of organic matter,
Tel: +46 31 711 45 15
E-mail: info@airclim.org to climate change.
The “baseline” of
“Climate operates which increases
with increasing
Internet: www.airclim.org
environmental on different eutrophication. In
Editor: Marko Reinikainen pressures upon baselines in addition to this
Assistant editors: Christer Ågren &
Reinhold Pape
which climate- marine regions” salinity-dependent
Layout: Karin Didring
change-related stratification, shal-
effects operate also lower waters also
Printed by Trydells Tryckeri, Laholm, Sweden. differs between regions. become stratified in summer, due to
ISSN 0281-5087. The Baltic Sea provides an example temperature-dependent stratification.
of the importance of regional ecosystem Unfortunately, increased stratification
The Air Pollution and Climate Secretariat properties in shaping responses to the is one of the projected changes related
The Secretariat has a board consisting of one
effects of climate change. These variations to climate change. In addition, the on-
representative from each of the following
organisations: Friends of the Earth Sweden, in responses apply to the Baltic Sea in going warming of the Baltic Sea is in
Nature and Youth Sweden, the Swedish So- comparison with other seas, but also to itself bad news for oxygen conditions,
ciety for Nature Conservation, and the World local differences within the Baltic Sea. In as less oxygen can be bound at higher
Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) Sweden. the front-page article of this issue of Acid temperatures, and oxygen consumption
The essential aim of the Secretariat is to
News, Anu Vehmaa highlights acidification increases.
promote awareness of the problems associ-
ated with air pollution and climate change,
in the Baltic Sea, and describes the unique The consideration of regional or local
and thus, in part as a result of public pressure, characteristics of its buffering system, as conditions does not prevent universal
to bring about the needed reductions in the well as aspects of geographic variation in approaches to protect the marine en-
emissions of air pollutants and greenhouse the buffering system. The importance of vironment from the effects of climate
gases. The aim is to have those emissions variable photosynthetic activity, which change. The obvious approach is im-
eventually brought down to levels that man
can seasonally be extremely high, is also mediate mitigation of greenhouse gases.
and the environment can tolerate without
suffering damage. discussed in relation to its implications Other measures include protection and
In furtherance of these aims, the Secretariat: for pH dynamics. restoration of biodiversity for increased
8 Keeps up observation of political trends There are several other examples of resilience. However, continued, regionally
and scientific developments. environmental changes that are charac- adopted measures are needed to mitigate
8 Acts as an information centre, primarily for
teristic of the Baltic Sea. Eutrophication other, interacting, stressors, such as eu-
European environmentalist organisations,
but also for the media, authorities, and
is the most notorious one. Eutrophica- trophication in the Baltic Sea.
researchers. tion is evidently not caused by climate
8 Produces information material. change, but by excess nutrients from e.g. Marko Reinikainen
8 Supports environmentalist bodies in other unsustainable agriculture practices and
countries in their work towards common burning of fossil fuels. However, due Further reading: Baltic Sea Environment Pro-
ends.
to increased precipitation and warmer ceedings No. 137 (HELCOM; https://www.helcom.
8 Participates in the advocacy and campaigning
winters, the eutrophication problem will fi/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/BSEP137.pdf ),
activities of European environmentalist orga-
https://www.smhi.se/en/research/research-news/
nisations concerning European policy relating get worse unless efforts to cut nutrients
climate-change-makes-reducing-eutrophication-
to air quality and climate change, as well as in are successful. In the wake of increased even-more-important-1.162273, and https://www.
meetings of the Convention on Long-range precipitation, an ongoing freshening bsag.fi/en/baltic-sea/climate-change/
Transboundary Air Pollution and the UN
(decrease in salinity) is also predicted
Framework Convention on Climate Change.
2 ACID NEWS NO. 1, MARCH 2021
From page 1
parts, with the effect decreasing gradually the magnitude and direction of the fu- to maintain most of its calcification
as salinity increases towards the south. ture pH trends is the atmospheric CO₂ activity by shifting it into the daytime,
So far, the increase in alkalinity has bal- concentration. when the photosynthetic activity of the
anced a notable share of the CO₂-induced Information on the effect of OA on bladderwrack increases the mean pH of
acidification. Nevertheless, researchers the Baltic Sea organisms is slowly ac- the habitat. Studies using the mussel
warn that the increasing alkalinity should cumulating. Most studies have been done population from the Kiel Fjord suggest
not be interpreted as protection against at the species level, although evidence that the Baltic Sea blue mussels might
future OA. on community responses has begun to have adaptation potential against the
In the Baltic Sea, OA is yet another appear in recent years. In the coastal effects of OA because fluctuating envi-
encumbrance among a long list of burdens, zone, the species studied include blad- ronments facilitate the maintenance of
eutrophication still being the largest. Due derwrack (Fucus vesiculosus, F. radicans) high genetic diversity.
to the combination of low total alkalinity and blue mussel (Mytilus edulis trossulus The complexity of the Baltic Sea
and high primary production, the daily complex). They are both keystone or CO₂ system complicates meaningful
fluctuation of pH in the surface water foundation species in their habitat, and monitoring of OA. Monitoring must be
of the Baltic Sea is already substantial, other organisms thus depend on their both spatially and temporally frequent,
and OA is projected to increase this success. According to the experiments and be based on highly accurate and
variation even more. The largest differ- using bladderwrack populations from precise measurements. Monitoring of
ences in sea water pH between day and the Kiel Fjord and the Gulf of Finland, Baltic Sea water pH started in 1979
night occur near macroalgal and seagrass OA may have slightly positive effects on and it is coordinated by the HELCOM
beds as well as in phytoplankton blooms. growth in the form of increased carbon COMBINE programme. pH is still the
Moreover, progressive eutrophication availability and storage, but the response only parameter of the four carbonate
amplifies the seasonal fluctuation of is small in comparison, for example, to buffer system variables (total alkalinity,
seawater pH by increasing production the effect of warming, and varies between pH, dissolved organic carbon, pCO₂)
and mineralisation. Highly productive seasons. Regardless, the future seems that is measured on a regular basis. Ac-
coastal habitats that are suffering from challenging for the bladderwrack, as cording to HELCOM, development of
hypoxia are already experiencing lower summer heatwaves have proven especially more comprehensive OA monitoring is
pH values and CaCO₃ saturation states detrimental. Climate warming, decreasing in progress, and will be in place by 2024.
than projected for the coming centuries. salinity, and coastal eutrophication all In essence, OA and global warming
Kiel Bay in the western Baltic Sea is an favour fast-growing filamentous green have the same cause, so the main rem-
example of such a habitat. At the mo- algae, epiphytes and phytoplankton over edy for both environmental problems
ment, these areas can be used as model bladderwrack. Local or regional actions, is to cut down the release of CO₂ from
systems when testing the responses of such as alleviation of overfishing and burning of fossil fuels. Promoting eco-
adapted marine ecosystems to high levels eutrophication may mitigate the ongoing system resilience against OA could be
of acidification. loss of the bladderwrack. achieved through conservation actions
It is not easy to detect significant OA Bivalves are dependent on their protec- that maintain biodiversity by freeing the
trends and draw conclusions about the tive shells and, as calcifying organisms, ecosystems from other environmental
present situation in the Baltic Sea. Even they are especially vulnerable to OA. stressors, such as eutrophication and
though the widest monitoring data sets According to the recent studies, the overfishing. Our knowledge of the ef-
include over a thousand pH observations, benthic life stages are able to compensate fects of OA on the Baltic Sea ecosystem
the quality of the historical data is partly for the costs of acidification when food is still in its infancy. So more research is
questionable. At present, there are a few is abundant. The larval stages are less needed before tackling of the acidifica-
studies reporting significant changes in fortunate due to high calcification rates tion issue can be effectively included in
the Gulf of Finland. Wintertime surface during the formation of the first larval conservation and management plans.
and deep-water pH has decreased there shell and the limited energy provided
significantly between 1972 and 2009 and by the egg. Calcification is energetically Anu Vehmaa
between 1979 and 2015, respectively. The costly for the Baltic blue mussel, and the
decrease has been sharper in deep water costs increase with decreasing salinity. This article is based on a report from the BALSAM-
than in surface water, possibly because Projected desalination and OA, and the project, funded by the Swedish Institute. The
of increased decomposition and CO₂ resulting decrease in CaCO₃ saturation report will be will be available under the section
“Recent Publications" in Acid News No. 2/2021.
production caused by eutrophication. state could thus set a severe constraint
A longer version of this article, including refer-
Recent modelling studies have projected for the future of blue mussels. ences, can be found under the heading “Ocean
the same phenomena: climate change What can a mussel do in an unfavour- Acidification Working Group” on https://www.
and increasing nutrient loads will affect able environment? It has been suggested airclim.org/ (link to the article: https://airclim.
acidification, mainly by modifying seasonal that dense macroalgal or seagrass habi- org/ocean-acidification-increases-agony-baltic-
sea). Please note also information on the Ocean
cycles (summer maximum and winter tat could offer a temporal refuge from
Acidification Action Week (May 3–9, 2021) on
minimum), and deep water conditions. acidification stress. In experimental page 13 in this issue.
However, the main driver controlling conditions, blue mussel has been able
ACID NEWS NO. 1, MARCH 2021 3
a single year, month or location does not
Zero In – CONSTRAIN mean that the LTTG has been breached, as
study show green recov- long as human-induced warming still falls
ery could cut the rate of below 1.5°C. It is unlikely that human-
induced warming will reach 1.5°C above
temperature rise by up pre- industrial levels in the next decade.
to half Integrating hard and fast climate action © MEE KO DONG/ SHUTTERSTOCK.COM
with Covid economic recovery packages
With global temperatures now almost
1.2°C above pre-industrial levels, limiting
could, over the next 20 years, slow down 100% renewable elec-
temperature rise to 1.5°C in line with the
human-induced global warming by up to tricity supply is possible
half the rate we have experienced since
Paris Agreement means taking urgent
2000, giving us vital time and space to by 2030
and decisive global action. A new report
adapt to future climate impacts. This The Earth’s climate emergency requires
shows that slowing down global warm-
“strong green recovery”, investing just the achievement of a zero-emissions
ing can be combined with tackling the
1.2% of GDP in green technologies and economy much sooner than the generally
economic crisis caused by Covid-19 and
industries, whilst refusing to bail out fossil discussed target year of 2050, according to
that a green recovery could cut the rate of
fuel companies, could also cut the total leading researchers on wholesale energy
temperature rise by up to half. Where are
amount of warming by 2050, putting us transitions, some of whom have been
we are in terms of the Paris Agreement
back on track to stay within the LTTG’s researching for almost two decades how
Long-Term Temperature Goal (LTTG)?
1.5°C limit. Such a green recovery is we can realise a complex and secure energy
The Paris Agreement reflects global,
urgently needed as the carbon budget supply with 100% renewable energy (RE).
human-induced long-term temperature
continues to be depleted despite a record The researchers say that the target year for
change that excludes the short-term
fall in annual CO₂ emissions from 2019 ending CO2 and other climate-warming
natural variability in the climate system.
to 2020. The report assess the remaining and air pollutant emissions should be
Exceeding 1.5°C warming during one or
carbon budget for staying below 1.5°C to 2030 for the electric power sector and
more years as the result of year-to-year
be 355 Gt CO₂ (50% probability). soon thereafter, but ideally no later than
variability therefore does not mean that
the Paris Agreement LTTG has been 2035, for other sectors. The core solution
Compiled by Reinhold Pape to meeting this timeline is to electrify or
reached or exceeded. Measuring where we
are now with respect to the LTTG means provide direct heat for all energy needs and
using the same approach that was used to Source: provide this electricity and heat globally
set it, following the best available science from 100% RE.
https://constrain-eu.org/news/
at the time, as set out in the IPCC Fifth The researchers have summarised their
Assessment Report (AR5). This includes
https://constrain-eu.org/wp-content/up- findings in a 10-point declaration. Their
loads/2020/12/Constrain-Report-2020-Final.pdf main message is: The transformation to
looking forward from a modern reference
period (1986-2005), and so scientific ad-
https://climateanalytics.org/projects/constrain/ 100% renewables is possible and will ar-
vances in establishing how temperatures CONSTRAIN hosted a Special Event at the 2020 UNFCCC rive much faster than generally expected.
changed before this time will not affect our Climate Dialogues: A 100% renewable electricity supply is
trajectory towards the 1.5°C limit. Overall, possible by 2030, and with substantial
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FHyjOvsbpRg
reaching or exceeding 1.5°C warming in &feature=youtu.be political will around the world, 100%
© DIY13/ SHUTTERSTOCK.COM renewable energy is also technically and
economically feasible across all other
sectors by 2035. A 100% RE system will
be more cost-effective than will a future
system based primarily on fossil and
nuclear power. The transformation to
100% renewables will boost the global
economy, create millions more jobs than
are lost, and substantially reduce health
problems and mortality due to pollution.
Compiled by Reinhold Pape
https://global100restrategygroup.org/
https://global100restrategygroup.org/wp-content/
uploads/2021/02/Joint-Declaration-of-the-Global-
100-RE-Strategy-Group-210208.pdf
4 ACID NEWS NO. 1, MARCH 2021
UN Secretary General
urges all countries to de-
clare climate emergency
Governments around the world should
all declare a state of climate emergency
until the world has reached net-zero
CO2 emissions, the UN Secretary Gen-
eral, António Guterres, told a summit
of world leaders in December 2020. At
least 38 countries have already declared
such a state of emergency, often owing
to their vulnerability to the impacts of
climate breakdown, which are already
being felt. “Can anybody still deny that
we are facing a dramatic emergency? I
urge all others to follow. The COVID
pandemic is an unexpected chance to
tackle the climate crisis”, the UN Secre-
tary General declared. “By next month,
countries representing more than 65
© GLF MEDIA/ SHUTTERSTOCK.COM
percent of harmful greenhouse gases
and more than 70 percent of the world
University, the University of Birmingham,
Meeting Paris goals and the University of Leicester and University
economy will have committed to achieve
net-zero emissions by the middle of the
phasing out fossil fuels College London. Countries with the century. At the same time, the main
could save “millions of highest consumption of fossil fuels to climate indicators are worsening. While
power factories, homes and vehicles are
lives” suffering the highest death tolls, with the
the Covid-19 pandemic has temporarily
reduced emissions, carbon dioxide levels
Two new scientific assessments reported study finding that more than one in 10 are still at record highs – and rising. The
by the Guardian say that climate action deaths in both the US and Europe were past decade was the hottest on record;
could save “millions of lives” through caused by the resulting pollution, along Arctic sea ice in October 2020 was the
clean air, diet and exercise. Research from with nearly a third of deaths in eastern lowest ever, and apocalyptic fires, floods,
the Lancet Countdown on Health and Asia, which includes China. Death rates droughts and storms are increasingly
Climate Change looked at the health in South America and Africa were sig- the new normal. Biodiversity is col-
impact of boosting national climate ac- nificantly lower. The death toll exceeds lapsing, deserts are spreading, oceans
tion plans to meet the Paris targets and the combined total of people who die are warming and choking with plastic
avoid dangerous climate change across globally each year from smoking tobacco waste. Science tells us that unless we cut
nine countries, including the US, China, and those who die of malaria. fossil fuel production by 6 percent every
Brazil and the UK. The world is currently Scientists have established links between year between now and 2030, things will
off track to meet the Paris goals, but the pervasive air pollution from burning fossil get worse. Instead, the world is on track
research found that stronger commit- fuels and cases of hear disease, respiratory for a 2 percent annual rise. Pandemic
ments to curb temperature rises in line ailments, and even the loss of eyesight. recovery gives us an unexpected yet vital
with the international agreement would Without fossil fuel emissions, the average opportunity to attack climate change,
also have significant benefits for health. life expectancy of the world’s population fix our global environment, re-engineer
Across all nine countries, implementing would increase by more than a year, while economies and reimagine our future. Here
national climate plans that meet the global economic and health costs would is what we must do... ” (See link below).
Paris goals could save 5.8 million lives fall by about 2.9 trillion dollars.
due to better diet; 1.2 million lives due Compiled by Reinhold Pape
to cleaner air; and 1.2 million lives due to Compiled by Reinhold Pape
increased exercise. Air pollution caused https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/
by the burning of fossil fuels such as coal https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/ dec/12/un-secretary-general-all-countries-declare-
and oil was responsible for 8.7 million feb/10/climate-action-could-save-millions-of-lives- climate-emergencies-antonio-guterres-climate-
deaths globally in 2018, a staggering one through-clean-air-diet-and-exercise ambition-summit
in five of all people who died that year, https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/ https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/covid-pan-
according to a second research study in feb/09/fossil-fuels-pollution-deaths-research demic-climate-crisis-paris-agreement-b1769330.
collaboration between scientists at Harvard html
ACID NEWS NO. 1, MARCH 2021 5
Improved air quality could save 200,000 lives per year
Reducing urban air pollution in 31 European countries to below the WHO recommended levels
could prevent more than 50,000 deaths per year, and if the cities manage to bring down air pol-
lution in line with the lowest measured levels, over 200,000 annual deaths could be prevented.
© SERGEY NIVENS/ SHUTTERSTOCK.COM
A new health impact study by the When ranking the cities it was found and the burning of coal and wood,” said
Barcelona Institute for Global Health that the top ten cities with the highest researcher Sasha Khomenko, lead author
(ISGlobal) has estimated the mortality mortality burden due to PM2.5 were all of the study.
burden attributable to air pollution in in Italy, Poland or the Czech Republic The highest rates of mortality at-
more than 1,000 cities in 31 European (see Table). tributable to NO₂, a toxic gas associated
countries (EU-28, Norway, Switzerland “For PM2.5, the cities with the high- primarily with motor-vehicle traffic, were
and Iceland). est mortality burden were in Italy’s Po found in large cities in countries such
The study, published in The Lancet Valley, southern Poland and the eastern as Spain, Belgium, Italy and France.
Planetary Health, includes a ranking of Czech Republic. This is because PM2.5 On the other hand, the top ten cit-
the cities with the highest rates of mor- is emitted not only by motor vehicles ies with the lowest mortality burden
tality attributable to each of the two air but also by other sources of combustion, were all in Iceland, Norway, Sweden
pollutants studied: fine particulate matter including industry, household heating, and Finland, with Tromso in Norway
(PM2.5) and nitrogen dioxide (NO₂).
The findings show that 51,000 and Table: The ten cities with the highest mortality burden attributable to PM2.5 and NO2, respectively.
900 premature deaths could be prevented
Particulate matter (PM2.5) Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
each year, respectively, if all the cities
1 Brescia (Italy) Madrid (metropolitan area) (Spain)
analysed were to achieve the PM2.5 and
2 Bergamo (Italy) Antwerp (Belgium)
NO₂ levels recommended by the World
3 Karviná (Czech Republic) Turin (Italy)
Health Organization (WHO). 4 Vicenza (Italy) Paris (metropolitan area) (France)
However, if all of the cities were to match 5 Silesian Metropolis (Poland) Milan (metropolitan area) (Italy)
the air quality levels of the least polluted 6 Ostrava (Czech Republic) Barcelona (metropolitan area) (Spain)
city on the list, even more deaths could 7 Jastrzębie-Zdrój (Poland) Mollet del Vallès (Spain)
be prevented. Specifically, the number of 8 Saronno (Italy) Brussels (Belgium)
premature deaths that could be prevented 9 Rybnik (Poland) Herne (Germany)
each year by reducing PM2.5 and NO₂ 10 Havířov (Czech Republic) Argenteuil-Bezons (France)
concentrations to the lowest measured
Note: Ranking based on percentage of preventable annual mortality and years of life lost (YLL) per
levels are 125,000 and 79,000, respectively. 100,000 population.
6 ACID NEWS NO. 1, MARCH 2021
reporting the lowest mortality burden health. Therefore, the maximum NO₂ coal burning would help heavily polluted
associated with NO₂, and Reykjavik in and PM2.5 levels allowed by law should cities in central Europe.
Iceland the lowest mortality burden be revised,” said Mark Nieuwenhuijsen,
associated with PM2.5. senior author of the study. Christer Ågren
“Our findings support the evidence “We need an urgent change from pri-
suggesting that there is no safe exposure vate motorised traffic to public and active Source: ISGlobal press release, 19 January 2021.
threshold below which air pollution is transportation and a reduction of emissions The study: “Premature mortality due to air pollution
harmless to health. They also suggest that from industry, airports and ports,” Sasha in European cities: a health impact assessment”, by
the European legislation currently in force Khomenko said to Agence France Presse, S. Khomenko et. al. The Lancet Planetary Health.
does not do enough to protect people’s adding that a ban on domestic wood and https://doi.org/10.1016/S2542-5196(20)30272-2
© SALFIO FINOCCHIARO/ SHUTTERSTOCK.COM
Domestic wood burning
biggest PM emitter in
the UK
Domestic wood burning has become the
single biggest source of small-particle (PM2.5)
air pollution in the UK, producing three
times more than road traffic, according to
new emission inventory data.
According to a separate government-
commissioned report, the wood-burning
zones and agglomerations. Continued pollution is caused by only eight per cent of
Bulgaria and Greece to failure to do so could lead to fines. the population. Almost half of these were
go to court for air quality Source: European Commission infringement
affluent and many chose a fire for aesthetic
reasons, rather than heat.
breaches package, 3 December 2020.
In 2019, the use of wood in domestic
Link: https://ec.europa.eu/commission/press-
In its December infringements package, combustion activities accounted for 38
the European Commission announced per cent of PM2.5 emissions. Emissions of
that it will refer Bulgaria and Greece PM2.5from domestic wood burning more
to the EU Court of Justice (ECJ) after
Hungary breached EU air than doubled between 2003 and 2019 (from
both countries breached air pollution pollution limits 20 to 41 thousand tonnes) and increased
limits for years despite multiple warnings. by 1.0 per cent between 2018 and 2019.
The EU Court of Justice (ECJ) ruled in Industrial combustion and processes are
Bulgaria has systematically and con-
February that Hungary has “systematically another major source, together accounting
tinuously failed to comply with the limit
and persistently” breached legal limits for 33 per cent of PM2.5 in 2019. Road
values for particulate matter (PM10) and
for PM10, in some regions for as long as transport remains a significant source of
to adopt appropriate measures to keep
12 years. The court also said that, since PM2.5 emissions (12 per cent in 2019).
the period of exceedance as short as
2010, Hungary had failed to ensure that Due to stricter emissions standards, vehicle
possible, the Commission said.
breaches were kept as short as possible. exhaust emissions have decreased by 85 per
As Bulgaria has failed to comply with
The ruling orders Hungary to comply or cent over the last 25 years, but this has been
a 2017 ruling of the ECJ, the result may
face potential further legal action by the partially offset by an increase in non-exhaust
be financial penalties for the time elapsed
Commission to impose financial penalties. emissions (e.g. brake, tyre and road wear)
since the first judgement and daily fines
The judgment from the Court of Justice as traffic activity has increased.
until full compliance is achieved.
Greece will face the court for the first on Wednesday puts Hungary on a list of
time for breaching limits on PM10 in nine EU countries found guilty of illegal Source: Guardian, 16 February 2021.
Thessaloniki for most of the past 15 years. air pollution since 2011. Romania, Bul- Link to UK emissions inventory report: https://
The Commission concludes that efforts by garia, Portugal, Italy, Poland, Slovenia and www.gov.uk/government/statistics/emissions-
the Greek authorities have to date been Sweden all breached PM10 limits, while of-air-pollutants/emissions-of-air-pollutants-
France had illegal levels of NO₂. in-the-uk-1970-to-2018-summary
unsatisfactory and insufficient.
© BRIZMAKER/ SHUTTERSTOCK.COM
A letter of formal notice was sent to Source: Reuters, 3 February 2021.
France for not respecting a 2019 ECJ Link to ECJ press release: https://curia.europa.
judgment on compliance with nitrogen eu/jcms/upload/docs/application/pdf/2021-02/
dioxide (NO₂) limits in 12 air quality cp210012en.pdf
ACID NEWS NO. 1, MARCH 2021 7
EU Clean Air Outlook
The annual health benefits of additional measures needed to achieve the 2030 national emissions
ceilings are estimated at €12–43 billion, up to 31 times higher than the estimated costs.
The number of premature deaths due climate policy. Improvements made over emission control measures is illustrated
to air pollution will be reduced by more the last few years in the national emis- in alternative scenarios, called “MTFR”.
than half in 2030 compared to 2005, sion inventories are also accounted for. These scenarios should however be seen
provided that EU countries implement However, the most recent proposal by the as conservative, as they exclude premature
all air pollution and climate measures in Commission, to increase the EU’s climate scrapping of existing capital stock and
existing EU legislation, according to a ambition by reducing greenhouse gases by assume no further technological progress
new analysis published by the European 55% by 2030, is not part of the baseline up to 2050.
Commission. The report also stresses scenarios in the analysis, but is reflected To explore the impacts of additional
that more could be done, as there are as a separate policy scenario. climate policy scenarios, two decarbonisa-
still plenty of measures for reducing air tion scenarios, called “1.5 TECH” and “1.5
pollution that would bring more benefits Emission scenarios LIFE” were analysed. Both scenarios are
than costs to society. Based on the above-mentioned information, designed to achieve net-zero greenhouse
Published on 8 January 2021, the Sec- two new baseline emission scenarios were gas emissions by 2050.
ond EU Clean Air Outlook report looks produced, one business-as-usual, called
at the prospects for EU air quality up to “CAO2”, and one that includes the ad- Impacts
2050. It follows on from the 2013 Clean ditional measures and policies envisaged After full implementation of the emis-
Air Programme proposal for a regular in the reported NAPCPs, called “NAPCP” sion reduction requirements of the NEC
update of the air quality situation in the (see AN 3/20, pp. 24–25). The resulting directive, the share of the EU population
EU, and builds on an analysis prepared by emissions in 2030 under these baseline exposed to PM2.5 concentrations above
the Commission’s consultant IIASA. The scenarios show whether countries are on the World Health Organization’s (WHO)
First Clean Air Outlook was published track to meet the 2030 emission reduction guideline of 10 µg/m³ is expected to drop
in June 2018. requirements (ERR) of the NEC directive significantly, to around 12 per cent in
The NEC directive requires each member or not. Changes in total EU-27 emissions 2030. Cases of premature deaths due to
country to cut emissions of five major air for the various scenarios are shown in excessive levels of PM2.5 and ozone would
pollutants in two steps, by 2020 and by Table 1 (country-by-country figures can come down by 56 per cent, from 409,000
2030. The pollutants covered are sulphur be found in the report). in 2005 to 180,000 in 2030.
dioxide (SO₂), nitrogen oxides (NOx), It was shown that for both scenarios In the MTFR scenario, the share of
non-methane volatile organic compounds only a handful of countries will have the EU population exposed to PM2.5
(VOC), ammonia (NH₃) and particulate to take additional measures to meet concentrations above the WHO’s guide-
matter (PM2.5). their emission ceilings for SO₂, NOx, line would be reduced to 4 per cent,
The study analyses the effect of new VOC s and PM 2.5 . For NH ₃, on the and cases of premature deaths due to
measures to reduce air pollutant emissions other hand, the analysis showed that PM2.5 and ozone would come down to
from different sources put in place since additional measures would be needed 148,000 in 2030.
the First Clean Air Outlook, including for most member states to meet their But smaller improvements are expected
measures reported in the member states’ emission ceilings. for ecosystems, especially for impacts on
National Air Pollution Control Pro- The scope of air pollutant emission biodiversity resulting from an oversupply
grammes (NAPCP) and changes resulting reductions that could be achieved through of airborne nitrogen compounds. In 2005
from the 2018 updated EU energy and full application of available technical around 76 per cent (470,000 km2) of the
EU’s protected ecosystem area was exposed
Table 1. Total EU-27 emissions in 2005 (kilotons); National emission reduction commitments to excess nitrogen deposition. By 2030, this
for 2030; Changes in emissions by 2030 under three scenarios.
figure is expected to come down only by
2005 2030 2030 scenarios approximately one quarter, to 359,000 km2,
NECD CAO2 NAPCP MTFR equivalent to 58 per cent of Natura2000
SO2 6803 -78% -85% -85% -90% nature protection areas. The main reason
NOx 9673 -61% -70% -70% -73% for this limited improvement is the NEC
VOC 7565 -41% -48% -49% -64% directive’s significantly lower ambition
PM2.5 1665 -50% -60% -61% -74% level for reducing ammonia emissions
NH3 3790 -19% -8% -19% -37%
from agriculture.
8 ACID NEWS NO. 1, MARCH 2021
Costs to €713–2005 billion in the EU. By 2030, were not included in this valuation. This
Implementing the policies and measures full implementation of current legislation applies, for example, to reduced damage
announced by member states in their is expected to reduce these costs by more to health from nitrogen dioxide (NO₂
NAPCPs is estimated to cost about €1.4 than 50 per cent. exposure and impacts identified on de-
billion per year in 2030, and the annual The incremental annual health benefits mentia, obesity and diabetes.
costs for implementing all the available resulting from additional measures of the Air pollution damage to crops, forests,
technical measures (MTFR) is estimated NAPCPs amount to €11.8–42.7 billion, ecosystems and materials was estimated
at about €25.6 billion in 2030. while those of implementing all the avail- to amount to €44–53 billion in the EU
able technical measures (MTFR) amount in 2005, and the incremental annual
Monetised benefits to €63–226 billion. monetised benefits of implementing the
Total annual health costs of air pollution For various reasons some of the health NAPCPs and the MTFR in 2030 were
in 2005 have been estimated to amount benefits from less air pollution exposure estimated at €0.3–0.9 billion and €2.3–4.2
© QUALITY STOCK ARTS/ SHUTTERSTOCK.COM
Table 2. Comparison of incremental annual costs and benefits for the EU-27 in 2030 of two of
the scenarios analysed (million euro).
NAPCP MTFR
Median VOLY
Benefits 12,678 67,296
Costs 1,349 25,629
Net benefits 11,329 41,667
Benefit-to-cost ratio 9.4 2.6
Mean VSL
Benefits 43,570 230,332
Costs 1,349 25,629
Net benefits 42,227 204,703
Benefit-to-cost ratio 32.3 9.0
Note: Specifically for mortality impacts, a lower and a higher value were used, the former being based
on the value of a life year lost (VOLY) and the latter on the value of a statistical life (VSL).narios analysed
(million euro).
billion, respectively. Figures in Table 3 promote more sustainable heating and and even more measures need to be in-
include benefits to health and to crops, cooling solutions, as well as measures in troduced in many member states.”
forests, ecosystems and materials. support of clean transport. But measures EU Environment Commissioner Virgini-
It should be noted that the benefit that increase the combustion of bioenergy, jus Sinkevicius said that it is “paramount
analysis was limited geographically to especially in devices without adequate that all member states fully implement
the EU’s 27 member countries, which emissions abatement technologies, are the agreed and planned measures and step
means that no allowance was made for said to be detrimental to clean air and up efforts to tackle emissions. Further
the positive effects of reducing emissions need to be avoided. reducing air pollution would save more
in the EU on health and the environment Methane, black carbon and ozone are of lives, reduce pressure on ecosystems and
in non-EU countries. concern both for air quality and climate it makes economic sense.”
change, and the Commission “underlines
Links to climate policy the need to continue working on reduc- Christer Ågren
By avoiding the need to undertake some ing emissions of air pollutant precursors,
air pollution abatement measures, climate particularly methane.” It also said that Sources:
mitigation actions taken under the sce- the review of the NEC Directive (due by The Second Clean Air Outlook. Report from the
narios “1.5 TECH” and “1.5 LIFE” result 2025) will explore the possible inclusion of Commission to the European Parliament, the Coun-
in cost savings for air pollution control. methane among its regulated pollutants. cil, the European Economic and Social Committee
Of the climate scenarios, the one that and the Committee of the Regions. COM(2021)3
reflects a move towards a circular economy Next steps (8 January 2021).
and lifestyle change contributes most to The Commission concludes that ammonia Support to the development of the Second Clean
reducing air pollutant emissions. The best emissions from agriculture remain an Air Outlook. Main report + annex. IIASA. (Decem-
measures are those that boost energy outstanding issue, and that “the additional ber 2020).
efficiency, increase the share of non- measures announced by member states in The reports are available at: http://ec.europa.eu/
combustible renewables, improve the their NAPCPs need to be implemented environment/air/clean_air/outlook.htm
energy performance of buildings and without delay to reduce these emissions,
ACID NEWS NO. 1, MARCH 2021 9
Renewables have reduced
environmental pressures in EU
A new study shows that the increase in renewable electricity has reduced the EU’s climate
change impact as well as land, air and water pollution. Targeted actions will further reduce
environmental impacts of the energy transtition.
The European Green Deal puts climate The European Environment Agency (EEA) acidification of soils and land occupation.
change mitigation at the core of its en- has investigated the impact which this Going beyond climate mitigation, a
deavours to sustainably recover from the transition will have in a wider focus. The detailed life-cycle analysis was undertaken
Covid-19 pandemic. By 2030, 70 percent study assessed the impact of all electric- to calculate global changes in overall
of electricity should be generated from ity generation technologies on climate environmental impacts associated with
renewable sources to enable the necessary change, freshwater eutrophication and the trends in the EU power mix between
reductions in greenhouse gases by 2050. ecotoxicity, particulate matter formation, 2005 and 2018. The aim was to estimate
how key environmental impacts had
changed by 2018, thanks to the increase
in renewable sources in the electricity
supply mix across the EU, relative to the
benchmark year 2005.
EEA studied 16 power generation
methods, of which coal, natural gas and oil
had the biggest life-cycle impacts on the
environment. EEA energy and environ-
ment expert Mihai Tomescu stated that
“Coal generation has by far the highest
impact intensity overall, leading to most
impacts across the categories that we
looked at and across all years”. The ma-
jority of the EU’s electricity is now free
from coal, and some EU countries, most
recently Portugal, have pledged to close
coal plants. However, other member states,
like Poland, still have no date set for when
they will finish using coal.
The increase in renewable electricity
generation had significantly decreased
life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions at the
EU level. In fact, for most of the impact
categories investigated, the switch from
fossil fuel to renewable electricity sources
resulted in clear improvements in 2018,
compared with 2005. At the EU level, the
life-cycle impact potentials of eutrophi-
cation, particulate matter formation and
acidification were all lower in 2018 than
in 2005.
Freshwater ecotoxicity and land oc-
cupation are the two exceptions to that
trend, the EEA notes. The life-cycle impact
intensities of these are more evenly spread
across renewable and non-renewable
sources. Increasing rates of household
© LIGHTSPRING/ SHUTTERSTOCK.COM
10 ACID NEWS NO. 1, MARCH 2021waste incineration, which counts as a emission intensity of solar PV components. substantially increasing renewable energy
renewable electricity source, have increased For biodegradable municipal solid waste, are a must for a net-zero energy system
the potential for freshwater ecotoxicity, almost all ecotoxicity impact potentials and this study underlines the benefits of
while sourcing more power from “solid arise from the incineration process itself. this transition for our climate and our
biomass”, such as wood, has almost dou- This means there are potential opportu- economy, while proposing ways to mitigate
bled the amount of land area needed by nities to mitigate impacts by adopting potential negative environmental impacts
the sector since 2005. more advanced abatement technologies. of renewables.”Trio added that “Renewable
In addition, the study highlights that Similarly, for particulate matter formation projects are set to grow. Hence, we need
there are ways to decrease the relative and linked to biomass fuels, process emission the right framework to steer investments
total impact intensities of renewables. The contributions are highest during burning, in renewables in the coming years while
relatively high impact intensity of solar indicating a potential to install further ensuring that we opt for the most sustain-
photovoltaics (PV) on ecotoxicity arises emission control measures. able deployment of renewables in Europe.
from emissions of mining processing Green MEP Jutta Paulus called on the Climate, energy and biodiversity policies
metals and chlorine from the purifica- European Commission to “further minimise should reinforce each other.”
tion of solar-grade silicon. This impact the negative impact of renewables” when it Overall, the study makes clear that the
can be decreased by reducing demand for amends key energy and waste legislation shift away from coal power, by far the most
raw materials, for example through better this year. She added: “It is intolerable that environmentally destructive way of produc-
end-of-life material recovery. member states are cutting down forests to ing electricity, and towards renewables and
Considering the worldwide surge in PV make their carbon footprint appear better natural gas explains the improvements in
deployment and an average lifetime of 30 than it is. That’s why we need science-based the sector’s impact.
years for solar panels, waste volumes are targets for sustainable biomass use.”
certain to increase more rapidly after 2030. Demand-side management to reduce Emilia Samuelsson
End-of-life recycling will help finance the the need for standby generation during
future of the solar power industry. Pleas- peak consumption, measures to improve Sources:
ingly, progress in this field has been rapid energy and resource efficiency across end EEA, 2021, EU renewable electricity has reduced
and some processes claim recovery rates use sectors, and more sustainable, circular environmental pressures; targeted actions help
as high as 99 percent for the raw materi- business models could further reduce further reduce impacts, European Environment
als employed in solar panel manufacture. some of the potential negative impacts Agency Briefing no. 32/2020, accessed 30 Janu-
Solar PV power’s greenhouse gas impact associated with the transition to renew- ary 2021.
intensity is also among the highest of all able power supplies, while simultaneously Pickstone, S. (2021). EEA highlights multiple
renewable sources across the value chain. increasing their cost-effectiveness. For green benefits of renewables. Accessed 31
As the construction of solar PV modules non-combustible power sources, measures January 2021,https://www.endseurope.com/
article/1704836/eea-highlights-multiple-green-
requires both heat and electricity, and also include lifetime extensions to reduce
benefits-renewables
takes place globally, the cumulative effect the emission intensity linked to upstream
Taylor, Kira (2021). Shift to renewables ‘significantly
leads to relatively high total emissions and downstream processes.
decreased’ emissions, EU agency says. Accessed 31
of greenhouse gases. Increasing reliance Wendel Trio, director of Climate Action January 2021. https://www.euractiv.com/section/
on renewable energy in manufacturing Network (CAN) Europe, commented: energy/news/shift-to-renewables-significantly-
processes would help to bring down the “Strongly reducing energy consumption and decreased-emissions-eu-agency-says/
Major emitters of air pol- (agriculture, industry, transportation, heating was also ranked low in people’s
lution often overlooked domestic heating, domestic waste and perceptions, but it is a significant source
in all seven countries, especially in Poland
others).
A new study compared the public per- The top choices by respondents were and Italy.
ception of air pollution sources with industry and traffic. But the reality is The researchers concluded that bet-
the real-world situation. This was done very different. The main source of particle ter communication between scientists,
through a survey carried out in seven pollution in six out of the seven coun- politicians, the media and the public
European countries (Austria, Belgium, tries is agriculture, but this is frequently is needed.
Germany, Italy, Poland, Sweden and the overlooked since agriculture emits little
United Kingdom) and involving more particle pollution directly. However, Source: The Guardian, 15 January 2021
than 16,000 respondents, in which they ammonia emissions from livestock and Link to the study “Public perception of air pollution
could choose two main sources/sectors fertiliser react in the atmosphere to sources across Europe”: https://doi.org/10.1007/
considered as primarily responsible for produce so-called secondary particles. s13280-020-01450-5
air pollution out of a list of six options Domestic solid-fuel burning for home
ACID NEWS NO. 1, MARCH 2021 11© ALEXANDROS MICHAILIDIS/ SHUTTERSTOCK.COM EU countries falling short of air pollution targets All but two EU member states have failed to show how they will cut air pollution to comply with the National Emission Ceilings Directive, a troubling new report finds. A new study by the European delivered their programmes and Italy has member states have fallen so short of Environmental Bureau (EEB) has ana- only submitted a draft. their commitments to reduce air pollution lysed progress by member states towards On top of the delays, the report highlights over this critical decade,” said the EEB’s compliance with the National Emission shortcomings and failures regarding the Senior Policy Officer for Air and Noise, Ceilings (NEC) Directive, which aims completeness of national reporting, the Margherita Tolotto. “We call on the Eu- to halve the impact of air pollution on credibility of the national programmes, ropean Commission to start infringement people’s health by 2030. and public participation. procedures against all the member states When the NEC Directive was adopted Moreover, the analysis show that only which have failed to submit a credible in 2016, EU member state governments two EU countries (Belgium and Slovakia) programme, and to ensure that all plans promised to reduce their emissions of appear to be on track to comply with their are fit for purpose.” five major air pollutants in two steps, by first-step emission reduction commit- In November, the European Envi- 2020 and 2030, and to put in place Na- ments (ERCs) for 2020–29, and only one ronment Agency (EEA) confirmed air tional Air Pollution Control Programmes (Belgium) with the second step ERCs for pollution remains the biggest environ- (NAPCPs) outlining how those objectives 2030. The remaining countries are judged mental health risk in Europe, causing will be achieved. to be either at a medium or high risk of around 400,000 premature deaths per The reporting deadline for the first non-compliance for all pollutants, with year in the EU (see AN 4/20, pp. 18–19). NAPCPs was 1 April 2019, but 20 coun- more than half of the member states at Although some effective measures have tries failed to submit their national air high risk of non-compliance for 2030 been rolled out in the road transport and pollution control programmes by this date onwards. energy sectors, emission reductions are and, over a year and half later, Greece, “With our health and environment way too slow, especially when it comes to Luxembourg and Romania have still not at stake, it is a scandal that all but two agriculture and domestic heating. 12 ACID NEWS NO. 1, MARCH 2021
© 19BPRODUCTION/ SHUTTERSTOCK.COM
Agriculture stands out in particular
as the sector governments were afraid
Close links between air
to tackle, where reduction targets for pollution and climate
ammonia emissions are most likely to action
be missed. This is especially worrying as
emissions from farming have increased Actions taken to reduce emissions of air
in recent years. pollutants and greenhouse gases often
For the EEB’s Secretary General, Jeremy address the same economic sectors but
Wates, “this points to a big problem with are reported separately under different
the governance around agriculture at the EU legislation.
EU level.” A new briefing from the European
“Agriculture is not only a significant Environment Agency (EEA) presents
source of air pollution, but also the an overview of the latest policies and
single biggest driver of biodiversity loss measures reported by member states
in Europe, and it accounts for 10–15 to tackle air pollution, and also looks
per cent of the EU’s contribution to at synergies with the policies reported Source: EEA, 10 December 2020.
climate change. Yet the sector is not under the EU Regulation on a mecha-
The EEA briefing “Measures to reduce emissions of
effectively addressed, and the way the nism for monitoring and reporting
air pollutants and greenhouse gases: the potential
CAP negotiations are going is looking greenhouse gas emissions (Monitoring for synergies” is available at: https://www.eea.
pretty bad,” Wates warned. Mechanism Regulation), highlighting europa.eu/themes/air/air-pollution-sources-1/
Domestic heating is also a key sector to the importance of coherence between national-emission-ceilings/actions-to-reduce-
these domains. air-pollutant
address if governments are to respect the
reduction targets for fine particles (PM2.5),
which is one of the most hazardous air
pollutants.
The EEB report explores what went Ocean Acidification Action Week initated by the BALSAM-project, 3-9 May 2021
wrong and provides tools and recom-
Ocean Acidification (OA) caused by carbon dioxide from the burning of fossil fuels
mendations to rectify the dire situation,
puts our seas at danger. Corals, cod, salmon, shrimps and shellfish are among the
including the steps to be taken and
organisms at peril, together with whole ecosystems. The threats to nature are also
measures to be included by member states a great concern for humans, and affect everyone who benefits from nature and
when preparing appropriate NAPCPs. the sea – for work, for leisure, and for inspiration.
“We ask national governments to tackle The NGOs working in the BALSAM project strongly encourage other NGOs and
air pollution with the urgency it deserves, all those concerned about our seas to take action to highlight OA – a phenome-
by putting in place the necessary national non that is still not well known to everyone. Although the Covid pandemic still
programmes and sticking to them. As many affects our lives, we hope to establish creative contacts with fishermen, schools,
of them prepare their National Recovery artists, museums, journalists and the like, to raise awareness of OA – during the
and Resilience Plans, air quality must be Action Week and otherwise.
a priority,” said Tolotto. Materials for dissemination will be made available under the heading “Ocean
The European Commission is requested Acidification Working Group” on www.airclim.org.
The BALSAM project is funded by the Swedish Institute.
to enforce a quick resubmission of NAPCPs
for those member states that were found
to have a high risk of non-compliance
in the Commission’s assessment, and
to propose additional EU-wide actions
Decarbonising the ship- for deploying sustainable zero-carbon
that could help improve the situation, in ping industry technologies and fuels in shipping. As
particular to reduce agricultural ammonia global shipping will require between $70
Environmental group Transport and and 90 billion in annual investments over
emissions. Environment (T&E) has expressed the next 20 years to fully decarbonise
support for the Commission’s initiative by 2050, a dedicated support scheme
Christer Ågren to develop a carbon pricing scheme for for the maritime sector should be set
the maritime sector, as it sends a clear up. A new T&E briefing outlines how
Sources: EEB press release and META article, 18 signal to the market that polluters need
December 2020. this can be done.
to pay. Including shipping in the EU
The report “National Air Pollution Control Pro- emission trading system ( ETS) will
Source: T&E News, 5 February 2021.
grammes: analysis and suggestions for the way allow for the internalisation of climate
forward” is available at: https://eeb.org/library/ Link to T&E briefing: https://www.transporten-
externalities.
national-air-pollution-control-programmes- vironment.org/publications/how-decarbonise-
analysis-and-suggestions-for-the-way-forward/ Crucially, the maritime ETS will
shipping-industry
raise revenues that will be essential
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