MARKET INTELLIGENCE REPORT - COBRA
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MARKET INTELLIGENCE REPORT
KEY TECHNICAL, POLICY AND MARKET
DEVELOPMENTS INFLUENCING THE ELECTRIC
VEHICLE BATTERY LANDSCAPE
CURATED BY
MAARTEN BUYSSE
MARCOS IERIDES
BEATRIZ PÉREZ &
AMY MCCREADY
ENVIRONMENTAL
ENVIRONMENTALAND ANDSOCIAL IMPACTS
SOCIAL OFOF
IMPACTS LI-ION BATTERIES:
LI-ION BATTERIES
MAY-JUNE 2021 EDITION
MAY-JUNE 2021
M ARK ET I NT E LLI G E N C E RE P O RT
I NT R O DU CT IO N
Elec tric ve hicle s d o n o t d i re c t l y e m i t CO2 . Howeve r, th e g e n e rati o n o f e l e c tri ci ty to charge th eir
Li-ion batte rie s d o e s. M o re i m p o r t a n t l y, th o ug h, th e m anufa c turi n g o f L i - i o n batte ri e s h a s con -
s iderable e nv iro n m e n t a l a n d so c i e t a l i m pa c t . O n o n e han d , m anufa c turi n g p ro ce sse s are h igh ly
en erg y-inte ns ive , w h i ch l ea d s to CO2 e m i s si o ns an d n e g ati ve e nv i ro nm e ntal i m pa c ts. O n th e oth er
ha n d , batte rie s co n t a i n raw m a te ri a l s su ch as co bal t , l i thi um , m an g an e se , g rap hi te , an d n ickel, of
wh ich t h e minin g a n d p ro ce ssi n g e n t a i l a n e g ati ve i m pa c t o n b o th l o cal so ci e ti e s an d e cosys tems .
M inin g o pe rat io ns fo r co ba l t i n t h e D e m o crati c Re p ub l i c o f Co n g o have o f te n b e e n a ccus ed of us -
in g ar t is anal m in e rs a n d ch i l d l a b o u r, w h i l e l eaks o f tox i c ch e m i cal s f ro m l i thi um m i n e s in Tibet
have caus e d t h e d e te ri o ra t i o n o f l o c a l fa una. Co nsi d e ri n g th e g l o bal i n crease i n batte r y dema n d,
th ese is s ue s are o n l y exp e c te d to i n c rea se , sh o ul d n o thi n g chan g e . So l uti o ns are b e i n g d eveloped.
Pyro, hydro, an d o t h e r, i n n ova t i ve re cycl i n g p ro ce sse s are b e i n g f ur th e r d eve l o p e d an d ups ca led,
wh ich co uld par t l y re p l a ce raw m a te ri a l m i ni n g . A l th o ug h up to n ow just aro un d 5% o f a ll Li-ion
ba tterie s ( f ro m s m a l l e r d ev i ce s su ch a s l ap to p s o r ce l l p h o n e s) are re cycl e d o r re use d , th e volum e
of larg e r EV batte ri e s t h a t i s exp e c te d to rea ch th e i r e n d o f l i fe i n th e n ex t few years i s ex pec ted to
cha n g e t his t re n d , a s re cycl i n g o f l a rg e r batte ri e s – wi th hi g h e r co nte nt i n val uab l e m ateria ls – is
predi c te d to make re cycl i n g f i n a n c i a l l y attra c ti ve . In a d d i ti o n, n ew batte r y te chn o l o g i e s w ith low
or n o co nte nt o f “ t ro u b l e so m e” raw m a te ri al s are b e i n g d eve l o p e d , such as th e co bal t- f re e ba tter y
devel o pe d in COB R A . T h i s m a rke t i n te l l i g e n ce re p o r t ai m s to hi g hl i g ht th e m ai n e nv i ron m en ta l
an d s o cial im pa c t s o f L i - i o n ba tte ri e s, a s we l l as te chn o l o g i e s an d m easure s to re d uce th em.
“ M a ke a m aterial im pa c t on susta i n a b i l i ty, a t a n i n dustri a l sc a l e .”
J E FFR EY B RIAN ST RAU B E L , T E S L A CO - FO UNDE R & CEO AT RE DWO O D MATE RI A LS
CO -DEVELOPED BY
B a x & Com pa ny IREC
cob ra @ ba xcom pa ny.co m i nfo @i re c .cat
P h on e : +3 4 93 476 0 4 44 Ph o n e : +3 4 93 476 04 44
www.ba xcom pa ny.com www.i re c .cat
Vic tor Jos e Ferreira Ferreira
M a rco s Ieri d e s Po std o c to ra l Re se a rch e r
S e nio r I n n ova t i o n Co n su l ta n t vjfe rre i ra @i re c .ca t
m .ie rid e s@ b a xco m p a ny.co m
G ab riela B envenis te Pérez
M a a r te n B u ys s e Pro je c t En g i n e e r
Inn ova t i o n Co n su l ta n t g b e nve ni ste @i re c .ca t
m .buysse @ b a xco m p a ny.co m
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Bea triz Pérez H o rn o i nfo @up c .e d u
Ph o n e :+3 4 93 401 62 00
J unio r I n n ova t i o n Co n su l ta n t www.up c .e d u
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A my M cC rea d y Lluc Canals Cas als
Co mm u n i ca t i o n s & PR O f f i ce r Po std o c to ra l Re se a rch e r
a.m cc re a d y@ b a xco m p a ny.co m l ca n a l s@i re c .ca t
M AY-J U NE 202 1 2M ARK ET I NT E LLI G E N C E RE P O RT
T EC H N ICA L DEVE LO PME NTS ON ENVI RONM ENTAL AND SOCI AL
I M PACTS O F L I-ION BAT TE R IE S
FO REWOR D BY IREC REPRESENT I N G CO BR A , A N D LLUC CA N A LS:
Ba ckgroun d a d ays, th e sustai nab i l i ty an d n o t- so - l on g- term
avai l ab i l i ty o f L i - i o n batte ri e s can b e a ffec ted
Emissio ns f ro m tra n sp o r t h ave i n c rea se d ove r by co bal t . Thi s m e tal i s ex tra c te d m ain ly f rom
th e la s t years . In 2020, t h e se e m i ssi o n s re p re - th e De m o crati c Re p ub l i c o f th e Co n g o, a region
s ente d m o re t han a q u a r te r o f to t a l g re e n h o use hi sto ri cal l y chara c te ri ze d by p o l i ti cal i n s ta bility
gas e mis s io ns in t h e E U [9 ]. T h i s i s t h e m ai n an d so ci al i m pa c ts i n th e m i ni n g se c to r, s uch a s
reason why fo rce d by l e g i sl a t i o n , t h e a uto m o - chi l d wo rk , safe ty m i ni n g co n d i ti o ns (with ma ny
tive s e c to r is fa c i n g a revo l u t i o n a r y sce nari o to i l l e g al ex tra c ti o ns an d un co untab l e d ea th s ) [ 2 ].
con tribute s ignif i c a n t l y to o n e o f t h e m o st chal - Avai l ab i l i ty i s n o t th e o nl y i ssue re l ate d to th es e
len gin g s it uat io n s o f c u rre n t so c i e ty : re duci n g m ate ri al s. Fo r i nstan ce , ch eap l i thi um min in g
ha rm f ul e m is s io n s c a u si n g cl i m a te ch a n ge an d re q ui re s wi th d rawi n g hi g h am o unts of wa ter
air po llut io n, e s pe c i a l l y i n c i t i e s w h e re par ti cu- f ro m l o cati o ns wh e re wate r i s scarce , wh ich h a s
late matte r ( PM ) a n d n i t ro g e n d i oxi d e (N O2), are e nv i ro nm e ntal i m p l i cati o ns [ 3 ].
da ma g in g human h ea l t h a n d t h e e nvi ro n m e nt .
On e o f t h e m ain te ch n o l o g i e s u se d to re d uce To anal yse th e e nv i ro nm e ntal i m pa c t in a ll
th ese e mis s io ns i n t h e t ra n sp o r t se c to r is e l e c- p hase s o f th e p ro d uc t d eve l o p m e nt (ma teria ls ’
tric ve hicle s co mpa re d to t h e t ra d i t i o n a l l y use d ex tra c ti o n, m anufa c turi n g , an d re cycl i n g or dis -
intern al co mbus ti o n e n g i n e ve h i cl e s. De sp i te p o sal i m pa c ts at th e e n d - o f- l i fe ), th e Life Cycle
th e e n o rm o us a d va n ce s i n su st a i n a b l e pe r fo r- Asse ssm e nt (LCA ) i s th e m o st use d m eth odol-
man ce wit hin t h e a u to m o t i ve i n d u st r y, th e d e - o g y. Thi s to o l al l ows hi g hl i g hti n g ‘h o ts pots ’ of
pen de n cy o f t h e EV i n d u st r y o n t h e e l e c tri ci ty p o te nti al e nv i ro nm e ntal p re ssure s, w h ile a ls o
s ec tor to powe r th e ba tte ri e s h eavi l y i n f l u e n ce s p rov i d i n g a g e n e ral p i c ture o f ove ral l environ -
th eir impa c t . At t h e sa m e t i m e , L i - i o n batte r y m e ntal p e r fo rm an ce [ 1]. Howeve r, th ere is n o
tech n o lo gy is base d o n raw m a te ri a l s, such as co nse nsus o n a uni q ue LCA m e th o d o l ogy, m et-
lithium , co bal t , n i cke l , m a n g a n e se , a n d g rap h- ri cs, an d i n d i cato rs, an d th e ex i sti n g s tudies
ite, m o s t o f which a re c a te g o ri se d a s c ri t i c al m a- are p e r fo rm e d wi th a Cra d l e - to - G rave approa ch
terial s an d as s o ci a te d w i t h seve ra l e nv i ronm e n- whi ch, d e p e n d i n g o n th e LCA stud y, does n ot
tal an d s o cial impa c t s t h ro u g h o u t t h e i r sup p l y n e ce ssari l y i n cl ud e th e re cycl i n g o f th e ba tter y.
cha in, re info rc in g t h e u rg e n cy to a d d re s s th e i r
entire life cycle to b e a b l e to a sse ss t h e sustai n-
ab ility o f EVs towa rd s a ch i evi n g t h e i n d ustr y ’s W h a t i s a n LCA?
s usta inability goa l s [ 1 ].
Th e LCA is a h olis t ic m et h od ology in -
ternat ionally recog nis ed an d s uppo r t-
Impa c ts/challen ges
ed by t h e I SO 1 4 04 0 s eries to evalua te
C ritic al m ate rials i n ba tte ri e s, m o st l y foun d i n t h e environm ent al im pa c t s t hroug h th e
life cycle of p rod uc t s or s er vices . Th ere
elec tro de s ( c at h o d e a n d a n o d e ) a n d el e c tro -
are 4 i te rati ve p hase s to co n d uc t an LCA :
ly tes, c an als o pre se n t si g n i f i c a n t i ssu e s asso ci -
G oal an d Sco p e De f i ni ti o n, L i fe Cycle I n -
ated w it h re s o urce ava i l a b i l i ty a pa r t f ro m o th e r
ve nto r y, L i fe Cycl e Im pa c t Asse ss m en t
enviro nm e nt al an d so c i a l i ssu e s. Eve n th o ug h an d , Inte rp re tati o n. Th e f i rst LCA st udies
lithium , m an g an e se , n i cke l , a n d n a t u ra l g rap h- o f batte ri e s we re fo cuse d o n ce l l /m odule
ite h ave m o de rate re se r ve s to cove r t h e ex p e c t- p ro d uc ti o n p hase an d batte r y assembly
ed 10% s hare o f e l e c t ri c ve h i cl e s i n t h e g l o bal (cal l e d “ LCA cra d l e - to - g ate ap p roa ch”).
fleet in t h e n ex t yea rs, t h ey a re n o t e n o ug h to Howeve r, th e ex p e c te d g row th o f th e
cover t h e ex pe c te d i n c rea se i n d e m a n d , p ush- batte r y m arke t i n th e n ex t 10 -20 yea rs
in g up marke t pri ce s. M o re ove r, co n si d e ri n g an e n co ura g e s us to e nl arg e th e sco p e cov-
ex trem e s ce nario fo r 1 0 0 % e l e c t ri f i c a t i o n o f th e e ri n g al l l i fe cycl e sta g e s, i n cl ud i n g en d-
world ’s ve hicle fle e t , u n d e r co n t i n u o u s g row th o f- l i fe . Th e se stud i e s sh o ul d sh ow align -
m e nt wi th th e ci rcul ar e co n o my w ith
con di t io ns , hav in g e n o u g h re se r ve s o f co bal t
an d p o te nt ially li t h i u m i s u n l i ke l y [ 2 , 3 ] . Now-
M AY-J U NE 202 1 3M ARK ET I NT E LLI G E N C E RE P O RT
d uc ti o n i s e n e rg y- i nte nsi ve an d g e n e ra tes s ub -
2n d life appli c a t i o n s a n d /o r t rea t m e nts stan ce s that cause ozo n e d e p l e ti o n.
to re cove r ma te ri a l s. H e n ce , t h e c ra dl e -
to - grave approa ch (ch e ck I S O 1 40 0 44) Ad d i ti o nal l y, L i - i o n batte ri e s i nvo l ve complica t-
n e e ds pro pe r d e f i n i t i o n a n d co n se n sus e d m anufa c turi n g p ro ce sse s that d e m an d h igh
on h ow re purp o si n g ba tte ri e s w i t h 2n d
am o unts o f e n e rg y, i n cl ud i n g ce l l asse mbly, ca r-
life an d re cycl i n g c a n exp l o i t t h e e n erg y
ri e d o ut i n seve re d r y ro o m co n d i ti o ns . Th ere -
an d e co n o m ic s i nve ste d i n ba tte r y p ro -
fo re , th e e l e c tri ci ty m i x o f th e re g i on w h ere
du c t io n w hile re d u c i n g t h e e nvi ro n m e n-
tal im pa c t s o f ba tte r y wa ste l a n d f i l l i n g . th e se batte ri e s are m anufa c ture d p l ays a n im-
Un fo r t unate ly, t h e l a ck o f s t a n d a rd is a- p o r tant ro l e i n th e g l o bal warm i n g poten tia l
tion in e nv iro n m e n t a l a l l o c a t i o n s a n d th e cate g o r y i m pa c t that m easure s th e ba tter y ’s
di f f i c ul ty i n d a t a co l l e c t i o n co m p l i c a te s CO2 e q e m i ssi o ns. L i - i o n batte ri e s are us ua lly
th e o bte nt io n o f re l i a b l e re su l t s a n d d e - m anufa c ture d i n Asi an co untri e s, which h ave
pe n d o n t h e q u a l i ty a n d t h e ch o se n d a- a d i f fe re nt e l e c tri ci ty m i x than m o st Europea n
tabas e , g e n e ra t i n g d i f fe re n t re su l t s an d co untri e s. In par ti cul ar, Chi na d o m i n a tes th e
un ce r t ainty. batte r y p ro d uc ti o n wi th 93 “g i g afa c to ries ” th a t
m anufa c ture L i - i o n ce l l s, vs. o nl y fo ur in th e
T h e E U E nv iro n m e n t D G to g e t h e r w i th
U ni te d State s. Chi na’s e l e c tri ci ty m i x , domin a t-
th e J RC deve lo p e d a m e t h o d - t h e Pro d -
e d by coal , co ntri b ute s l arg e l y to g l o ba l wa rm-
uc t E nv iro nm e n t a l Fo o t p ri n t (PE F), to
i n g , whi ch i s b l o cki n g rea chi n g th e susta in a bil-
ha rm o nis e t h e m e t h o d o l o g y fo r t h e e n-
viro nm e nt al fo o t p ri n t o f p ro d u c t s. Th e i ty targ e ts. Eve n th o ug h batte ri e s are a produc t
m e t h o d is larg e l y i n l i n e w i t h t h e LCA o n th e i r own, th ey al o n e can d o n o thin g els e
prin ciple s s in ce i t wa s ba se d o n stan- than to sto re an d transfe r e n e rg y thro ugh tim e
da rds ( IS O1 4 040 a n d t h e I LC D H a n d - to o th e r p ro d uc ts an d are use d i n d i ve rs e goods .
bo o k ) . In a dd i t i o n , t h e re ce n t Pro duc t Thi s m ake s i t hard to d o an LCA o n ba tteries
Env iro nm e nt a l Fo o t p ri n t Ca te g o r y R u l e s al o n e , so th e se stud i e s are e i th e r p e r form ed on
( PE FCR) applic a b l e fo r re ch a rg ea b l e s i n- th e p ro d uc t that co ntai ns th e se o r e n d-up jus t
gle ce lls o r/an d ba tte ri e s u se d i n e - m o - af te r th e m anufa c turi n g p hase , i g n o ri n g th e us e
bi lity – exclud i n g ch a rg i n g u n i t , p rovi d e an d e n d - o f- l i fe p hase s, kn own as cra d l e - to - ga te
guidan ce t hat co n t ri b u te s to m o re co n-
s is te nt , ro bus t , a n d re p ro d u c i b l e LCA anal ysi s [ 1].
al ig n e d wit h th e PE F m e t h o d .
Re g ard i n g th e use p hase , th e am o unt of en er-
g y co m i n g o ut d uri n g th e d i scharg e o f a Li-ion
batte r y, co m pare d wi th h ow m uch wa s put in
Ex is tin g LCA s t ud i e s o n L i - i o n ba tte ri e s sh ow to charg e i t (batte r y e f f i ci e n cy ), sh o uld be a s
tha t par t ic ularly co ba l t a n d n i cke l (u se d i n th e hi g h as p o ssi b l e . Re d uci n g e n e rg y l o s s es low-
cath o de ) in creas e si g n i f i c a n t l y t h e e nv i ronm e n- e rs th e e nv i ro nm e ntal i m pa c ts asso ci ated w ith
tal fo o t print , as e .g . toxi c su b st a n ce s c an l eak th e e l e c tri ci ty p ro d uc ti o n use d to charge th em,
f rom m in e t ailin g s [ 2 ]. S o m e su b st a n ce s use d such as G HG e m i ssi o ns f ro m fo ssi l f ue l combus -
in ele c t ro ly te s ca n a l so h ave n e g a t i ve i m pa c ts, ti o n. L i - i o n batte ri e s are ve r y e f f i ci e nt (a roun d
s uch as c arbo nate - ba se d so l ve n t s a n d t h e l i thi - 97 %), h oweve r, wh e n i n cl ud i n g th e chargers a n d
um s al t ( LiPF6 ) . T h i s l a tte r c a n b e d e co m p o se d o th e r e q ui p m e nt n e e d e d to use th e m , th e over-
to form hydro ge n f l u o ri d e (H F), w h i ch i s hi g h- al l e f f i ci e n cy d e crease s to aro un d 90% . Th us ,
ly corro s ive an d toxi c to t h e a t m o sp h e re . Th e co nsi d e ri n g th e batte r y ’s l i fe ti m e , a 10% los s is
ab ove e nv iro nm e n t a l co n ce rn s i nvo l ve th e a c- sti l l re sp o nsi b l e fo r so m e si g ni f i cant environ -
tive m ate rials o f t h e L i - i o n ba tte ri e s. H oweve r, m e ntal i m pa c ts asso ci ate d wi th th e elec tricity
th ere are “ ina c t ive” e l e c t ro d e m a te ri a l s that d o m i x use d to charg e batte ri e s (whi ch ca n a l ter
n ot co nt ribute to t h e e n e rg y sto ra g e c a pa ci ty, th e EV g l o bal warm i n g p o te nti al [ 10 ]).
but th ey fulf ill va ri e d c ru c i a l t a sks w i t hi n th e
ba tter y ce ll, s uch a s b i n d e rs to h o l d t h e co m -
pon en t s o f t h e ba tte r y to g e t h e r. T h e se ex hi b i t
enviro nm e nt al im pa c t s si n ce t h ey a re ty p i cal -
ly ma de o f f luo ri n a te d su b st a n ce s, w h i ch p ro -
M AY-J U NE 202 1 4M ARK ET I NT E LLI G E N C E RE P O RT
With all t h e s e as p e c t s i n m i n d , t h e co m p l ex i ty o f th e ove ral l e nv i ro nm e ntal an d so ci al i mpa c t of
Li-ion batte rie s be co m e s cl ea r. T h e re fo re , i t i s i m p o r tant to m ake a d e tai l e d LCA o f L i - i o n ba tteries
to compare t h e ir su st a i n a b i l i ty a sp e c t s to o th e r ty p e s o f transp o r t such as i nte rnal co mbus tion
en gin e ve hicle s . At t h e sa m e t i m e , t h e LCA m e th o d o l o g y can p o i nt o ut wh e re th e b i g g e st improve -
m ents in te rms o f i m pa c t c a n b e m a d e .
ENVI RO N M E N TA L I M PACTS SOC IAL IMPACTS
R e l ea se o f toxi c ch e m i c a l s h a rm s com - Us e an d cont am inat ion of ( t h e s carce )
muni ti e s a n d e co sys tem s . water s ources f rom loc al com m un itie s.
S OURCIN G
Wa te r, so i l a n d a i r co n t a m i n a t i o n . Hum an h eal t h ris ks .
L a rg e g ro u n d wa ter u s a ge. Child lab our, im p rop er work con ditio n s.
Hi g h tox i ci ty o f m a te ri a l s u s e d fo r I lleg al ex t ra c t ions an d count les s death s.
ex tra c ti on , w h i ch ca n l ea k i n to l o c al
e co syste m s .
Si g ni f i c a n t G H G em i s s i o n s /co m p on ent .
Bi n de rs’ wa te r p o l l u t i o n a n d A ir p ollut ion harm in g hum an h ea l th .
PRODU CTION
(ozon e -)d e p l et i o n . Us e of tox ic m aterials , ris k for leaks.
R e l ea se o f toxi c ch e m i c a l s h a rm s
co mmuni t i e s a n d eco sys te m s .
S oi l a n d a i r co n t a m i n a t i o n .
S i g ni f i c a n t G H G em i s s i o n s .
H i g hl y e n ergy- i n te n s i ve m a n u fa c-
turi n g a n d a s s em b l y p ro ces s es .
E mi ssi o ns f ro m EV ch a rg i n g ( d e - Hum an ex p os ure to flam m ab le
U SE
pe n di n g o n e l ec t ri ci ty m i x) . m aterials .
R e l ea se o f toxi c ch em i ca l s h a rm s A ir p ollut ion harm in g hum an h ea l th .
DISPOSE
co mmuni t i es a n d e co sys tem s .
wa te r, so i l a n d a i r co n t a m i n a t i o n.
Table 1 . E nv i ro n m e n ta l a n d so c i a l i m p a c ts o f L i - i o n b a tte ri e s o n e a ch p h a se .
F URTH E R C H AL L E N GE S
Raw ma te ri a l s c a rc i ty.
Esta bl i shin g a s t a n d a rd i s e d LCA p roces s .
U n ce r ta i n ty o f n ew ba tter y d e s i gns an d 2n d - life batteries im pa c t s an d p er form an ce .
H i g h co st a n d l ower p e r fo rm a n ce , t h erefore q ues t ionab le a d op t ion of n ovel eco - de -
si g n ba tte r y co n cep t s .
Table 2 . M a i n ch a l l e n g e s e n counte re d by sta te - o f- th e - a r t L i - i o n b a tte ri e s.
S UG GE STE D SOLUTION S
Decarbonisation of energy sources.
Use of cleaner or renewable raw materials.
Highly abundant and easily accessible material compositions.
Expand the batter y lifespan (2nd life applications).
Recycling of critical raw materials.
Ta b l e 3 . S u g g e ste d sol uti o ns fo r th e i n d ustr y ’s ch a l l e n g e s.
M AY-J U NE 202 1 5M ARK ET I NT E LLI G E N C E RE P O RT
Potential solutions/Future research areas Th e sui tab l e ch o i ce o f th e 2n d l i fe applica tion
d e p e n d s o n vari ab l e state s o f h eal th an d res id-
Ba s ed o n t h e above , i t i s evi d e n t t h a t to a chi eve ual capa ci ty af te r use i n e l e c tri c ve hi cles . Th is
th e h o lis t ic s us t ai n a b i l i ty o f L i - i o n ba tte ri e s, th e can g e n e rate m any co m p l ex sce nari o s f rom a n
enviro nm e nt al im pa c t s t h ro u g h t h e i r l i fe cy- LCA p o i nt o f v i ew to eval uate h ow th e s econ d
cle s h o uld be dra st i c a l l y re d u ce d by m eans o f l i fe co n ce p ts can “d i l ute” th e carb o n footprin t
deca rbo nis e d e n e rg y so u rce s a n d su st ai nab l y o f th e batte r y p ro d uc ti o n ove r m o re yea rs of us -
s ource d m ate rials. B a tte r y m a n u fa c t u re rs ty p i - a g e . O n th e o n e han d , th e LCA stud y n eeds to
cally re ly o n t h e g ri d p rovi d e rs fo r t h e e n e rg y d e f i n e a f un c ti o nal uni t to p rov i d e e nv iron m en -
mix , an d t h e re fo re re l a te d e m i ssi o n s. Lu cki l y, th e tal re sul ts co m parab l e to o th e r stud i e s. Hen ce,
deca rbo nis at io n o f t h e e n e rg y se c to r i s gai ni n g th e re i s n o cl ear co nse nsus o n i t wh e n in cludin g
groun d. Likewis e , re sea rch o n l e ss c ri t i c al an d 2n d l i fe ap p l i cati o ns, al th o ug h th e kWh of en er-
m ore s us t ainably so u rce d m a te ri a l s, a s we l l as g y exchan g e d se e m s to b e ap p ro p ri ate in ma ny
ba tter y re cyclin g te ch n o l o g i e s i s o n g o i n g [ 1, 5]. case s.
In a d dit io n, s t rate g i e s fo c u se d o n n ew co m p o -
n en t de s ig ns are ba se d o n t h e u se o f a m ate ri - O n th e o th e r han d , th e syste m b oun da ries
al com po s it io n t h a t co n t a i n s m a te ri a l s t hat are sh o ul d b e we l l d e f i n e d a cco rd i n g to th e a lloca -
high ly abun dant a n d e n su re ea sy a cce ssi b i l i ty ti o n o f th e e nv i ro nm e ntal i m pa c t o f b oth ma n -
or pro duc t io n possi b i l i t i e s ba se d o n re n ewab l e ufa c turi n g an d Eo L sta g e s. Thi s m eans th a t th e
raw m ate rials , w h i ch c a n a l l evi a te co bal t d e - al l o cati o n o f th e e nv i ro nm e ntal i m pa c t rep -
man d an d prov id e p e rfo rm a n ce a d va n t a g e s [ 1, re se nts an unre so l ve d i ssue to b e a d d res s ed a t
5 ]. Howeve r, t h e s e st ra te g i e s a re a g rea t chal - a p o st- sta g e , e ntai l i n g o n e o f th e m o st complex
len ge , s in ce rea ch i n g c u rre n t L i - i o n ce l l pe r fo r- chara c te ri sti cs o f th e LCA wh e n thi nkin g of a
man ce wit h t h e s e n ove l d e si g n s i s ra t h e r d i f f i - Cra d l e - to - Cra d l e ap p roa ch, si n ce th ey a re dif-
cul t . T his is be c a u se t h e m a te ri a l s se l e c te d fo r fe re nt co n ce p ts [ 1, 12] . In a re p urp o si n g s cen a r-
th e n ew s us t ainab l e d eve l o p m e n t s sh o u l d m e e t i o wh e re th e l i fe ti m e o f th e batte r y i s exten ded,
th e hig h re quire m e n t s o f t h e e l e c t ro ch e m i cal n o t al l th e i m pa c ts o f b o th m anufa c tu rin g a n d
proce s s e s . U p to n ow, t h e g re e n a l te rnati ve s Eo L sh o ul d b e al l o cate d to th e se co n d l ife of th e
s h ow o n e o r m ore d raw ba cks i n h e re n t to th e batte r y, si n ce i t al rea d y f ul f i l l e d th e p urpos e for
n ew m ate rials , in f l u e n c i n g t h e e n e rg y d e nsi ty, whi ch i t was b ui l t Th e re by, an al l o cati o n sys tem
cycle life , o r o t h e r key e l e c t ro ch e m i c a l param - sh o ul d b e d e f i n e d whi ch i s at th e d i sc retion of
eters, an d are o fte n n o t co st- co m p e t i t i ve . If n o t wh o co n d uc ts th e stud y. No n e th e l e ss, differen t
a d equ ate ly a ddre sse d , i n n ova t i o n s m ay l ea d to LCA stud i e s co nsi d e ri n g se co n d l i fe scen a rios
a grea te r ups t ream e nv i ro n m e n t a l i m pa c t i n th e state that th ey o f fe r th e p o te nti al to min imize
purs uit o f g reate r p e r fo rm a n ce s. th e m a g ni tud e an d pa ce o f L IB waste gen era -
ti o n whi l e at th e sam e ti m e re d uci n g th e life
O th er s t rate gie s i n c rea si n g t h e su st a i n a b i l i ty o f cycl e e nv i ro nm e ntal i m pa c ts o f e n e rg y sys tems .
Li-ion batte rie s are exte n d i n g t h e ba tte r y l i fe s-
pa n, pro lo n g e d ba tte r y ce l l u sa g e i n 2 n d l i fe ap -
plica t io ns , an d in c rea se d re cycl a b i l i ty. T h e jo i nt
coord inat io n o f t h e se st ra te g i e s h a s b ee n fo - “Pe o p l e un de re sti m a te wh at
cused re ce nt ly o n re sea rch i n c i rc u l a r e co n o my re cycl i n g c a n do fo r th e e l e c t ric
prin ciple s to g uid e su st a i n a b l e m a n a g e m e nt o f ve h i cl e s i n dustr y. T h i s co u ld
th e Li-io n batte ri e s a t t h e e n d - o f- l i fe . Se co n d h ave a h ug e i m pa c t o n raw
life batte rie s fo ll ow i n g a c a sc a d i n g re u se ap - m a te ri a l p ri ce s a n d o utp ut in
proa ch o f batte rie s i n st a t i o n a r y e n e rg y sto ra g e th e f uture .”
ap plic at io ns are t h e f i n a l h o p e fo r c a r m a nufa c-
CE LI NA MI KO L A JCZ A K
turers , w h o, at t h e sa m e t i m e c a n c rea te a d d i -
LI - I O N B AT TE RY EXECUTIVE A ND
tion al reve nue s t rea m s f ro m t h e ba tte r y re - use
ME MB E R B OA RD O F DI RECTO RS IN
an d fo r e le c t ric ity u t i l i t i e s t h a t c a n a d o p t o th e r Q UA NTUMSPACE
en erg y us e s ( s uch a s Pea k- sh av i n g , Ti m e - o f- U se
man a ge m e nt , Tra n sm i ssi o n D e fe rra l , E n e rg y ar-
bitra g e , e tc .) in t h e p u rsu i t o f l ow- co st batte ri e s
to ma ke t h e ir bus i n e ss p ro f i t a b l e [ 1 1 ].
M AY-J U NE 202 1 6M ARK ET I NT E LLI G E N C E RE P O RT
Al th o ugh t h e in d u st r y m u st wo rk towa rd s e n- than v i rg i n, thus, th e p ro ce ss has n o t been a d-
largin g t h e life o f t h e ba tte r y e n su ri n g a 2n d o p te d . Co bal t , co p p e r, al um i num , an d oth er el-
life, it is impo r t an t to b ea r i n m i n d t h a t any l i fe e m e nts o f th e batte r y are re cove re d us in g pyro
ex tens io n w ill als o h ave so m e n e g a t i ve e nv i ro n- an d hyd ro m e tal l urg i cal m e th o d s, m i x in g it a ll
m ental implicat io n s, eve n i f t h e se a re l owe r than to g e th e r [8]. Howeve r, th e g ro ss am o unt of ba t-
th e on e s g e n e rate d by u si n g n ew ba tte ri e s. A l - te r y re cycl i n g i s sti l l co m i n g f ro m sm all devices
th oug h be in g us e d eve n i n re ce n t st u d i es [ 13 ], such as l ap to p s an d m o b i l e p h o n e s. O n ce EV ba t-
th e co m paris o n o n t h e i m pa c t a g a i n st t h e use te ri e s b e g i n to co m e at hi g h rate s, th e in dus tr y
of n ew batte rie s i s co n si d e re d to b e n o n -real i s- wi l l evo l ve a cco rd i n g l y. May b e i f batte ries were
tic , as n ew batte ri e s a re n’ t l i ke l y to b e u se d fo r m anufa c ture d i n a way that th ey are ea s ier to
s uch purpo s e s du e to t h e i r h i g h e co n o m i c co sts, d i sm antl e o r re - use (fo l l owi n g e co - d e s ign prin -
an d thus , t his s o - c a l l e d “e nvi ro n m e n t a l sav i n g s” ci p l e s) [8], thi s p ro ce ss wo ul d b e l e ss expen s ive
are d iff icul t to o cc u r i n t h e cl o se f u t u re . an d m uch m o re i nte re sti n g f ro m an econ omic
p e rsp e c ti ve . Neve r th e l e ss, ari si n g p o l icies a n d
T h e re cyclin g o f ba tte ri e s i s c u rre n t l y e f fe c ti ve i n taxe s i n carb o n p ri ci n g an d fo o tp ri nt , togeth er
s ea rchin g fo r hig h - co st e l e m e n t s a n d m a te ri al s wi th th e n ew te chn o l o g y d eve l o p m e nts in ma -
an d d is c ardin g m u ch o f t h e o t h e r co m p on e nts. te ri al re use an d re cycl e m i g ht i m pa c t t h e previ-
For ins t an ce , al t h o u g h i t i s p o ssi b l e to re cycl e o us state m e nts.
lithium , t h e co s t o f re cycl e d l i t h i u m i s hi g h e r
M AY-J U NE 202 1 7M ARK ET I NT E LLI G E N C E RE P O RT R E L EVANT R EC ENT A RTIC LES ON E NVI R O N M E N TA L A N D S O C I A L I M PACTS O F L I - I ON BAT TERIES R EVI EW ON G REENER B AT TERY CELLS [ 1] Cra d le - to - cradle , re qu i re m e n t s, LCA , sustai n a b i l i ty. Li-ion batte rie s are a m o n g t h e st a te ‐ o f‐ t h e ‐ ar t te chn o l o g i e s ab l e to m e e t m o st o f th e key require - m ents o f t h e in d u st r y a t a j u st i f i a b l e co st . Howeve r, th e i n d ustr y m ust n o t fo rg e t to ass es s th e impa c t t h e s e have o n t h e p l a n e t a n d i t s i nhab i tants. Thi s rev i ew p rov i d e s a d e e p cra d l e - to - cra dle life cycle as s e s s m e n t o f t h e ba tte r y ce l l , p rov i d i n g d i f fe re nt ap p roa ch e s fo r th e d eve l o pm en t of “gree n e r ” Li-io n ba tte ri e s. I n a d d i t i o n , a l te rnati ve batte r y te chn o l o g i e s are eval uate d rega rdin g th eir s us t ainability a sp e c t s a n d co m p e t i t i ve n e ss. READ M OR E H U M AN R IG HTS A BUSE IN D.R. CO N G O I N CO BA LT EXT R ACT I O N [ 2] So c ia l sustain ability, co bal t , wo rki n g co n di t i o n s , i m p a c t s . T his re po r t highli g h t s t h e h a rm f u l co n d i ti o ns i n whi ch co bal t m i n e rs, i n cl ud i n g th e hi g h n umber of ch ildre n, in t h e D e m o c ra t i c R e p u b l i c of th e Co n g o wo rk . U si n g basi c l ow- te ch to o l s, min ers dig out ro cks f ro m t u n n e l s d e e p u n d e rg ro u n d un d e r p o o r safe ty co n d i ti o ns an d m i ni m al p rotec tive equipm e nt . Be s id e s, t h e su p p l y ch a i n a n d p ro l o n g e d ex p o sure to such m ate ri al have fat a l h ea l th effec t s o n t h e worke rs. T h u s, t h e re p o r t gi ve s a f ul l ove r v i ew o f al l so ci al i m pa c ts o f th e coba l t ex- tra c ti o n pro ce s s . READ M OR E TH E ENVIR ON MENTA L A ND SO C IAL CO STS O F T H E LI T H I UM -I O N BAT T ERY I N D U STRY [3] Ex t ra c tion, impac t , l i t h i um , co bal t , n i cke l . T h e ex t ra c t io n o f t h e m a te ri a l s w i t h i n L i - i on batte ri e s has a se ri o us i m pa c t o n th e p l an e t . Su ch is th e case that some exper ts in the f ield describe the process as invasive, harming the landscape, destroying the water resources, an d pollutin g th e ear th an d the local wells. Th e followin g ar ticles provide example cases o n t h e e nv iro n m e n t a l a n d so c i a l i m pa c ts o f l i thi um , co bal t , an d ni cke l m i ni n g an d p roces s in g. READ M OR E HERE a n d H E RE G LO B AL BAT T ERY A LLIA NC E IN T H E SEA R C H FO R S A F ER A N D M O R E S U STAINABLE BAT TERY SUPPLY CH A I N S [4] T h e G l obal Batte r y A l l i an ce , val ue ch ai n , i nve s t m e n t , cos t s . T h e G lo bal Batte r y A l l i a n ce (G B A ) i s a p u b l i c- p ri vate co l l ab o rati o n p l atfo rm o f 70 o rg ani z ati o n s foun d- ed in 201 7 to h e lp e st a b l i sh a su st a i n a b l e batte r y val ue chai n. Th e transp o r t i n d ustr y n e e d s to a c tively rea c t to c urre nt s u p p l y ch a i n s a n d e st a b l i sh sustai nab l e m arke t co n d i ti o ns whi l e a cce l e rati n g ba tter y dep loy m e nt in s up p o r t o f t h i s v i si o n a n d a ttra c t m o re i nve stm e nt . Batte ri e s al so n e e d to b e com e m ore afford able t hro ug h l owe r p ro d u c t i o n co st s , l owe ri n g e m i ssi o ns, e l i m i nati n g hum an ri g hts v iola tion s , ensurin g s afe wo rki n g co n d i t i o n s a c ro ss t h e val ue chai n, an d i m p rov i n g re p urp o si n g an d recyclin g. READ M OR E B I O M ASS: A MO RE SUSTA INA BLE O PT I O N FO R L I -I O N BAT T E RY E L ECTR OLYTES [5 ] B io m ass e le c trode s , bi n de r, de carbo n i se , bi owa s te S tora g e o f e n e rg y st i l l re l i e s o n h a rm f u l h eavy m e tal s i n batte ri e s. Th e re fo re , re search o n bioma s s ‐ derive d e le c t ro de s h a s b e e n t a ke n u p by a m ul ti tud e o f re search e rs wo rl d wi d e . Co nsi d e rin g th a t elec tro de s in batte ri e s co u l d b e co m p o sed o f al l ki n d s o f carb o ni se d an d n o n carb o ni se d bioma s s , biomas s ‐bas e d bi n d e rs c a n re p l a ce toxi c hal o g e nate d co m m e rci al b i n d e rs to e nab l e a truly s us - tain ab le fut ure o f e n e rg y sto ra g e d evi ce s . Thi s re p o r t sum m ari se s th e re ce nt re search p rogres s in this rapidly e m e rg i n g f i e l d , w i t h a fo c u s o n p o te nti al l y f ul l y b i owaste ‐ d e ri ve d batte ri e s. READ M OR E M AY-J U NE 202 1 8
M ARK ET I NT E LLI G E N C E RE P O RT CR I TICAL R AW MATERIA LS RESILI EN C E: G R EAT E R SECUR I TY A N D S U STAINABILI TY [6] Ma terial supply, re s i l i e n ce , ac t i o n s. European in dus t ri a l e co syste m s m u st b e co m e m o re re si l i e nt an d sustai nab l y se cure th e i r ma teria l s up pl y to s c ale u p cl ea n a n d d i g i t a l te chn o l o g i e s. Th e re fo re , th e Euro p ean Co m m i ssi o n in clos e pa r tn e rs hip wit h o t h e r E U i n st i t u t i o n s, th e Euro p ean Inve stm e nt Bank , Me m b e r State s, region s , th e in dus t r y, an d o t h e r key st a ke h o l d e rs a re m ov i n g fo r ward wi th th e d e p l oy m e nt o f a susta in a ble s trate g ic plan by 202 2 . M o re d e t a i l s i n re gard s to i ts strate g i c p ri o ri ti e s an d a c ti o ns can be foun d in th e fo llow in g a r t i cl e . READ M OR E AR E ALL- P OLYPEPTIDE BAT TERIE S T H E S O LUT I O N TO T H E C H A LL E N G ES FACED BY CURRENT EV BAT TERIE S? [ 7 ] R ecyclin g, m e tal- f re e , re dox- ac t i ve . “ T h e rate o f re cycl i n g L i - i o n ba tte ri e s ri ght n ow i s i n th e si n g l e d i g i ts. Th e re i s val uab l e ma teria l in th e Li-io n batte r y, b u t i t ’s ve r y d i f f i c u l t an d e n e rg y- i nte nsi ve to re cove r,” state s Jo d i e Lutken - ha us, Pro fe s s o r o f C h e m i c a l E n g i n e e ri n g at Texas A &M U ni ve rsi ty. Th e fo l l owi n g ar ti cl e high ligh ts an d fu r t h e r ex plai n s t h e b e n e f i t s o f d eve lo p i n g m e tal - f re e , al l - p o l y p e p ti d e o rg ani c ra d i cal ba tter y comp o s e d o f re dox- a c t i ve a m i n o - a c i d m a cro m o l e cul e s an d h ow th e se e ntai l si g ni f i cant progres s towa rd s us t ainab l e , re cycl a b l e ba tte ri e s that m i ni m i se d e p e n d e n ce o n strate g i c m e tal s. READ M OR E CH ALLENG ES IN THE DECO NSTRU CT I O N O F BAT T ER I ES FO R T H E I R R ECYCL ABILITY [8] Ex t ra c tion, impac t , l i t h i um , co bal t , n i cke l . M ost o f t h e valuab l e m a te ri a l s ext ra c te d fo r re cycl i n g are fo un d i n i n d i v i d ual batte r y ce l l s . Howev- er, curre nt EV ba tte ri e s a re d e si g n e d to i n crease ro b ustn e ss, whi ch m ake s d i sasse m b l y cumber- s om e . Fo r t his rea so n , to d ay ’s re cycl i n g m e th o d s are sti l l i n th e i r i nfan cy. A f te r th e batter y is dis - cha rg e d an d t h e c a se i s re m ove d , m o d u l e s are shre d d e d an d thrown i n a h eate r. L i g hte r ma teria ls like li t hium an d m a n g a n e se b u rn , l eavi n g b e hi n d an al l oy sl urr y that co ntai ns hi g h e r-val u e m eta ls like co ppe r, nicke l , a n d co ba l t , w h i ch c a n b e p uri f i e d usi n g stro n g a ci d s. Thi s py ro - an d hydrom et- allurg ical re cove r y re q u i re l a rg e a m o u n t s o f e n e rg y an d p ro d uce haz ard o us g ase s an d wa s te. READ M OR E TH E IMPACTS OF THE TRA NSPORT I N DUST RY I N E U R O PE [ 9] Po llut ion, e missions , i m pac t s, re g u l at i o n s, po l i ci e s , E U. T h e trans po r t in d u st r y i s a m o n g t h e m o st i m pa c tf ul se c to rs co ntri b uti n g to cl i m ate cha n ge a n d atm os ph e ric an d n o i se p o l l u t i o n i n t h e E U. A l th o ug h so m e o th e r i n d ustri e s such as th e en ergy s ec tor have re duce d t h e i r e m i ssi o n s si n ce 1990, th e o n e s co m i n g f ro m transp o r t have i n crea s ed, rep re s e nt in g a qu a r te r o f t h e ove ra l l G H G e m i ssi o ns i n Euro p e . Th e fo l l owi n g ar ti cl e summa ris es th e d if fe re nt im pa c t s t h e i n d u st r y h a s o n th e p l an e t an d b ri n g s up so m e n ew re g ul ati o ns a n d pol- icies co m in g f ro m t h e E U. READ M OR E S U STAINABILI TY A NA LYSIS OF TH E ELECT R I C VEH I C LE USE I N EUR O PE FO R CO2 EM ISSIONS REDUCTIO N [ 10] Decarbonisation, e m i ssi o n s, G WP, Euro pe . T his st udy fo c us e s t h e a n a l ysi s o n h ow e l e c tri c ve hi cl e e m i ssi o ns var y wh e n co m pare d to in ter- na l co mbus t io n e n g i n e ve h i cl e s, d e p e n d i n g o n th e e n e rg y m i x an d th e e f f i ci e n cy d uri n g th e us e ph ase . Fo r t his to b e d o n e , t h e re i s a n e e d to cal cul ate th e G l o bal Warm i n g Po te nti al (G WP) a s s oci- ated w it h t h e e le c t ri c i ty g e n e ra t i o n o f t h e m o st p ro f i tab l e e l e c tri c ve hi cl e s co m i n g f ro m Europea n countrie s . S im ilarl y, a n e l e c t ri c ve h i cl e’s use - p hase e n e rg y e f f i ci e n cy i s cal cul ate d un d er a w ide ran ge o f driv in g co n d i t i o n s u si n g t h e Mo nte Carl o m e th o d . Fi nal l y, th e pap e r hi g hl i g hts w h ich countrie s have a b i g g e r p o te n t i a l fo r d e c arb o ni sati o n f ro m th e i ntro d uc ti o n o f EVs. READ M OR E M AY-J U NE 202 1 9
M ARK ET I NT E LLI G E N C E RE P O RT E N D OF ELECTRIC VEHIC LE BAT TER I ES: R E U SE VS . R ECYC LE [ 11] R ecyclin g, re usin g, c i rc ul ar e co n o my, batte r y m a n u fa c t u re rs , e l e c t ri c ve h i cl e . T h e glo bal EV ma rke t i s si g n i f i c a n t l y i n c reasi n g an d h e n ce batte r y co nsum p ti o n. Th e challen ge in th e m arke t is to f i n d a n o p t i m a l so l u t i o n f ro m two o p ti o ns, wh e th e r to re cycl e th e batte r y a fter its f irst u s e in t h e EV o r to re - u se i t (se co n d l i fe ). Lo o ki n g at th e rate at whi ch EVs are d e p l oyed in th e marke t an d co upl i n g t h e co n ce p t s o f re u s i n g an d re cycl i n g to g e th e r, strate g i cal l y thi s would form a circular e co n o my. O n ce t h e i n f ra st ru c t u re i s d eve l o p e d fo r batte r y re cove r y fo r EVs, Europe’s po - s ition c an s t re n g t h e n , a n d i t co u l d b e co m e o n e o f th e l arg e st batte r y m anufa c ture rs an d expor ters as we ll. READ M OR E TH E MID - POINT BETWEEN C IRCU L A R ECO N O M Y, LCA A N D CR AD LE-TO - CRA DLE [ 12] Cra d le - to - cradle ,, LCA , c i rc ul ar e co n o my, i m pa c t s . Life Cycle As s e s s m e n t , C i rc u l a r Eco n o my, an d Cra d l e to Cra d l e are se e n as i nte rchan g eable terms by som e , an d to t a l l y se pa ra te co n ce p t s by o th e rs. Th e fo l l owi n g ar ti cl e take s a m i d - p o i nt pers pec- tive fo r t h e o pt im a l a p p roa ch a n d co n cl u di n g that , whi l e an LCA stud y fo cuse s p ri m ari l y on reduc- in g th e n e g at ive i m pa c t , a p ro d u c t ’s su stai nab l e p e r fo rm an ce can b e m ax i m i ze d by b ri n gin g to - geth e r t h e re liabl e d a t a o f q u a n t i t a t i ve LCA an d C2C co n ce p ts to i nfo rm a wi d e r ci rcul ar econ omy. READ M OR E EVALUATING THE CO ST A ND CA R BO N FO OT PR I N T O F SECO N D -L I F E E L ECT RI C VE H ICLE BAT T ERIES [ 13] Ex t ra c tion, impac t , l i t h i um , co bal t , n i cke l . M ost auto m o t ive L i - i o n ba tte ri e s a re re cycl e d b ut co ul d b e re p urp o se d as se co n d - l i fe ba tteries s in ce t h ey have 70– 8 0 % re si d u a l c a pa c i ty, whi ch can b e a d e q uate fo r stati o nar y ap p l i cati on s . Even th oug h s e co n d-life L i - i o n ba tte ri e s o f fe r an o p p o r tuni ty to uti l i ze an e n d - o f- l i fe p ro d uc t for en ergy s tora g e applic at io n s, t h e re i s st i l l h i g h u n ce r tai nty i n th e q ual i ty an d o n wh e th e r th e se wi ll provide s imilar co s t an d c a rb o n e m i ssi o n re d u c t i on fo r th e d i f fe re nt stati o nar y ap p l i cati o ns i n al l loca tion s compare d to n ew L i - i o n ba tte ri e s. READ M OR E M AY-J U NE 202 1 10
M ARK ET I NT E LLI G E N C E RE P O RT OTH ER TECHNICA L , MA RK ET A ND PO LI CY DEVE LO PM E N TS ST R AUBEL IS WORK ING ON MINIM I S I N G T H E M I N I N G O F C R I T I CA L R AW WM ATER IALS IN BAT TERIES . J. B . S t raube l’s m i ssi o n , w i t h t h e c rea t i o n o f th e star t- up “ Re d wo o d Mate ri al s”, i s to d rastica lly re - duce minin g o f raw m a te ri a l s su ch a s n i cke l , co p p e r, an d co bal t ove r seve ral d e ca d e s by buildin g out a c ircular o r “cl o se d - l o o p” su p p l y ch a in that re cycl e s an d re ci rcul ate s m ate ri al s re tri eved f rom en d - o f-life ve hicle a n d g ri d sto ra g e ba tte ri e s an d ce l l s scrap p e d d uri n g m anufa c turi n g . To do s o, th e org anis at io n w i l l co m b i n e pyro m e t a l l urg y p ro ce sse s (b urni n g batte ri e s to re m ove th e unwa n t- ed ma te rials ) an d hyd ro m e t a l l u rg y (soa kin g th e L i - i o n ce l l s i n a ci d s to d i sso l ve th e m e ta ls in to a s olutio n) . READ M OR E HERE AN D H E R E S O LVENT BASED DEL A MINATION: A N I N N OVAT I O N TO R ECOVER G R A PH I T E AN D LITHIUM FRO M BAT TERIES . T h e supply s carci ty a n d d e p e n d e n cy i n o th e r g e o g rap hi cal l o cati o ns o f th e cri ti cal raw ma teria ls grap hite an d lit hi u m a re a cce l e ra t i n g t h e urg e n cy to re cove r th e se f ro m ex i sti n g batte ri es , en s ur- in g d o m e s t ic s up p l y. S o l ve n t- ba se d d e l a m i nati o n i s a n ew p ro ce ss that se parate s a c ti ve ma teria l powd e rs f ro m c urre n t co l l e c to r fo i l s u si n g i n ex p e nsi ve , n o ntox i c so l ve nts. Th e se d o n o t en ta il wa - ter an d/o r air po ll u t i o n , n o r d a m a g e to a c ti ve m ate ri al s an d curre nt co l l e c to rs. READ M OR E L I THIUM EXTRACTION PL A N TA KE S R O OT I N A R KA N SA S: I N T E R VI EW WI T H R O B ERT MINTA K . El D o ra do’s ch e m i c a l i n d u st r y a n d t h e state re g ul ato r y str uc ture , al o n g wi th p l e nti f ul wa ter a n d in ex pe ns ive e le c t ri c i ty, h ave sm o o t h e n e d th e path fo r Stan d ard L i thi um , a te chn o l o g y developer for s pe c ial ty ch e m i c a l s a n d ext ra c t i ve p roce sse s. Thi s o rg ani sati o n ai m s to ex tra c t thro u gh in n o - vative te chn o lo g y : L iST R (l i t h i u m st i r t a n k rea c to r). Th e b ri n e i s a chl o ri d e m atri x b ri n e th e rea ch es th e p lant at abo u t 70 º C , w h e re i t ’s m i xe d wi th a l i thi um - se l e c ti ve ab so rb e nt m ate ri al . Adjus tin g th e pH t h e te chn o l o g y c a n re cove r >9 0 % o f th e l i thi um f ro m th e b ri n e . Th e l i thi um i s m oved in a s lurr y t hro ug h wa sh i n g a n d t h i cke n i n g sta g e s unti l i t rea ch e s a to o thpaste co nsi ste n cy. C h a n gin g th e pH a g ain by in t ro d u c i n g a d i l u te d hydro chl o ri c a ci d th ey o b tai n a raw l i thi um chl o ri d e s olution recove rin g 9 0 % o f t h e l i t h i u m i n a h i g h - p u ri ty l i thi um chl o ri d e so l uti o n i n l e ss than a d ay. Hen ce, it ha s a lowe r fo o t pri n t , h i g h e r re cove r y, a n d hi g h e r p uri ty. Thi s n ew te chn o l o g y i s ex p e c te d to rea ch a com m e rcial s ca l e w i t h i n two yea rs. READ M OR E R E P ORT ON U. S . 2019 BAT TERY R& D A DVA N C E S . Am erica’s E n e rg y D e pa r t m e n t i s l ea d i n g th e charg e i n cur tai l i n g U. S . d e p e n d e n ce o n cri tica l ma - terial s , by re ducin g t h e a m o u n t o f t h e se i n th e batte r y p ro d uc ti o n an d re cycl i n g th e m ate ria ls th a t are a lrea dy in us e , w h i l e c u tt i n g d ow n t h e co sts fo r b o th, co nsum e rs an d b usi n e sse s. Th e follow in g rep or t s h ows t h e exte n si ve ba tte r y re sea rch an d d eve l o p m e nt p e r fo rm e d by thi s d e par tm en t in 2019. READ M OR E B I D E N ANNOU NC ES ITS A MB ITION TO R E A LLO CAT E EXT R ACT I O N PL A N TS TO TH E US . “DOE will re leas e a N a t i o n a l B l u e p ri n t for L i thi um Batte ri e s that wi l l co d i f y th e f i n d i n gs of th e ba tter y s upply ch a i n rev i ew i n a 1 0 -yea r, wh o l e - o f- g ove rnm e nt p l an to urg e ntl y d eve l o p a dom es - tic lithium batte r y su p p l y ch a i n .” T h e b l u e p ri nt f ro m th e se wi l l b e d i scusse d at a ro un d table w ith various ex pe r t s f ro m t h e ba tte r y su p p l y chai n thi s m o nth. Mo re ove r, DO E i s ab o ut to l eve ra ge “ $17 billion f ro m t h e Ad va n ce d Te ch n o l o g y Ve hi cl e s Manufa c turi n g Loan Pro g ram to sup p o r t th e do - m es tic batte r y s u p p l y ch a i n” by e .g . : i n ce nti v i si n g m anufa c ture rs o f a d van ce d batte r y cells a n d pa cks to ex pan d o r rea l l o c a te t h e i r m a n u fa c turi n g si te s i n th e U. S . READ M OR E M AY-J U NE 202 1 11
M ARK ET I NT E LLI G E N C E RE P O RT
I R EC ’ S R EF LECTIO N ON DEVELOPM EN TS I N CO M PA R I S O N WI T H CO BR A
Vic tor Jo s é Fe rreira Ferre i ra
S e n io r re search er a t I REC
Profes sional ba ckg roun d
Vic to r is a ch e m i c a l e n g i n e e r w i t h a P hD i n th e m atte r f ro m th e U ni ve rsi ty o f Po r to (2013).
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co s t m e t h o d o l o g i e s to su p p o r t t h e C i rcul ar Eco n o my an d Eco - d e si g ns o f e n e rg y te chn ol-
o g ie s .
R e la tion to/ Role in COBRA
Wit hin COB R A , Vi c to r wo rks o p t i m i s i n g m ate ri al s, p ro ce sse s, e n e rg y co nsum p ti o n a n d
t reat m e nt at t h e e n d o f l i fe co n si d eri n g th e use f ul l i fe o f p ro d uc ts, p ro ce sse s an d s er-
v ice s f ro m t h e e nv i ro n m e n t a l , e co n om i c an d so ci al p o i nt o f v i ew.
T h e wo rk pe r fo rm e d i n CO B R A w i l l co n t ri b ute to ove rco m i n g chal l e n g e s to so l ve seve ral problems
high lig hte d in t h e p rev i o u s se c t i o n s. I n par ti cul ar, o ur re search a d d re sse s o n e o f th e m ain is s ues
involv in g e nv iro nm e n t a l a n d so c i a l i m p l i cati o ns i n th e batte r y val ue chai n, as i t i s d eve l o pin g n ew
cobal t-f re e batte r y g e n e ra t i o n s, ba se d o n L NMO ch e m i str y fo r th e i r cath o d e s. Th e p ro je c t is a ls o in
th e d ire c t io n to re d u ce t h e d e p e n d e n ce o f CRM wi th o ut n e g l e c ti n g to f ul f i l l re q ui re m e nts in terms
of cel l e n e rg y, rate - c a pa b i l i ty, a n d l i fe cycl e . Th e p ro je c t i s fo cuse d o n th e d e si g n o f an o des ba s ed
on s ilico n an d gra p h i te a s a c t i ve pa r t i cl e s to i n crease th e an o d e p e r fo rm an ce wh e n co m pa red w ith
pure g raphite . Howeve r, to avo i d t h e a d d i ti o nal i n co rp o rati o n o f e nv i ro nm e ntal b urd e ns as s ocia ted
with silico n, t h e p ro j e c t co n si d e rs t h e u se o f re cycl e d si l i co n f ro m waste stream s, whi ch is in lin e
with t h e circ ular e co n o my p ri n c i p l e s. Ad d i ti o nal l y, o th e r n ove l co m p o n e nts are b e i n g used in th e
devel o pm e nt o f n ew e l e c t ro l y te so l u t i o n s, an d m o re sustai nab l e an d e n e rg y- e f f i ci e nt batter y-pa ck
man ufa c t urin g . At t h e m o m e n t , t h e CO BRA co nso r ti um i s wo rki n g o n th e d e si g n o f th e ba tter y
system at all leve l s (m a te ri a l , co m p o n e n t , ce l l , m o d ul e , an d batte r y pa ck ). Th e e nv i ro nm e nta l, eco -
n omic , an d s o c ial p e rfo rm a n ce f ro m a n LCA p e rsp e c ti ve o f th e se i nn ovati o ns wi l l b e eval ua ted for
th e dif fe re nt al te rn a t i ve s to p rovi d e g u i d e l i n e s i n th e d e si g n o f g re e n e r batte ri e s an d a n ea s ier
man a g e m e nt in e n d - o f- l i fe sce n a ri o s i nvol v i n g re cycl i n g te chn o l o g i e s an d 2n d l i fe usa g es , w h ich
will re duce t h e us e o f m a te ri a l re so u rce s an d co nse q ue ntl y th e i r e nv i ro nm e ntal i m pa c ts.
INTERVIEW WITH VI CTO R JO SÉ F E R R E I R A F E R R E I R A
Q1: How wo ul d yo u p e rs o n a l l y t a ck l e t h e is s ue atte nti o n to th e d ata co l l e c ti o n p ro ces s , s in ce
of n ot be i n g a b l e to a s s es s a n d p er fo rm a n LCA th e batte r y val ue chai n i nvo l ve s co m plex pro -
of th e ba tte r y on i t s own? ce sse s, e sp e ci al l y i n th e p ro d uc ti o n p ha s e. Da ta
fo r th e fo re g ro un d p ro ce sse s m ust b e of qua li-
I would s e e k s upp o r t f ro m exp e r t s to h e l p m e ap -
ty, th e re by, we sh o ul d se e k cl o se co l l abora tion
plyin g t h e LCA m e t h o d o l o g y, i n pa r t i c u l a r i n th e
wi th th e m anufa c ture rs an d e nti ti e s dedica t-
ba tter y f ie ld. T his i s a m e t h o d o l o g y t h a t de sp i te
e d to re cycl i n g p ro ce sse s. In a d d i ti o n, we mus t
bein g s t an dardize d , ea ch re sea rch e r o r te chni -
have re co g ni ze d an d up d ate d d atabases for th e
cian c an co ns ide r d i f fe re n t c ri te ri a , sco p es, an d
ba ckg ro un d p ro ce sse s (raw m ate ri al extra c tion
ob jec t ive s . It im p l i e s co l l a b o ra t i ve wo rk wi th
an d e n e rg y so urce s). Th e se can b e p riva te a n d
oth er re s earch e rs d e d i c a te d to t h e ba tter y LCA
p ub l i c d atabase s, fo r exam p l e , th o se th a t we
s tud ie s . W hile co n d u c t i n g t h e LCA , we m ust pay
M AY-J U NE 202 1 12M ARK ET I NT E LLI G E N C E RE P O RT
public dat abas e s, fo r exa m p l e , t h o se t h at we m o d e l s. U n d e r thi s co ntex t , batte r y res ea rch -
can f i n d in t h e Eu ro p ea n P l a t fo rm o n L i fe Cycl e e rs an d m anufa c ture rs have a m o ral res pon s i-
Assess m e nt . On t h e o t h e r h a n d , we h ave to b e b i l i ty to anal yse wh e re th e so ci al co nf l ic ts , ris ks
carefu l w h e n maki n g a n e nvi ro n m e n t a l co m par- o r o p p o r tuni ti e s, wi thi n th e i r a c ti v i ti es occur.
is on b e twe e n prod u c t s u si n g t h e LCA a p p roa ch,
s in ce diffe re nt re s u l t s c a n b e fo u n d i n l i te rature . Q3: Cons id erin g t h ere are d ifferent LCA te m-
I would lo o k fo r t h e l a te st t re n d s, m e t h o d s o r p lates an d in d ic ators , which on e is th e o n e
recom m e n dat io ns fo r t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of LCA ch os en by CO B RA for t h e p roj ec t an d why ?
wh en hav in g to eva l u a te a n ew g e n e ra ti o n o f
Th e CO BRA p ro je c t’s LCA i n d i cato rs a re ba s ed
ba tterie s be in g deve l o p e d w i t h re sp e c t to o th e r
o n re co g ni se d stan d ard s an d g ui d e l i n es for th e
conve nt io nal o n e s to re p o r t a re l i a b l e LCA .
p ro p e r eval uati o n o f p ro d uc ts an d systems (th a t
can b e fo un d i n t h e CO B RA rep or t . For th e en -
1· Clear review goal/scope def inition v i ro nm e ntal p e r fo rm an ce d e scri p ti o n , s evera l
2· Critical review of references m e tri cs are se l e c te d aro un d e n e rg y con s ump -
3· Identif y signif icant parameters ti o n, cl i m ate chan g e e f fe c ts, an d p ri m a r y en er-
4· Harmonise parameters g y d e m an d . Th e e co n o m i c asp e c ts are a s s es s ed
5· Statistical suppor tive analysis thro ug h anal ysi s o f CA PEX an d O PEX va ria bles
6· Results and discussion an d , al so, th e e n d - o f- l i fe eval uati o n o n th e tota l
e co n o m i c i m pa c t o f th e batte r y pa ck . Wh ile th e
so ci al eval uati o n, p e r fo rm e d by an ex perien ced
Q2: As a l l th e a s s es s m e n t o p t i o n s d i s c us s ed
ex te rnal par tn e r, i n cl ud e s th e anal ysi s of poten -
throug h out th e pa p er a re m a i n l y ba s e d on an-
ti al l ab o ur ab use - re l ate d ri sks an d safety a n d
alysin g th e e nv i ro n m e n t a l a n d eco n o m ic s us -
h eal th ri sks d e ri ve d f ro m th e use o f th e devel-
tainab i l i ty o f th e d i f fe ren t p h a s e s , wh a t d o you
o p e d te chn o l o g y. We can f i n d al l ch o sen in dica -
cons i d e r th e be s t o p t i o n to m o n i to r o r as s es s
to rs i n t h e followin g CO B RA rep or t .
th e s o c i a l i mpa c t s o f ba tte ri e s? H ow is t his
don e c urre ntl y w i t h i n t h e i n d u s t r y ?
Q 4 : W hat are t h e d ifferen ces an d s imilaritie s
M ost batte r y s us ta i n a b i l i ty st u d i e s a re focuse d b etween CO B RA’s ap p roa ch an d t h e marke t’s/
on eco n o mic an d e nv i ro n m e n t a l a sp e c ts. Bat- in d us t r y ’s g en eral ap p roa ch wh en a ddre ssin g
ter y manufa c t ure rs h ave g i ve n l i tt l e a tte n ti o n to t h e im pa c t s of s t ate - of- t h e - ar t Li- ion batte r-
th e so cial implica t i o n s, p ro ba b l y d u e to th e d i f- ies?
f icul ty o f as s e s s in g q u a n t i t a t i ve l y t h e so ci al i m -
Th e LCA m e th o d o l o g y i n use i s si m i l a r to th e
pa c ts o f batte rie s fo l l ow i n g t h e LCA m e t h o d o l o -
o n e g e n e ral l y ch o se n i n th e m arke t , w h ich is
gy b e c aus e o f c urre n t so u rce s o f d a t a a n d so ci al
fo cuse d o n th e p ro d uc ti o n sta g e . However, th e
categ o rie s . H oweve r, re sea rch e rs a re d evel o p i n g
CO BRA p ro je c t al so a d d re sse s th e i m pa c ts f rom
n ew m e t h o ds fo r q u a n t i f i c a t i o n . Fro m my p o i nt
th e earl y sta g e s o f co bal t- f re e batte r y develop -
of view, to prov id e a p i c t u re o f so c i a l i m pa c ts
m e nt/d e si g n. Th e anal ysi s o f th e e nv iron m en -
rela te d to batte rie s, t h e su p p l y ch a i n f ro m m i n-
tal , e co n o m i c , an d so ci al i m pa c ts, co ns iderin g
in g co mpanie s to ba tte r y m a n u fa c t u re s sh o ul d
al l l i fe cycl e p hase s, wi l l p rov i d e i nsi g h ts of th e
be m o nito re d, as t h e a c t i v i t i e s a sso c i a te d wi th
d i f fe re nt d eve l o p m e nts at th e m ate ria l, com-
th e raw m ate rial ext ra c t i o n g e n e ra te co nsi d -
p o n e nt , ce l l , m o d ul e , an d batte r y pa ck level. I n
erab le im pa c t s a ro u n d t h e l o c a l co m m u ni ti e s
a d d i ti o n, re cycl ab i l i ty an d e co - d e si g n con cepts
wh ere t h e s e are m i n e d . M o re ove r, i n o rd e r to
are al so co nsi d e re d to a chi eve th e targ eted s us -
close t h e lo o p an d e n h a n ce t h e c i rc u l a r e co n o -
tai nab i l i ty p e r fo rm an ce o f th e n ew g en era tion
my of batte rie s , t h e e f fe c t o f re cycl i n g /re - use o f
batte r y te chn o l o g y.
ba tterie s s h o uld b e t a ke n i n to a cco u n t . B atte r y
recyclin g o f fe rs a n o p p o r t u n i ty to m a xi mi ze th e
S e co n d l i fe a p p l i c a ti o n s a n d
use o f mate rials b e fo re t h e i r eve n t u a l d isp o sal
re cycl a b i l i ty a re exp e c te d to
to red uce t h e raw m a te ri a l ext ra c t i o n a n d th e
a i d i n rea ch i n g a m o re susta in -
en erg y invo lve d. Th e se co n d - l i fe o f EV ba tte ri e s
a b l e va l ue ch a i n , co n si de rin g
is a ls o a ve r y pro m i si n g pa t hway fo r re duci n g
a l l th re e p i l l a rs: e nv i ro n m e nt al,
th e c umulat ive s o c i a l i m pa c t s o f ba tte ri e s an d
so c i a l , a n d e co n o m i c .
a n ew o ppo r t uni ty to g e n e ra te n ew b usi n e ss
M AY-J U NE 202 1 13M ARK ET I NT E LLI G E N C E RE P O RT
Q5: How do e s th e p ro j e c t co n t ri b u te to s olu- o r l o n g e r l i fe ti m e . In a d d i ti o n, th e n ew des ign s
tions tha t e n co ura g e t h e recycl i n g a n d rep ur- wi l l i n cl ud e i n creasi n g l y th e ci rcul ar econ omy
posin g o f ba tte ri e s? p ri n ci p l e s that can g ui d e sustai nab l e ma n a ge -
m e nt o f th e g rowi n g stream o f e n d - o f-life ba t-
COBRA pro j e c t co n t ri b u te s to t h i s t a ki n g a cra-
te ri e s co nsi d e ri n g re cove r y thro ug h h iera rchy
dle - to - grave pe rs p e c t i ve i n i t s LCA to p rovi d e th e
pathways, i .e ., d i re c t re use o f use d batteries in
enviro nm e nt al be n e f i t s o f f u l l so l u t i o n s, in cl ud -
ve hi cl e ap p l i cati o ns, casca d i n g re use i n les s de -
in g th e ir s e co n d l i fe a p p l i c a t i o n a n d re cycl ab i l -
m an d i n g e n e rg y sto ra g e ap p l i cati o ns, ma teria l
ity to re duce t h e co n su m p t i o n o f raw m ate ri al s.
re cove r y thro ug h re cycl i n g p ro ce sse s with low-
In con t ras t to t h e m o st co m m o n m e t h o d s fo r re -
e r i m pa c ts, an d se n d i n g a m i ni m um am oun t of
cyclin g an d re cove r y o f m e t a l s (hyd ro m e tal l ur-
m ate ri al to d ownstream d i sp o sal . Th e COB R A
gical an d py ro m e t a l l u rg i c a l p ro ce sse s), whi ch
p ro je c t h e n ce co ntri b uti n g to th e d e si gn of n ew
have large e nv iro n m e n t a l i m pa c t s, t h e CO BRA
co bal t- f re e batte ri e s, hi g h e n e rg y d e n s ity, a n d
projec t is deve lo p i n g a b i o l ea ch i n g m e th o d to
rate o f se l f- d i scharg e i n cl ud i n g 2n d l i fe a s pec ts
recove r mate rials , w h i ch i s exp e c te d to have
an d re cycl ab i l i ty wi th a h o l i sti c LCA as s es s in g
lower impa c t s . In a d d i t i o n , d e si g n a sp e c ts are
th e thre e p i l l ars o f sustai nab i l i ty : e nv iron m en -
bein g co ns ide re d i n t h e d eve l o p m e n t of n ew
tal , e co n o m i c , an d so ci al .
ba tter y g e n e rat io n to e n h a n ce t h e 2 n d l i fe ap -
plica t io ns bas e d o n t h e i r n e e d s a n d req ui re -
m ents .
Q6: H ow do yo u fo res e e t h e f u t u re s cen ario of Co n t a c t d e t a i l s
susta i na bl e ba tteri es a n d h ow w i l l COB RA’s
outco m e contri b u te to i t?
I thin k t hat t h e f u t u re fo r su st a i n a b l e batte ri e s
will be fo c us e d o n co n si d e ra b l e e f fo r t s to m i n-
imis e t h e mate ria l a n d m a n u fa c t u ri n g i m pa c ts info@irec .cat
of Li- io n batte rie s, i n pa r t i c u l a r n ew e l e c tro d e +34 933 562 615
desig ns an d al te rn a te m a te ri a l s t h a t a ll ev i ate www.irec .cat
cobal t de man d an d p rovi d e p e r fo rm a n ce a d van-
ta ges, s uch as hig h e r e n e rg y a n d p owe r de nsi ty
This report reflects only the author’s view. The European Commission and the Innovation and Networks Executive
Agency (INEA) are not responsible for any use that may be made of the information it contains.
The COBRA project has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020
research and innovation programme under Grant Agreement 875568.
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