Leading Change in Educational Institutions for Technology Adoption in Latin America
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International Journal of Organizational Leadership 9(2020) 67-76
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF
ORGANIZATIONAL LEADERSHIP
WWW.CIKD.CA
Leading Change in Educational Institutions
for Technology Adoption in Latin America
Patricia Avitia Carlos1*, Bernabé Rodríguez Tapia2, Norma Candolfi Arballo3
1,2,3
Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Tijuana, México
ABSTRACT
Keywords: Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) have become increasingly relevant in
Educational management, ICT most work environments and this tendency is expected to continue over time. Therefore,
policies, Innovation educational systems around the world have made efforts for the acquisition and use of
technology. This study aims to identify representative ICT integration programs on education
present in recent decades in Latin America, as part of the interpretation and adaptation of
Received public policies to the context. Bibliographic techniques were used to analyze the trends that
01 August 2020 have been followed in the region in terms of educational management for the adoption of ICT.
Received in revised form As a result, more than 70 articles from scientific journals, four databases and three government
06 August 2020 websites were analyzed. They evidence an awareness of the relevance of ICT for innovation,
Accepted and the existence of strategic programs for the reduction of access and use gaps. However, it
08 August 2020
is also noted the existence a challenging context characterized by socioeconomic inequities.
In general, the influence of public policy on the promotion of these programs is observed, as
well as the need for a theoretical methodological support for the development of an integral
management model, in which the technology component does not constitute a parallel item.
Management of educational institutions is crucial to normalize experiences and provide
references that can be integrated into environmental conditions.
*Correspondence:
patricia_avitia@uabc.edu.mx ©CIKD Publishing
The notion of Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) as a relevant element within
the innovation processes of organizations, including educational ones, is widely accepted
(Cifuentes, 2016; 2016; Kozma, 2010). Likewise, the notion of ICT as an innovative element is
reinforced by recent empirical studies from the Organization for Economic Co-operation and
Development (OECD, 2012), pointing to a positive relationship between adoption and use of ICT
and the economic performance of its member countries at micro and macro levels. In its report on
innovation in the knowledge economy, the OECD (2004) points to ICT as a driver of innovation
6768 Patricia Avitia Carlosa, Bernabé Rodríguez Tapiab, & Norma Candolfi Arballoc
along with three other major drivers: scientific knowledge, collaboration between user-makers and
modular structures. Thus, the creation of user networks and the flow of shared knowledge are
valued as articulators of innovations with the potential to break into the entire system and not to
only be absorbed by their current practices.
In the education field, ICTs have been identified within public policies as elements of innovation
with expectations of knowledge potentialization and democratization of education, producers of
development with equity (Lugo & Brito, 2015; Lugo & Ithurburu, 2019; Represas, 2015). These
expectations have risen ICT initiatives in almost all countries, with emphasis on the provision of
infrastructure and improvement in access indicators. Nevertheless, results from ICT incorporation
in education do not show the expected scope and effectiveness; suggesting that they have not
revolutionized but reinforced existing teaching methods, curricula and educational goals (Torres,
2010; Watson, 2006). In other words, they have been assimilated by current systems without having
generated the anticipated disruptive effect. Similarly, UNESCO (2011) points out that policies have
the capacity to add value to the educational processes and system results; as long as they are
considered a systemic change. In this systemic perspective, policies are capable of promoting
innovations based on technology. Yet, innovations could occur throughout the system and still not
change it, if their objectives, practices and structures remain unchanged.
Policy is defined by Nuñez Urbina et al. (2013) as the set of government provisions that guide a
certain order within the educational setting, in order to achieve established goals of design,
implementation or evaluation of proposals; within a political, social and cultural framework.
Although this definition coincides with the habitual consideration made of policies as a strategic
discourse which shares a broad vision of the context, to motivate people to change and coordinate
efforts within the system, these can also be operational. Policies can derive into plans, programs or
projects that provide mechanisms and resources with which to realize the generated vision
(UNESCO, 2011).
Cifuentes (2016) considers that future research on ICT should consider the area of
implementation (execution) of education policy as a key part of the analysis of contemporary
educational policies in the Latin American context. Context is relevant to politics (Ball et al., 2012).
This relationship can be established since, just as policies create context, this also precedes them.
The context relevant to politics is understood to be comprised of location, history and population,
material aspects and external pressures. For Latin America, the context is even more important
while evaluating public policy implementation results, given the existing characteristics of
socioeconomic inequality in the region.
In the analysis of the development and implementation of educational policies in ICT, subjects
and their social, historical and cultural processes are also relevant; which are interrelated from
prescription until execution of the government order (Nuñez Urbina et al., 2013). In the execution,
we find the reinterpretation of policy that is carried out within the organizations to integrate it into
the existing structure and processes. Thus, a methodological redesign in relation to the adoption of
technology is necessary to integrate all the actors and generate permanent changes in the
organization (Salinas, 2005).
An understanding of the integration of ICT in teaching-learning processes reveals that there is a
close relationship with politics, under which the academic, administrative and organizational
aspects are intertwined (Cifuentes & Valbuena, 2018). This internal management of educational
institutions combines quality assurance systems and accountability practices of both academic and
68International Journal of Organizational Leadership 9(2020) 69
administrative personnel including discourses of efficiency in the practice of public management.
Strategic plans increase success in the integration of ICT in educational contexts (Cifuentes &
Vanderlinde, 2015). Despite this, the influence of ICT management models in schools as part of
the implementation of public education policies has not received enough attention and has been
relegated from studies of innovation supported by technology in education. As a result, there is
little systematized information about it (Cifuentes, 2016; Sunkel, Trucco, & Espejo, 2013).
Management can be defined from different perspectives. If observed from the organization
actors’ interactions, it can be understood as "the ability to articulate mental representations of the
members of an organization" (Casassus, 2000, p. 4). In order to observe the implementation of
public policies, we consider the ICT management in education from the paradigm of the
mobilization of resources (material, human and social).
The objective of this work was to identify representative ICT integration programs in
educational activities presented in recent decades in Latin America, as part of the interpretation and
adaptation of public policies to the particular context. The aim is to emphasize the mechanisms
established by the actors to assume the strategic planning of innovation from the day-to-day
management of the school. To meet this objective, an exploratory study based on bibliographic
techniques was proposed. The literature review methodology uses both public documents from
official government sites and supranational organizations, as well as articles in scientific databases
that account for regional experiences in the field and meet the criteria of thematic and temporal
relevance. The present study addresses the following research questions:
1. What are the public policies and programs implemented for the adoption of ICT in education in
Latin America in the last two decades?
2. How the implementation of those programs is perceived by the management practices?
Method
In order to meet the established research objective and answer the research questions, an
exploratory study based on bibliographic techniques was developed. According to Chong (2007),
a documentary research "is the methodical and formal process that facilitates and supports the agile
and systematized access to the product of scientific research, reported in documentary sources". Its
importance lies in that it "leads to the collection of information, systematically, analytically,
synthetically and critically" (p. 187). Documents with the following characteristics were included
in the review:
• Bibliographic database; including peer reviewed articles and books published in Spanish or
English from year 2000 to date.
• Databases of international organizations for education and economic development:
UNICEF, OECD, CEPAL and SITEAL.
• Electronic pages of government agencies; Colombia, Mexico & Argentina.
In the end, more than 70 articles from scientific journals, 4 databases and 3 government
websites were analysed. For each coincidence, priority was given to the existence of an exposition
of the policies that went beyond the discourse analysis to focus on the experiences and their results;
preferably from the actors’ vision and describing the nature of the programs as well as their impact.
Results
Countries in Latin America are part of a heterogeneous region, where great socioeconomic
inequalities are yet present, despite most of them having a democratic process and a growing70 Patricia Avitia Carlosa, Bernabé Rodríguez Tapiab, & Norma Candolfi Arballoc
economy in decades (Lugo & Brito, 2015). Regarding ICT, those inequities are reflected in both,
access and use performance; and are the result from factors such as income level, social and
educational status, geographic ubication and ethnicity (OECD, 2015). In a similar order of ideas,
Lugo and Ithurburu (2019) consider that the challenges that the region must face in ICT policies
rest, along with access, in the dimensions of digital literacy and inequality of the uses given to
digital technologies by the population. The OECD notes a gap between the productive sensor and
the formation on ICT provided by the higher education system (OECD, 2015).
According to the OECD, governments consider ICT to be an important platform for research
and innovation in all sectors. Consequently, its main associated areas of interest are penetration of
bandwidth, research and development in ICT, financing for innovative entrepreneurship, and
diffusion of technology in business. Particularly with regard to ICT, the priorities during 2012 of
the member countries of the OECD were ICT skills and employment, online government, as well
as the security of information systems and networks (OECD, 2012).
Citing the report on "Telecommunications in Latin America", Lugo and Brito (2015) highlight
the fact that the penetration of bandwidth in households during 2012 was 70.5% for Europe and
78.4% for the United States; while in Latin America it only reached 34.2%. Regarding mobile
broadband penetration, this was 47% for the population of Europe and 20% for that of Latin
America. For this reason the countries of the region have promoted connectivity plans, such as the
Argentina Connected National Plan, the Imagine Chile 2013-2020 Digital Agenda, the Colombian
Live Digital Plan 2010-2014, the Uruguay Digital Agenda, the National Digital Strategy for
Mexico, the National Telecommunications Plan 2011-2015 CONATEL of Paraguay, the
Development Plan of the Information Society in Peru The Digital Agenda 2.0, the National Plan of
Telecommunications Development 2009-2014 in Costa Rica, among others.
Regarding other indicators of ICT infrastructure in the region such as the percentage of
households with a computer and the percentage of households with Internet access, they are located
in 2012 according to SITEAL data (2019) at 33.94% and 26.4% respectively. Uruguay is the
country with the highest index of households with a computer and Internet access; while Nicaragua
has the lowest indicators for the region as seen in Table 1. This in turn has led to programs to
provide computer equipment for schools and the creation of community centers and public access
points in several of the member countries.
Table 1
Percentage of Households with a Computer and Percentage of Households with Internet Access in Latin American
Countries During 2012
Percentage of households that owns a computer Percentage of households with Internet access
Argentina 56 47.5
Bolivia 25.9 10
Brazil 46.3 40.2
Colombia 38.4 32.1
Costa Rica 48.96 47.3
Chile 53.69 40.9
Dominican Republic 19.7 13.65
Ecuador 32.21 22.5
El Salvador 19.6 11.8
Guatemala 19.15 9.3
Honduras 15.12 13.2
México 32 26
Nicaragua 9.93 7.4
Panama 38.3 30.5
Paraguay 24.29 25.1
Peru 28.5 20.2
Uruguay 63.7 48.4
Venezuela 39.2 29.3
Source: SITEAL
70International Journal of Organizational Leadership 9(2020) 71
As previously mentioned, the digital divide also corresponds to income inequality. So, despite
recent efforts, the quintile with the highest income also has greater access to a computer (41%) and
the Internet (11%) compared to the poorest quintile access (4% and 1% respectively). If the gap is
analyzed in terms of GDP percentage, the cost of access to broadband per inhabitant is 0.4% in the
United States and 1.1% in Canada with much higher costs for Latin American countries (1.5% in
Uruguay and 2% in Brazil to 22.8% in Nicaragua and 81.9% in Haiti) according to data reported
by ITU for 2012 and cited by OECD (2015).
Still, schools in less developed countries, such as those in South America, face more barriers to
the use of ICT in addition to the primary represented by accessibility. Some range from access to
computers, lack of software, technical and administrative support, teacher training, internet access
and, in some cases, even lack of electricity in some areas (Kozma, 2010). Hence, about 44% of
developing countries have developed national plans for the growth of the ICT sector and another
20% are in the process of developing them. Although a large number of countries are reported with
plans to accelerate infrastructure, more specifically the adoption of bandwidth, there is great
diversity among them in terms of objectives and policies. Remarkable is also the fact that in many
of the programs there is a lack of theoretical bases to carry out the evaluation of the effectiveness
of such ICT policies (Prashant, Naveed, & Hamid, 2015).
Some of the ICT programs settled in Latin America as part of the strategic development
initiatives are shown in Table 2. This list does not intend to be exhaustive, but to account for the
diversity of existing proposals in the region and, in some cases, even within the same country.
Table 2
Strategic Programs in Latin America for the Incorporation of ICT in Education
Argentina Educ.ar
Programa Núcleos de Acceso al Conocimiento
Bolivia Una computadora por docente
Brazil Programa Nacional de Acesso ao Ensino Técnico e Emprego (Pronatec)
Programa Nacional de Formacao Continuada em Tecnología Educacional (Integrated ProInfo)
Colombia Educa Digital Colombia
Programa de Formación de Educadores CREA-TIC: Inspirar, Crear y Diseñar Aprendizajes con TIC
Costa Rica Plan Nacional de Tecnologías Móviles (PNTM), Tecno@prender
Programa Nacional de Informática Educativa (PRONIE MEP-FOD)
Cuba Jóven Club de Computación y Electrónica (JCCE)
Chile Formación Docente para el Desarrollo de Competencias TIC
Tecnología en el Currículum
Dominican Agenda Digital
Republic Programa Compumaestro 2.0
Ecuador Agenda Educativa Digital
Plan de Acceso Universal y Alistamiento Digital
El Salvador Programa Creando Conocimiento
Programa “Cerrando la brecha del conocimiento”
Guatemala Estrategia para una Educación de Calidad para la Niñez y Juventud Guatemalteca
Honduras Agenda Digital de Honduras
México Estrategia Digital Nacional
México Conectado
Nicaragua Proyecto de Telecomunicaciones rurales
Panama Aprende al Máxico
Para, Piensa, Conéctate
Paraguay Plan Director TIC
Alfabetización Digital (Infocentros Comunitarios)
Peru TIC para la educación pública
Plan de Desarrollo de la Sociedad de la Información en el Perú la Agenda Digital 2.0
Uruguay Uruguay Digital
Plan Ceibal (Conectividad Educativa de Informática Básica para el Aprendizaje en Línea)
Venezuela Plan Nacional de Alfabetización y Formación Tecnológica
Source: SITEAL (2019)72 Patricia Avitia Carlosa, Bernabé Rodríguez Tapiab, & Norma Candolfi Arballoc
In the case of Peru (Balarín, 2013) there is a lack of systematized official information to allow
the analysis of the impact of ICT policies in recent years. Likewise, the alternation between two
trends is reported: centralizing the management of ICT policies and mainstreaming at all levels and
spheres. In counterpart, Colombia is an example of the development of an ICT policy with a
strategic vision; addressing elements such as infrastructure, human capital development,
improvement of teaching practices with technology and management and production of digital
educational resources. Thus, through its PlanEsTIC program, higher education institutions were
encouraged to develop, implement and evaluate their own plan (Cifuentes, 2016; Galvis, 2014). In
this flexible way, the characteristics of the context and the culture of the organization could be
considered within its own strategy of technological appropriation and policy execution.
On the other hand, Argentina has recognized both the financing difficulties involved in the
obsolescence of ICT, as well as the importance of linking the public and private sectors in these
initiatives. Its Connect Equality Program aims to go beyond the provision of infrastructure, to
reorganize the actions of institutions in the same field; recognizing the importance of
communication policies in educational management (Vacchieri, 2013). In the same case is Costa
Rica, where ICT projects are developed in conjunction with a non-profit organization promoted in
1987 by the Costa Rican government, the Omar Dengo Foundation. In this country, a
comprehensive management model is reported, covering the operational framework, infrastructure,
monitoring and evaluation (Muñoz et al., 2013).
In addition to Costa Rica, Uruguay is one of the few countries in the region that has an evaluation
program for its social and technological inclusion plan (Plan Ceibal), which includes quantitative
and qualitative approaches. However, this program has been repeatedly pointed out to the lack of
articulation with the formal education system, being developed without the participation of
educational authorities or teachers (Vaillant, 2013). This is a case in which political aspects have a
strong influence on the development of programs. Therefore, the aforementioned need of recognize
the relation between policies and implementation, and the relevance of management systems.
In Mexico, educational innovation programs are also strongly linked to changes in public
administration and have a strong political component. In 2013, the National Digital Strategy was
presented as an action plan with the objective of promoting the adoption of ICT and the
incorporation of Mexico into the Knowledge Society. The plan’s goal was to increase the level of
digitization in Mexico, raising it from the last place obtained during 2011 among OECD members
to the average index (Gobierno de la República, 2013). Current models in Mexico include computer
labs, educational portals and digital content, the provision of computer equipment to classrooms
and the emergence of the 1 to 1 approach (Díaz Barriga Arceo, 2013). Moreover, the creation of
inter-institutional knowledge networks for the use of technology and the promotion of distance
learning is pursued in higher education (Garzón Clemente, 2014).
Similarly, Ecuador has internal differences in terms of Internet access and computer systems
likewise the rest of the countries in the region. In 2017, this country formulated the Digital
Educational Agenda with the aim of strengthening education by incorporating innovative
technologies and practices. It seeks to develop digital skills in students, strengthening pedagogical
aspects and improving access in alliance with public associations (Loja, 2020).
Overall, from the aforementioned strategic programs it can be observed that, even though ICT
employment for education and innovation has appeared on the Latin American political agenda, it
72International Journal of Organizational Leadership 9(2020) 73
is not clear that they are accompanied by a theoretical support that strengthens its employment at
classroom level and benefits its effective appropriation by the community members in which they
seek to influence. The strategies used vary from connectivity improvement, equipment provision
and teachers training to external participation proposals with financing purposes. However, there
is no evidence of the development of an integrated management system in schools, one which
includes the systematic information collection that allows its evaluation as well as a precise
definition of evaluation criteria.
The development of successful ICT inclusion policies will depend on their ability to converge
the efforts of the different stakeholders. Such collaboration is required during both stages, policy
development and its implementation, while placing existing experiences within the context in
which they take place. The proposal of Lugo et al. (2016, as cited in Lugo & Ithurburu, 2019) to
analyze the factors that influence the design and implementation of these policies in education are
the dimensions such as planning and management, infrastructure and connectivity, digital, and
pedagogical culture.
Discussion
Literature shows that, although Latin American countries are formalizing strategic plans on ICT,
most of them do not incorporate evaluation systems on their implementation (Cifuentes &
Vanderlinde, 2015; Lugo & Ithurburu, 2019) and do not have a systematic data collection. This is
considered one of their weakest points. These are characteristics that differentiate the region as well
as the remarkable social and economic differences. However, it can be seen how innovation through
ICT has opened its way in the regional political agenda and the existence of a gradual progress in
the areas of infrastructure and access.
Although public ICT incorporation policies are issued by the State, it is important to incorporate
the different sectors in their planning, implementation and evaluation. Alongside, existing problems
and tensions among sectors should be addressed during this process (Lugo & Ithurburu, 2019).
As Casassus (2000) stated, there is a problem of divergence of objectives in the management
from the scale perspective. Thus, politics is located at the macro level and deals with the economy
from a pragmatic and neoliberal perspective; while the micro level is devoted to student learning,
from pedagogy. The tensions originated are observable when the design of policies does not
consider elements to articulate them. That is why considering the incorporation of ICT as regular
part of educational management allows an association between technological innovation and the
culture of the organization, an articulation that is yet lacking in the implementation of those
policies. In this study, we found multiple existing regional initiatives and some of the difficulties
they face from the dimensions of context, policy and theoretical foundation. It also presents the
need to approach the phenomenon from a systemic position that combines the communication of
the discourse within the organization with its substantive processes.
The existence of strategic areas within the planning and implementation of ICT public policies
can be identified given the discussed characteristics of the geographical context as well as the
existing challenges at the global level in terms of work and digitization. These areas primarily
include the gaps in access and digital literacy. Additionally, educational systems and in particular
higher education subsystems merit a rethinking of the nature of their traditional teaching model
(OECD, 2015).
The efforts aimed to reduce gaps entail a revision of the financing systems, distribution projects
and the integration of collaboration proposals from the public and private sectors. We have already74 Patricia Avitia Carlosa, Bernabé Rodríguez Tapiab, & Norma Candolfi Arballoc
discussed how, although most of the region governments have ICT policies with such orientation,
these still lack effective evaluation and monitoring mechanisms. Furthermore, implementation
measures that develop a digital culture should add to the initial emphasis placed on access.
Technological advances and digital inclusion in schools do not automatically constitute an
improvement in educational practices but are required conditions to advance in the construction of
pedagogical conditions for educational change (Lugo & Ithurburu, 2019).
On the other hand, reflection on ICTs in education is not limited to determining the
implementation mechanisms addressed to reduce gaps. On the contrary, it is necessary to include
the strategic role of the educational system in the development of the digital competences required
both by the labor market and for the integration of the population in a digital culture. University
and their functions are part of this reflection; not only joining the technological transformation but
updating its relationship with society.
Conclusions and Implications
Results from the study provide a descriptive framework for the recent implementation of ICT
educational public policy on several Latin American countries. It presents the relationship between
strategies and management that have been developed in each particular case for the adoption of
technological resources and their adaptation to the contextual characteristics. This review
contributes both to the analytical reflection of the processes of adoption of innovations, and to
establishing comparisons of the management models used in the educational field to interpret and
execute public policy from a pre-existing organizational structure.
It has been observed that, besides the complex context, the policies implementation require
flexibility to integrate local leadership and management strategies within an institutional level. It is
not a novelty that teachers play a crucial role on the adoption of technology on education. But the
program’s results have also made evident that their mere willingness to use technology is
insufficient to produce an effective adoption when there is a lack of a support structure, evaluable
objectives and procedures that can be provided by an adequate management. Therefore, ICT
adoption programs may benefit from the integration on the institution management practices,
including formal and informal leadership.
Additionally, the lack of robust evaluation systems and the inference of politics diminishes the
long-term goals for the region. The multiplicity of programs arises questions about their articulation
and their capacity to introduce permanent changes into the system. However, we found a region
with consistent evidence of a compromise to invest public resources aimed to innovate their
educational practices and reduce the existing social gaps despite the complex conditions. The same
conditions will prove to become even more challenging in coming years and thus in need of
strategic actions.
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