Informants' consensus on ethnomedicinal plants in Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary of Indian Himalayas
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Journal of Medicinal Plants Research Vol. 7(4), pp. 148-154, 25 January, 2013
Available online at http://www.academicjournals.org/JMPR
DOI: 10.5897/JMPR12.599
ISSN 1996-0875 ©2013 Academic Journals
Full Length Research Paper
Informants’ consensus on ethnomedicinal plants in
Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary of Indian Himalayas
Jahangeer A. Bhat, Munesh Kumar*, A. K. Negi and N. P. Todaria
Department of Forestry and Natural Resources, HNB Garhwal University, Srinagar Garhwal-246174, Uttarakhand, India.
Accepted 31 October, 2012
The present study was carried out in the protected area of Greater Himalayas, Uttarakhand, India. The
study was carried out to understand the consensus on medicinal plants by inhabitants of Kedarnath
Wildlife Sanctuary. The study documented 21 plant species that are used medicinally in 17 ailment
categories. Out of 21 plant species, 12 species were reported for a single ailment separately and 8
species were reported by informants for more than one ailment. The consensus of informants for the
roots and rhizomes were the most frequently used plant parts (68%). The plants which are under rare
list in IUCN Red List category observed in the study area are Picrorhiza kurrooa, Aconitium
hetrophyllum and Podophyllum hexandrum. The Consensus index factor (Fic) was found to be higher in
the Haematological illness category (1.00) followed by Dermatological and Ophthalmological category
which was (0.98).
Key words: Ethnomedicinal plants, consensus, informants, ailments, Himalaya.
INTRODUCTION
In India, of the 17,000 species of higher plants, 7500 are Himalaya (Singh and Hajra, 1996), of these, 1,748
known for medicinal uses (Shiva, 1996). The Charak species are known as medicinal plants (Samant et al.,
Samhita, an age-old written document on herbal therapy, 1998). The state of Uttarakhand is a part of north-western
reports on the production of 340 herbal drugs and their Himalaya and has a dense vegetation cover harboring a
indigenous uses (Prajapati et al., 2003). Currently, vast range of medicinal plants (Singh et al., 2005). The
approximately 25% of drugs are derived from plants and maximum species of medicinal plants have been reported
many others are synthetic analogues built on prototype from Uttarakhand (Kala, 2004), followed by Sikkim and
compounds isolated from plant species in modern North Bengal (Samant, et al., 1998).
pharmacopoeia (Rao et al., 2004). From the very earliest The ongoing growing recognition of medicinal plants is
days of civilization, mankind has turned to plants for due to several reasons, including escalating faith in
healing, a tradition that has survived the arrival of modern herbal medicine. Allopathic medicines may cure a wide
medicine and found new strength at the end of 20th range of diseases; however, their high prices and side-
century (Sulivan and Shealy, 1997). Even today, 80% of effects are causing many people to return to herbal
the world’s population relies on traditional plant medicine medicines which have fewer side effects (Kala, 2005).
(Singh, 2002; Azaizeh et al., 2003). The instant rising demand of plant based drugs is
As elsewhere, in India too, the medicinal use of plants unfortunately creating heavy pressure on some selected
has been practiced from aeons by various rural and tribal high-value medicinal plant populations in the wild due to
communities through the systems of Ayurveda, Siddha over-harvesting. Several of these medicinal plant species
and Unani (Gadgil, 1996). So far about 8,000 species of have slow growth rates, low population densities and
angiosperms, 44 species of gymnosperms and 600 narrow geographic ranges (Kala, 1998; Nautiyal et al.,
species of pteridophytes have been reported in the Indian 2002); therefore they are more prone to extinction
(Jablonski, 2004).
A great deal of traditional knowledge of the use of
various plant species is still intact with the indigenous
*Corresponding author. E-mail: muneshmzu@yahoo.com. people and this fact is especially relevant with theBhat et al. 149
mountainous areas such as the Himalaya due to less sole purpose of eliciting the precious wealth information on the
accessibility of terrain and comparatively slow rate of ethnomedicinal uses of plants practiced by the people residing in
KWLS. Information on plants with ethnomedicinal uses was
development (Kala, 2002; Farooquee et al., 2004). The collected from informants living in villages, shepherds and seasonal
documentation of invaluable indigenous knowledge about porters inside wildlife sanctuary. Field surveys and structured
medicinal plant species is assuming urgent priority due to interview schedules during 2009 to 2011 were used to elicit secret
the recent controversies that have sprung up from the knowledge from the people inhabiting inaccessible hinterland of the
illegal bio piracy (Heywood, 1995; Loreau and Oteng, region. Usually, the survey in the study area started with the
2006; Naranjo, 1995; Mukherjee, 2005; Utkarsh, 2001). interview of elderly and experienced persons both men and women.
Besides this, the common people of the study area who themselves
The precious indigenous knowledge when supplemented have used these plant based medicines for health treatments were
and validated by the latest scientific insights, can offer interviewed to prove veracity of the curative features of plants. The
new holistic models of sustainable development that are informants were randomly selected for the consensus and the
economically viable, environmentally benign and socially survey was conducted based on people’s opinion on the number of
acceptable (Shinwari and Gilani, 2003). plants used for a particular ailment.
Trotter and Logan (1986) developed a method based on the
Since ages, through trial and error, people in the
concept of “informant consensus” for identifying potentially effective
Himalayan region have learned and practiced the medicinal plants. They compared the total case number for each
medicinal usage of plants growing in their close vicinity ailment (number of informants that reported a certain illness) with
for treating various ailments. Various studies have been the number of separate remedies for this ailment. The consensus
carried out to document the ethnomedicinal uses of plant factor (Fic) gives the relationship between the “number of use-
species growing in the region but the consensus of reports in each category (nur) minus the number of taxa used (nt)
and the “number of use-reports in each category minus 1” (Heinrich
people regarding the ethnomedicinal cure is completely et al., 1998). Fic is thus calculated using the following formula:
lacking. In this backdrop, the main objective of this study
was to fulfill knowledge gaps in the important area of bio- Fic = nur - nt / nur - 1
cultural diversity and the paper presents an update on
plant parts used for various diseases with the consent of The consensus factor (Fic) was used to test the homogeneity of the
inhabitants and status of the medicinal plants which is informant(s) knowledge according to the methods described by
Trotter and Logan (1986). About 10% of the inhabitants were
directly relevant to the welfare of people living in far flung interviewed about their dependence on the forest products,
and inaccessible areas of the Kedarnath wildlife especially for medicinal purposes and as the informants regularly
sanctuary. visited forests since their childhood so they were well versed with
the identification of plants and their use in various ailments. To
overcome the language hindrance, the interviews were conducted
MATERIALS AND METHODS in the local dialect to avoid communication problems.
During the interviews, structured questionnaires were used to
Study area obtain information on medicinal plants, including the local name of
the plant, plant part used for curing and the diseases for which a
Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary (KWLS) was established in 1972 and particular plant is used etc. In field, some ethnomedicinal plants
is famous for the endangered Musk Deer. The KWLS is were also identified by the matching of plants with the pictorial field
geographically situated between 30° 25' to 30° 41' N, 78° 55' to 79° guide (Murthy, 2011) and specimens of all plants were collected
22' E in the North-eastern part of Garhwal region of Uttarakhand and recorded following the standard methods (Jain and Rao, 1977).
state, India. The present study was conducted in the Medicinal plant species were identified using standard literature
Madhmaheshwer area which is the interior part of Kedarnath (Gaur, 1999; Naithani, 1984) and doubtful specimens were further
Wildlife Sanctuary (30° 35' 42" to 30° 38' 12" N, 79° 10' 00" to 79° verified and submitted at the Herbaria of HNB Garhwal University
13' 00" E). The KWLS is one of the largest protected areas (975 (Srinagar, Uttarakhand) and Herbaria of Botanical survey of India,
km2) in the Western Himalaya located in Chamoli-Rudraprayag North Zone (Dehradun).
districts of Uttarakhand (Singh and Rawat, 2011). It is bordered by During this study, only 21 plants have been encountered in the
high mountain peaks; Kedarnath (6940 m), Mandani (6193 m) and consensus of the people for the different medicinal uses. The plants
Chaukhamba (7068 m) and extensive alpine meadows that is, which were taken for the present study have also been listed earlier
Trijuginarayan, Kham, Mandani, Pandavshera, Manpai and by various organizations and scientists who described their status
Bansinarayan in the north, and several dense broad leave oak in Himalaya (Table1). The total 17 ailments were categorized into
mixed forests in the south. The sanctuary covers a wide altitudinal Ophthalmological, Haematological, Urological, General medicines,
range from 1160 to 7068 m amsl (Quasin and Uniyal, 2010) and Dermatological, General surgery and Gastroenterological.
has sizeable areas with limited human pressure. This area has
unique physiognomic, climatic and topographic conditions. This
region receives high precipitation and has diverse climatic
conditions; thus is very diverse in both flora and fauna and is RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
characterized by undulating topography, wide variation in the
altitude and rainfall, temperature and soil conditions. The KWLS is The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) recognized
not only rich in floristic composition and panoramic views but also and reaffirmed the fundamental requirement of in situ
has enough scope for medicinal stock (Singh and Rawat, 2011). conservation of ecosystems and natural habitats in Article
8 (Singh, 2002). Protected areas are one of the most
Ethnomedicinal inventory and consensus survey widely accepted and practically approachable means of
biodiversity conservation over the world. One of the prime
The methods employed during the study were designed with the objectives of the protected area is to assess and monitor150 J. Med. Plants Res.
Table 1. Plant species with their local names and the part used in different ailments.
Family/Species Local name Plant part used Ailment
Apiaceae
Angelica glauca Edgew Choroo Roots Indigestion and Constipation
Asteraceae
Saussurea gossypiphora D. Don Hiyun Kauni Flower Skin diseases
Saussurea obvallata (DC.) Edgew. Brama Kamal Roots Cough
Berberidaceae
Berberis aristata DC. Kirmord Roots Eye irritation
Gentianceae
Swertia chirayita (Roxb. ex Fleming) Karsten Chiratay Leaves/seeds Fever and blood diseases
Morinaceae
Morina longifolia Wall. ex DC. Bees Kanora Roots Antiseptic (burns and wounds)
Oleaceae
Syringa emodi Wallich ex Royle. Ghiya Flower, seeds Fever
Orchidaceae
Dactylorhiza hatagirea (D. Don) Soo Hat jari Roots Wounds and cuts
Gymnadenia orchidis Lindl. Salam Panja Roots Wounds
Podophyllaceae
Podophyllum hexandrum Royle. Bankakri Roots Antiseptic (wounds)
Polygonaceae
Rheum australe D. Don Archa Roots Wounds
Rheum moorcroftianum Royle Dolu Roots Dysentery and internal wounds
Ranunculaceae
Aconitium balfouri Stapf Metey Jad Leaves and roots Skin diseases (poisonous)
Aconitium hetrophyllum Wallich Atees Roots Fever,cough and stomachache
Rubiaceae
Eye diseases and to stop
Galium aparine L. Less kora Roots and Whole/plant
bleeding
Saxifragaceae
Kidney calculi, diarrhoea and
Bergenia ciliata (Haw.) Sternb. Shelpadi Roots rhizome
fevers
Scrophulariaceae
Picrorhiza kurrooa Royle ex Benth. Kutki Roots Fever and stomachache
Urticaceae
Girardiana diversifolia (Link) Friis Kanthali Whole plant Abdoman pain and Indigestion
Valerianaceae
Nardostachys grandiflora DC. Masi Roots Heart Tonic
Nardostachys jatamansi DC. Jetmansi Roots rhizomes Hairfall
Zingiberaceae
Roscoea alpina Royle Garoor Panja Roots Urinary Diseases
diversity and dominance pattern at regular intervals so We documented 21 plant species that are used
that conservation status could be evaluated (Semwal et medicinally in 17 ailment categories. The twenty one (21)
al., 2007). plant species identified in this study represented sixteenBhat et al. 151
Figure 1. Percentage of plant parts used.
(16) families under seventeen (17) genera. Family Nardostachys grandiflora, Nardostachys jatamansi and
Ranunculaceae, Polygonaceae, Valerianaceae, Roscoea alpina were used for heart tonic, protection from
Orchidaceae and Asteraceae were represented with two hair fall and for urinary diseases, respectively (Table 1).
species each (Table 1). Out of 21 plant species, 12 The present findings are similar with the findings reported
species were reported for a single ailment separately and by Singh and Rawat (2011) and Gaur (1999) (Table 2).
8 species were reported by informants for more than one Earlier studies have reported extra medicinal properties
ailment. of some plants which were not gathered in the present
Singh and Rawat (2011) worked in the same area and study (Table 2). Conservation of the worlds' wild genetic
also reported that a single plant may be used for curing resources increasingly depends on a small percentage of
more than one ailment. According to the present study, land area in nature reserves, especially at a time when
the consensus of informants for the roots and root natural areas are being rapidly depleted (Macdonald et
rhizomes were the most frequently used plant parts al., 1989). Keeping in view the conservation of medicinal
(68%) followed by the flower, leaves, seeds and whole plants in Himalayas, the ecological status of the
plants accounted for the (8%) each (Figure 1). Singh and medicinal plants was assessed through secondary
Rawat (2011) also reported that roots are the most used literature and the following plants; Swertia chirayita,
plant parts (38%) although the percentage was lower Aconitium balfouri, A. hetrophyllum, P. kurrooa and
than our results (68%). According to Keter and Mutiso Nardostachys jatamansi were categorised as vulnerable
(2012), the leaves are the most frequently used plant and Dactylorhiza hatagirea, Podophyllum hexandrum as
parts (48%) followed by the stem bark (16%), roots and endangered (Semwal et al., 2007).
root bark (10%) while the fruits, whole plant and aerial The National Medicinal Plant Board categorised A.
parts accounted for less than 10% each. balfouri and Saussurea gossypiphora as vulnerable,
For the indigestion problems, Angelica glauca and Nardostachys grandiflora, A. hetrophyllum, P. kurrooa
Girardiana diversifolia were the species found to be and Dactylorhiza hatagirea as critically endangered while
useful to the informants; the plants are also used for the Angelica glauca, Saussurea obvallata, Swertia chirayita
constipation and abdomen pain, respectively. The plants and Podophyllum hexandrum had been kept under the
for the ailment of skin diseases were Aconitium balfouri category of endangered species (NMPB, 2003).
and Saussurea gossypiphora while S. obvallata, Swertia According IUCN Red List Categories, P. kurrooa, A.
chirayita, Syringa emodi, A. hetrophyllum, Bergenia hetrophyllum and Podophyllum hexandrum are under
ciliate and Picrorhiza kurrooa were used by the rare list (IUCN, 1993; Nayar; Shastry, 1987, 1988, 1990).
inhabitants for cough and fevers, Picrorhiza kurrooa and Gaur (1999) categorized Morina longifolia and Roscoea
A. hetrophyllum were also used for stomachache and alpine as rare species (Table 3). Only eight species;
Bergenia ciliata for kidney calculi. The cuts and wounds Berberis aristata, Syringa emodi, Gymnadenia orchidis,
were cured by the informants with the plant parts of Rheum australe, Rheum moorcroftianum, Galium
Morina longifolia, Dactylorhiza hatagirea, Gymnadenia aparine, Bergenia ciliata and Girardiana diversifolia have
orchidis, Podophyllum hexandrum and Rheum australe. not been put under any category and seems available
The Berberis aristata and Galium aparine plant parts are abundantly in nature.
used in the opthamological problems. The plant parts of The product (Fic)/informant’s consensus factor ranges152 J. Med. Plants Res.
Table 2. Cross check of plant species with their ailments by different authors with present study.
Plant species Singh and Rawat (2011) Gaur (1999) Present study
Aconitium balfouri Stapf. - Fever and bowl complaints Skin diseases (poisonous)
Aconitium hetrophyllum Wallich. Fever,cough and stomachache - Fever, cough and stomachache
Angelica glauca Edgew. Dysentery and constipation Bronchitis and constipation Indigestion and constipation
Berberis aristata DC. Rheumatism, fever, eye diseases Opthalmia and fever Eye irritation
Bergenia ciliata (Haw.) Sternb. Fevers, diarrhoea and pulmonary infections Digestive disorders Kidney calculi, diarrhoea and fevers
Dactylorhiza hatagirea (D. Don) Soo Cuts, stop bleeding, Aphrodisiac - Wounds and cuts
Galium aparine L. Stops bleeding Astringent (to stops bleeding) Eye diseases and to stop bleeding
Girardiana diversifolia (Link) Friis Diuretic Gonorrhoea Abdoman pain and indigestion
Gymnadenia orchidis Lindl. - - Wounds
Morina longifolia Wall. ex DC. Burns and Boils Burns and wounds Antiseptic (burns and wounds)
Nardostachys grandiflora DC. Heart tonic - Heart tonic, blood diseases
Nardostachys jatamansi DC. - - Hairfall
Picrorhiza kurrooa Royle ex Benth Fever and stomachache - Fever and stomachache
Podophyllum hexandrum Royle. Septic wounds - Antiseptic (wounds)
Rheum australe D. Don. Wounds - Wounds
Rheum moorcroftianum Royle. Dysentery and internal wounds - Dysentery and internal wounds
Roscoea alpina Royle. Urinary disease and tuberculosis - Urinary diseases
Saussurea gossypiphora D. Don. Asthma and skin diseases - Skin diseases
Saussurea obvallata (DC.) Edgew. Cough - Cough
Swertia chirayita (Roxb. ex Fleming) Karsten Blood diseases Blood diseases Fever and blood diseases
Syringa emodi Wallich ex Royle. Fever Fever Fever
Table 3. Status of plant species by different organizations and authors.
Plant species Semwal et al. (2007) NMPB (2003) IUCN (1993) Gaur (1999)
Aconitium balfouri Stapf Vu Vu - -
Aconitium hetrophyllum Wallich Vu Ce R -
Angelica glauca Edgew. - E - -
Berberis aristata DC. - - - -
Bergenia ciliata (Haw.) Sternb. - - - -
Dactylorhiza hatagirea (D. Don) Soo E Ce - -
Galium aparine L. - - - -
Girardiana diversifolia (Link) Friis - - - -
Gymnadenia orchidis Lindl. - - - -
Morina longifolia Wall. ex DC. - - - R
Nardostachys grandiflora DC. - Ce - -Bhat et al. 153
Table 3.Continue.
Nardostachys jatamansi DC. Vu - - -
Picrorhiza kurrooa Royle ex Benth. Vu Ce R -
Podophyllum hexandrum Royle. E E R -
Rheum australe D. Don - - - -
Rheum moorcroftianum Royle - - - -
Roscoea alpina Royle - - - R
Saussurea gossypiphora D. Don - Vu - -
Saussurea obvallata (DC.) Edgew. - E - -
Swertia chirayita (Roxb. ex Fleming) Karsten Vu E - -
Syringa emodi Wallich ex Royle. - - - -
(-)
R = rare, Vu = vulnerable, Ce = critically endangered, E = endangered. = not available.
Table 4. Informant consensus regarding use of taxa in the study area.
Number of Informant’s
Category of Number of use
taxa consensus
illness reports (nur)
used (nt) index factor (Fic)*
Ophthalmological 2 55 0.98
Haematological 1 20 1.00
Urological 2 35 0.97
General Medicines (Fever, cough, wounds, antiseptic) 14 85 0.85
Dermatological 3 90 0.98
General surgery 3 65 0.97
Gastroenterological 6 61 0.92
*Fic = nur - nt / (nur - 1), providing a value between 0 and 1, where high value indicates a high rate of informant consensus.
from 0 to 1. A high value (close to 1) indicates that which was (0.98). The Fic for Urological and agreement regarding the usages of single plant.
relatively few taxa (usually species) are used by a General surgery was (0.97) while Fic for Gastro- The range of consensus factor index (Fic) reported
large proportion of the healers, while a low value enterological and General Medicine categories was 0.33 to 1.0. The index value was high (1.0)
indicates that the informants disagree on the taxa were recorded as 0.92 and 0.85, respectively for warts, vomiting, carminative, pain, boils and
to be used in the treatment within a category of (Table 4). antiseptic uses, and lowest index value (0.33) was
illness. The Fic was found to be higher in the Kumar et al. (2011) conducted the study in found for bronchitis. Namsa et al. (2011) also
Haematological illness category (1.00) followed by lower belts of Himalayas where consensus survey carried out a study in Monpa ethynic community of
Dermatological and Ophthalmological category indicated that the inhabitants have a high level of Arunachal Pradesh for consensus index factor154 J. Med. Plants Res.
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