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Nigerian Veterinary Journal 38(1). 2017 Raheem
NIGERIAN VETERINARY JOURNAL
ISSN 0331-3026
Nig. Vet. J., March 2017 Vol 38 (1): 57-68.
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
An Audit of Castration of Male Dogs in Enugu Metropolis, South
Eastern Nigeria
Raheem, K. A.
1
Department of Veterinary Surgery & Theriogenology Michael Okpara University of Agriculture, Umudike,
Nigeria; *Corresponding author: Email: ka.raheem@mouau.edu.ng; Tel No:+2349031310693
SUMMARY
Dog, though a major companion or pet animal in Nigeria house-hold is kept for various reasons
ranging from security, breeding business, sports and recreationto hunting as well as source of
meat. This study was conducted to i) estimate the prevalence of castration in dogs,ii) determine
the influence of breed on the likelihood of castration and iii) evaluate the reasons for castration
using the record of dogs presented to two private veterinary practices between January 2006 to
December 2010 in Enugu, South-East Nigeria. Three hundred and twenty seven (327) dogs aged
between 1 to 36 months out of the 2112 dogs presented for treatment were castrated during the 5-
year retrospective study. The Nigeria local dogs accounted for 64% of the total dogs castrated,
followed by crossbreed and then German Shepherd with 29% and 5% respectively. Other foreign
breeds accounted for 2% of the castrate. The commonest age of castration was 3-6 months (49%)
and the least age group castrated was the ‘> 1 year’ age group (8%).The most favoured reason of
castration was to increase the body weight (36%), followed by reduction in the straying ability or
roaming (24%) and then for increase or decrease in aggression with14% and 10% respectively.
Only 16% of the dogs were castrated for the purpose of preventing in-breeding. In-breeding
prevention was achieved in 100% of dogs castrated for this purpose. 87% of dogs had increase in
body weight, while roaming and aggression were reduced in 79% and 50% respectively.
Increased aggression was seen in 29% of dogs castrated for this purpose. The study showed that
breed had a significant (PNigerian Veterinary Journal 38(1). 2017 Raheem
research and for companionship. There are neutering of dogs and cats covering issues
about 78 million dogs in United States and like age, anaesthetic procedure, pre and
about 8.5 million in United Kingdom post-operative care and others (Looney et
(FEDIAF, 2010) against human populations al., 2008).
of about 302 and 62million respectively. Castration of dog has its own advantages
Presently, there is no clear record on the and disadvantages. Among the benefits of
population of dogs in Nigeria. Meseko castration are reduced incidence of
(2010) speculated a population between 2 to reproductive tract (testicular and prostatic)
5 million. Considering the estimated dog diseases, decreased incidence of
population density of 1:13 dog per reproductive behaviours and possible
household in Ilorin alone using aerial increased longevity and reduced roaming.
photographs (Aiyedun and Olugasa, 2012), On the contrary, castration may prone a dog
it is reasonable to believe that that the to increased incidence of hematologic, bone
number of dogs in Nigeria is far more than and prostate cancer, predisposition to knee
10 million. injury and obesity (Mckenzie, 2010) as well
Male dog at puberty displays characteristic as associated post-operative complications.
features of marking his territory by spraying There are bodies of contentious information
strong-smelling urine around his posted on the internet by interested and
surroundings while following his natural sometimes lay persons on the subject matter
hormonal instincts in roaming to find bitches of castration. Many studies related to best
on oestrus (heat). Castration otherwise age of castration have been also been
known as orchidectomy is the surgical conducted and documented. However, few
removal of the testes and a permanent way of such studies on this subject are found in
of making a male dog infertile. It is one of Nigeria. In this study, a 5-year retrospective
the most common simple surgical audit of dogs castrated within Enugu
procedures done by veterinarians across the Metropolis was carried out with objectives
globe. Castration of male dog is done for of i) evaluating the influence of breed on the
different reasons that include canine incidence of castration, ii) examine the
population control, medical health benefit, major reasons for castration as well as iii) to
genetic-disease control and behavioural appropriately inform on some controversial
modification. issues as regards castration from a
Perception towards castration varies from Theriogenologist’s point of view.
one country to another. When it is widely
encouraged and promoted in some countries MATERIALS AND METHODS
like the US, it is disliked and discouraged in Study Area
most European countries. At least, it has Enugu, the area considered in this study, is
been declared illegal in Norway (Farstad, the capital of Enugu state and was the
2011), possibly because dogs’ population is former capital of the Eastern region of
not a problem in these countries. Millions of Nigeria. There are 3 local government areas
healthy dogs are euthanized every year in (out of 17 in Enugu State) in Enugu
the US (Patronek and Rowan, 1995), Metropolis, namely Enugu East, Enugu
therefore castration is a good measure of South and Enugu North LGs with a
population control. When the Nigeria population of 722,664 people according to
Veterinary Medical Association has no the 2006 Nigerian census (NPC, 2006).
official statement as regards castration yet, Majority of the Enugu residents are Igbo and
American and British Veterinary Medical of Christian faith with no cultural or
Associations have blueprint guidelines on religious bias against keeping dog.
58Nigerian Veterinary Journal 38(1). 2017 Raheem
Data Collection Data Presentation and Analysis
The clinic record books of two veterinary Data were presented with descriptive
practices located within Enugu metropolis statistics, frequency and percentage. The
were studied to appraise the cases of dogs influence of breed on the likelihood of
presented for castration. The periods under castration was done using Chi square with
study were January 2006 to December 2010. SPSS 18.0 for Windows (Chicago, IL,
The dogs were classified into breed and age. USA). P value less than 0.05 was considered
Method of castration and any post castration significant.
complications were also noted. Then after, a
questionnaire was designed to evaluate the RESULTS
contentment or satisfaction of the owners Influence of Breed on Castration
over their dogs after the castration. Out of the 2112 dogs presented for treatment
in the two clinics within the period of study,
The Structured Questionnaire the crossbreed occupied the highest number
The questionnaire was administered with 85 (775) presented, followed by local dogs
castrated dogs’ owners residing within (485) and then German shepherd (396). The
Enugu metropolis to find out the motives for foreign breeds (127) were the least category
castration, health status of their dogs after presented. 327 that represented 15.5% of the
castration and to know if they were total canine cases handled were presented
contented with their dogs or had a remorse for castration (Figure I). There is significant
feeling for doing so possibly because the (X2 = 145.8; PNigerian Veterinary Journal 38(1). 2017 Raheem
2). The only method of castration employed aggression were envisaged in 14% and 10%
by the veterinarians in this study was respectively.
surgical method that involved usage of local
anaesthesia such as lignocaine infused into Attainment of the desired
the scrotum prior to surgery. Also, no post- behavioural/developmental changes after
operative complication was recorded. castration
The in-breeding purpose was achieved in
Age at Castration 100% of the dogs castrated for this purpose,
The data on ages at castration is presented in while reduced aggression was observed only
Figure 3. The results showed that 3-6 in 50% of dogs castrated, whereas 29% of
months age category constituted the highest the dogs exhibited increased aggression
age of castration, representing 49% age of (Figure 5). Reduction of roaming and
the total dogs castrated during this period. increase in body weight were achieved in
This was followed by 6 months-12 months 79% and 87% of dogs after castration
(25%), while Less than 12 weeks had 18%. respectively.
The least age category of dogs castrated was
‘the more than one year’ age group with 8%. DISCUSSION
Dogs’ castration is an issue that continues to
Reasons for castration generate argument between supporters of
Dogs’ owners castrated their dogs for animal welfare, veterinarians and the general
various reasons ranging from increasing public. When castration is promoted in
body weight or aggression, reducing United States basically because of
roaming or to avoid in-breeding between population control, most dogs in UK are
male and female dogs from the same intact because dogs’ expert advocate against
parents. This is shown in Figure 4. this practice. To the best of my knowledge,
Increasing body weight accounted for the this is the first study evaluating the
highest reason with 36% of the 327 incidence of castration in dogs in Nigeria.
castrates. This was followed by reduction in Other reports have dealt with dogs’
roaming (24%) and then prevention of in- population and control, however, there is
breeding (16%). Increase and decrease
Figure 3: Bar chart presentation of the ages of Figure 4: Pie Chart representations of various
dogs at castration (n=327) in Enugu, South- reasons for castrating dogs (n=327) in Enugu
Eastern Nigeria metropolis, South-eastern Nigeria
60Nigerian Veterinary Journal 38(1). 2017 Raheem
dearth of information on incidence of
castration in dogs in Nigeria particularly in
Enugu, Eastern Nigeria. Enugu was chosen
because majority of the residents are
Christians, which unlike Islam, has no
religious restriction against keeping dogs as
pets. Therefore, the city may possibly have
one of the highest dog populations in
Nigeria.
The percentage incidence of castration in
this study is at par with 17% incidence
reported for Nsukka (Eze and Eze, 2002),
however, it is lower than 33% incidence
reported in the South-western, Nigeria
(Ajala and Fayemi, 2011). Reichler (2008)
reported incidence of castration of 12% Figure 5: Bar chart presentation of attainment of
(8508), 6% (4510) 25% (6473) in France, intended behavioural /developmental change in
Spain and Germany respectively. The results dogs after castration (n= 85)
also indicated that the local mongrel few of foreign breeds castrated in this study
represented the highest number of dogs were owned by white men or indigenous
castrated during the period under study. This clients having other male dogs at home.
is expected as the local breed constitutes the The only method of castration found in this
greatest number of dogs’ population in study was open castration with local
Nigeria. On the contrary, the crossbreed had anaesthesia such as lignocaine/lidocaine
the highest number of dogs presented for infiltrated into the scrotum. Open castration
treatment as was earlier reported by Ajala involves the removal of the external
and Fayemi (2011). This is possibly due to genitalia -the testis, epididymis, vas deferens
the economic and educational status of those and some parts of the cremester muscles.
owning the crossbreeds. The crossbreed was The internal genital organs like the prostate
second to local mongrel on the number gland, urethra, penis, bulbis glandis and
castrated, while German Shepherd and other much of the dog's testicular blood vessels
foreign breeds were the least castrated, are left intact. Testis plays dual roles of
altogether being 7% of the total (327) exocrine and endocrine organ by producing
castrated during the period under the study. spermatozoa and testosterone respectively
There are other foreign breeds in Nigeria (Senger, 2005). Without the spermatozoa,
such as Rottweiler, Great Dane, Dalmatian the dog is infertile, while the testosterone is
and Bull Mastiff. German Shepherd is a proposed to mediate the male behaviour
foreign breed as well, however, is patterns such as roaming (partly in search of
considered singly on its own in this study oestrus bitch), aggression, inter-male
because the breed is the most popular aggression and dominance. This method of
foreign breed found in Nigeria. The owners castration is simple with minimal equipment
of these foreign breeds make money by and least time consuming, though it is not
using their dogs to serve other bitches without post-operative complications such
during oestrus. The price of such service as scrotal swelling especially when used in
varies from one place to another and in some older dogs. Complication rates for routine
places may include taking one of the castration ranged from 2.6% to 20% of the
puppies when the mated bitch whelps. The cases, majority of which were minor and
61Nigerian Veterinary Journal 38(1). 2017 Raheem
require no treatment and mostly observed Aitken (2014) noted paucity of funding for
with surgeries performed by students in contraceptive research in human and
training (Burrow et al., 2005; Pollari et al., regretted that development of wider
1996). However, no complication was acceptable contraceptives could have saved
observed in the present study. more lives than the number of deaths
As biotechnology and medicine continue to recorded for cancer. It is worthwhile to
advance, other convenient methods such as mention the Found Animal Foundation, a
hormonal implants, immune-contraceptive, non-profit US-based agency that is currently
vaccines and chemical reagents have been sponsoring research towards this
tried to induce sterility in dogs, however, not breakthrough in dog and cat to the tune of
all are found satisfactory in the parlance of $75 million. The fund is sought under the
animal welfare (ACC&D, 2013). Progestins name Michelson Prize and grants, and it is
(progesterone-like compounds) are the most accessible via the link;
common compounds used to control (http://www.michelsonprizeandgrants.org/m
oestrous cycle in the female dog (ACC&D, ichelson-grants).
2013). Such compounds include In this study, there was no disease associated
chlormadinone acetate (CAP), delmadinone with castration from the results of 85 dogs
acetate (DMA), proligestone (PRO) and surveyed a year after the castration. In the
Megestrol acetate (MGA). The principle is literature, the reports of castration and
based on sustained increased plasma disease have been inconsistent and may
progesterone such that inhibits the depend on some factors such as (i) breed of
hypothalamus and hence release of dog, (ii) the type of disease and (iii) the time
gonadotropins that are essentially required the dog was castrated (pre or post puberty).
to return the animal to oestrus (Noakes et While castration promotes the incidence of
al., 2009). Chemicals such as zinc some diseases, it prevents and reduces the
gluconate/arginine were reported to induce incidence of others (Mckenzie, 2010).
azoospermia and disrupt spermatogenesis in Sexually transmitted diseases like
cat (Fagundes et al., 2014) and dog (Ngoka, transmissible venereal tumour, brucellosis
2013), sequel to which is sterility. Induction and camphylobacteriosis are reduced.
of castration was also shown with Castration has a prophylactic and
immunisation of male dog with recombinant therapeutic effect on androgen-dependent
gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)- diseases such as benign prostatic
canine distemper virus (CDV) T helper cell hyperplasia, chronic prostatitis, and perineal
epitope p35 (Jung et al., 2005). Trials on hernia (Reichler, 2009). Castration also
immune-contraceptive vaccines using prevents testicular and epididymal disorders
porcine zona pellucida vaccines derived such as testicular neoplasia, torsion of the
from porcine oocyte have also proved spermatic cord, orchitis and epididymitis
successful. There is no evidence of any of since these organs (testes, epididymis and
these methods in Nigeria veterinary practice. spermatic chord) have been removed.
Possibly, there are reports of such methods Castration may also reduce bacterial
for research purpose. Muhammed and James infection of prostate (Cowan et al., 1991).
(2013) reported successful use of Purit® Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPP) is the
(chlorhexidine gluconate and cetrimide) for most common disease of the prostate whose
castration in goats. Developing a convenient incidence increases with age from 15-40%
method of contraceptive with single, non- in dogs under 7 years and to 60-100% in
surgical method/treatment of neutering is a dogs over 7 years (Berry et al., 1986;
subject of many on-going bodies of Lowseth et al., 1990). Sometimes, BPP may
reproductive research across the globe. predispose to prostatitis in dogs. These two
62Nigerian Veterinary Journal 38(1). 2017 Raheem
conditions- BPP and prostatitis are beneficial than the traditional 6-8 months in
preventable and have been successfully male dogs whereas about 3 months was
treated by castration (Mukaratirwa et al., suggested for female because of urinary
2007). Some studies have implied the incontinence. On the contrary, evidence
tendency of castration to be associated with have shown that castration at a very early
certain diseases such as those connected age may prone a dog to bone pathologies
with obesity and bone. Even though some of such as hip dysplasia since testis produces
these diseases may have some underlying testosterone that plays crucial roles in body
factors, castration have been identified as processes including bone growth plate
increasing the risk of hip dysplasia and closure. The loss of testosterone at very
rupture of cruciate ligament (Genevois et al., earlier age may also interfere with
2008) simply because of increase in weight development of male sexual characteristic
of castrated dogs which bore down on the such as deep voice and chested muscles. The
legs. In diseases like prostate cancer, the two veterinarians in this study actually
effect of castration is not consistent (Fan and advocated for the period between 3-6
de Lormier, 2007; Sorenmo et al., 2003). A months, because that period is required for
body of studies has linked castration with the masculinity nature of the dog to be
cancer of the prostate (Teske et al., 2002). expressed through the influenced of
Generally, unexpected outcome related to testosterone. Therefore, a male castrated at
gonadectomy are becoming more observable early stage when the male features or
because companion animals are living characteristics have not been expressed
longer (Reichler, 2009). Therefore, it is because of low testosterone may fail to
possible that some of these diseases may not exhibit such masculine features after
necessarily be connected with castration but castration once the source of the testosterone
with senility. is removed. Testosterone administration into
The commonest age of castration in this male dogs increased skeletal muscle mass
study was found to be between 3-6 months and maximal voluntary strength (Nieschlag
(49%). This is attributed to the advice of the et al., 2012). In Nigeria, most dogs’ owners
veterinarians to the owners to allow the dogs take pride in having big and highly
to reach about 3 months before castration. masculine dogs with deep voice and
The optimal time for castrating dog is muscular chest. ‘Show me your pet, I will
controversial. Several decades before now, tell who you are’ is a common slogan in
the traditional age of castrating dogs was 6-9 Nigeria communities. This might have
months. There is no clear scientific basis for informed the decision of these Veterinarians
choosing this age. It seemed the practice in promoting castration at the most
actually arose from anaesthetic mortality in prominent age observed in this study.
younger animals in the first half of the The results of this study clearly demonstrate
twentieth century (Root, 2007). Recent that dogs were castrated for various reasons,
advancement in anaesthesia has eliminated the highest being to increase body weight,
this anaesthetic danger in small pups followed by reduction of roaming and then
(Faggella and Aronsohn, 1994). Therefore to moderate aggression. The enhancement of
many veterinary medical associations the body weight by castration is due to
including American Veterinary Medical reduction in metabolism of the dog due to
Association have consented to castrating low level testosterone post-castration such
pups as early as 8 to 16 weeks of age (Root, that food intakes are deposited to make body
2007). A retrospective study of Spain (2004) fat. If this is not taking into consideration,
involving 1842 dogs indicated that early the castrated dog gains much weight to an
castration before 5 months is more extent of becoming obese. Nigeria dogs’
63Nigerian Veterinary Journal 38(1). 2017 Raheem
owners are always proud of their dogs across the borders. Male dogs are reported to
looking robust and busty. Such features are be more valiant than female (Starling et al.,
considered as a prestige to the owners in 2013). It is also certain that castrates used
some localities in Nigeria. However, for guards are not likely to be lured away
increase in body weight is more of a from their security function by female on
function of nutritional level of the dog. oestrus. This possibly explains the reason
Therefore, it is reasonable to hypothesize why castrates were preferred to intact non-
that 13% of the dogs that failed to attain castrated dogs for security by Nsukka
increment in body weight in this study had residents as was reported by Eze and Eze
not been well-fed after castration. (2002).
This study also shows that a 100% Testis is the main source of testosterone and
attainment of envisaged behavioural/ its removal unequivocally reduces the
developmental changes was not feasible amount of plasma testosterone (Xia et al.,
except in prevention of inbreeding. This is 2013). The testosterone influences the male
logical as the testis that produces dog behavioural trait and pattern including
spermatozoa essentially required for urine marking and roaming. This is logical
fertilisation of the ova has been removed. as one major reason for roaming is finding
Effect of castration on aggression is both bitches on oestrus. Therefore, reduction in
positive and negative in this study with the circulating testosterone is associated
reduction effect (50%) higher than increase with reduction in sexual desire (Noakes et
(29%). This is at par with previous studies. al., 2009). Generally, behavioural changes
Most studies have found intact male dogs to in dogs may also be influenced by some
be disproportionately involved in aggressive other factors such as environment, time
behaviour (Borchelt, 1983). Others have factor and other dogs (Heidenberger &
reported marked reductions in aggression Unshelm 1990). The positive and negative
and other problems of behaviours in male effect of castration on aggression as
dogs as effects of castration. A previous observed in this study suggests that
study showed reduction in roaming aggression may be more genetically inclined
behaviour (90%), aggression between males than the state of the gonads.
(62%), urine marking (50%) and mounting Dog industry is actually becoming a
(80%) following castration (Hopkins et al., booming industry in Nigeria contributing to
1976). The reduction of roaming in this the Nigeria economy in terms of creating
study is also similar to 90% reduction wealth and providing employment
reported by Gunzel-Apel (1998). Some opportunities to the teaming youths. A good
studies have also reported intact dogs are number of Nigerians earn their livelihood
more likely to bite humans than neutered through breeding of dogs especially the
animals (Gershman et al., 1994). In Nigeria, foreign breeds. Some are also involved in
one of the most common reasons for dogs’ training and care, not to mention the
keeping dogs is for security. Castrated male veterinary care and sales of dog food and
dogs are in better position to perform this accessories. In some part of Nigeria, dog
function. Most security outfits private or meat is regarded as a delicacy. At the
public employ the service of dogs. The moment, however, there is no regulation on
Nigeria Police, Nigeria Army, The Nigeria control of dogs’ population and breeding in
Customand Nigeria Immigration have dogs’ Nigeria. Neither is there a concrete strategy
unit to assist in performing their statutory to reduce straying dogs. The public health
roles of safeguarding the lives and properties implication of indiscriminate breeding
of citizenry, as well as in maintaining especially of stray dogs with attendant
peaceful and legal passage of citizens/goods uncontrolled dogs’ population is increase in
64Nigerian Veterinary Journal 38(1). 2017 Raheem
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