IMPACTS AND POTENTI AL BENEFI TS OF AUTONOMOUS VEHICLES - FROM AN INTERNATIONAL CONTEXT TO GRAND PARIS - APUR
←
→
Page content transcription
If your browser does not render page correctly, please read the page content below
StudY
Impacts and POTENTIAL
benefits of autonomous
vehicles
FROM an international context TO Grand Paris
octobre 2018
© Apur
Atelier parisien d’urbanisme apur.org
Directrice de la publication : Dominique ALBA
Étude réalisée par : Florence HANAPPE et Annie HUDSON
Sous la direction de : Patricia PELLOUX
Cartographie : Jennifer POITOU
Photos et illustrations : Apur sauf mention contraire
Mise en page : Apur
Avec la participation de : Pierre Musseau
www.apur.org 18P040104
2
Impacts and potential benefits of autonomous vehicles
Summary
Overview �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 4
1. Regulation������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 6
Regulatory context in France: a nascent question��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 6
European context��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 7
Other levers ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 8
2. Technology and impacts transport systems����������������������������������������������������������������� 10
Autonomous technology������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 10
Vehicles and transportation systems ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 12
Adapting the city ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 16
3. Case studies����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 18
Gothenburg, Sweden ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 19
Singapore������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 20
Wageningen, Netherlands��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 22
Helsinki, Finland����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 24
Phoenix-area, USA ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 26
Paris, La Défense, France����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 28
Rouen, France��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 30
Shenzhen, China����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 32
Sion, Switzerland ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 34
4. Autonomous vehicles and the city��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 36
Potential benefits for urban areas��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 36
Potential negatives ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 39
Municipal levers for preventing projected negative impacts��������������������������������������������������������������������� 40
Conclusion����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 43
5. An approach to experimentation in Grand Paris��������������������������������������������������������� 44
Priorities for Paris with regards to AV experimentation ��������������������������������������������������������������������������� 44
Autonomous mobility and guidelines for the future of Grand Paris... ����������������������������������������������������� 48
Atelier parisien d’urbanisme 3
Overview
Autonomous vehicles (AVs) have the while simultaneously taking an active Institute of Technology’s Urban
potential to transform urban living. role in shaping the form of their cities Mobility Lab. Over the course of several
By offering the opportunity for safe, for the future, pursuing an urban form months, collaborators interviewed key
efficient, accessible and affordable that is efficient, livable, equitable and actors in the Parisian context, including
transportation they promise not sustainable. (among others):
only a novel system of mobility, but • Mairie de Paris
also a novel approach to the urban In order to capitalize on this • Navya
lifestyle. Yet these benefits are far opportunity, however, cities need to • Easymile
from guaranteed. In fact, scholars have develop an extensive understanding • Renault
shown that AVs have the potential of the technology as it exists today, • Uber
for numerous negative impacts in the challenges that it presents and the • Mobotiq
contraposition to their positive potential benefits that can be realized. • Spirops
potential, depending, of course, on the • Ile-de-France Mobilités
form of their implementation. They This study strives to offer a primer • SANEF
could combine with other growing on international autonomous vehicle • IFSTTAR
trends in the mobility space (such as development and regulation as applied
shared use or mass electrification) to to the context of Grand Paris. It aims The interviews contributed to the
introduce a positive rupture in today’s to provide the region and the city development of the content of the study
mobility system, or, conversely, they with the understanding, insights and as well as to the case studies themselves.
could exacerbate existing trends tools it needs to enact pertinent policy
towards congestion and climate measures today. In pursuit of those The contents of the study notably build
change, further entrenching the goals, the study includes: on work conducted by MIT’s Automated
negative aspects of today’s status quo. • An overview of the regulatory context Mobility Policy Project (AMPP)
in France combined with APUR’s expertise on
Compounding this duality is a lack of • A ‘state of the union’ of autonomous Grand Paris. The primer applies MIT’s
clarity regarding when AV services will vehicle technology research to the Parisian context to
be available for public use. Reports from • A series of international case studies build a deeper understanding of today’s
experts in autonomous technology that offer creative ideas for managing pertinent technological and regulatory
evince a wide range of dates for the AV experiments and technological developments and their applicability to
arrival of the technology, with some development the City of Light.
averring high levels of autonomous • An overview of the potential
technology available for widespread advantages and disadvantages This study is part of a larger series to
use within the next 2 years and others presented by the arrival of autonomous be published by APUR on emerging and
professing that full autonomy can never vehicles innovative mobilities that will examine
be fully achieved. • Insights into pertinent regulatory and the potential (and potential drawbacks)
extra-regulatory levers of developments within the mobility
This uncertainty cannot lead to • Opportunities for further space, ranging from the sharing
inaction. There is a unique opportunity experimentation in Grand Paris. economy to mass electrification.
today to redefine the mobility system
before the technology solidifies its Launched in the summer of 2018, this
own path. Cities have the opportunity study is the result of a collaboration
to be at the forefront of innovation between APUR and the Massachusetts
4
Impacts and potential benefits of autonomous vehicles
y Office of Naval Research from Arlington, United States (161012-N-
y Christopher Down – CC BY 4.0 from Wikimedia Commons
JE250-047) – CC BY 2.0 via Wikimedia Commons
©B
©B
Man and delivery robot waiting at pedestrian crosing in Redwood City, California Military drone
© By Patrick Despoix – CC BY-SA 4.0 from Wikimedia Commons
© By Grendelkhan – CC BY-SA 4.0 from Wikimedia Commons
Waymo self-driving car side view, Googlebil La Rochelle (France), experimental autonomous shuttle without driver
© By Steve Jurvetson – CC BY 2.0 via Wikimedia Commons
© By N509FZ - CC BY-SA 4.0 via Wikimedia Commons
Uber OTTO autonomous driving truck Autonomous-rail Rapid Transit train, already in experimental operation in Zhuzhou.
Atelier parisien d’urbanisme 5
1. Regulation
Regulatory context in France :
a nascent question
Albeit not one of the first countries emergence and development of the
to regulate autonomous vehicles technology. It aims to help France
internationally, France has since made position itself in the dynamic AV market
the development of autonomous while simultaneously meeting the
vehicles a national priority both with challenges posed by their introduction.
regards to industrial recovery and urban Figures 1 and 2 as included in the
living. In 2018, the French national strategy document provide a brief
government published a strategy for overview of the regulatory timeline in
autonomous vehicle development France and in the EU more generally,
within its borders, addressing the issues with a particular emphasis on the years
raised by autonomous vehicles and of 2017 and 2018 which have exhibited
presenting a series of ten proposed a particular uptick in action both at the
actions aimed at facilitating the national and international scales.
AV regulation in the United States
The United States offers a unique a data recorder for the review of incidents roads (some estimates are above 600),
case study for the regulation of AVs in and accidents ex post facto; similarly, the its regulatory measures regarding AVs
its juxtaposition of varied regulatory state requires that companies regularly are nearly non-existent. After California
preparedness across different states report the number of disengagements limited the ability of Uber to operate
in combination with extensive testing they experienced throughout their and test on its streets in 2016, Governor
experience. The National Highway Traffic experimentation process. Despite the Ducey of Arizona invited the company to
Safety Administration (NHTSA) has comparatively stringent measures, the come to the Copper State instead. The
released guidelines for the safety, testing state has over 50 AV companies working Governor has since asked the State’s
and data management of autonomous within its borders and over 400 vehicles DMV to “undertake any necessary steps
vehicles, but, to date, most regulatory registered to be tested on public roads. In to support the testing and operation of
activity has occurred at the State level. 2018, California became one of the first self-driving cars.” The lack of restrictions
locations globally to allow for testing on combined with AV-friendly weather have
In 2012, California became the second public roads without a driver present. made the State a popular destination for
State to allow for testing of autonomous Nonetheless, the State has come under many companies to test their technology,
vehicles on its roads. Refined in 2018, the criticism for its regulations that some but also, significantly, resulted in a fatal
state boasts one of the most extensive companies see as misplaced and others AV accident in early 2018. The State
regulatory systems for the management see as excessively stringent. temporarily suspended Uber’s activities
of AV experimentation and testing on an there following the crash, but has not
international scale. The state requires, for While Arizona boasts a similar number of adopted any additional regulatory
example, that all vehicles be equipped with autonomous cars operating on its public measures since.
6
Impacts and potential benefits of autonomous vehicles
The ten national priorities: European context
1 - Develop the necessary framework to allow for the circulation of autonomous cars,
public transport and logistics in France by 2022. As a member of the European Union,
France is also working with the Union
2 - Establish a national regulatory framework for experimentation.
and other member states to establish
3 - Integrate cybersecurity into regulatory framework. a transnational framework to regulate
4 - Define rules for data sharing. and support the development of
autonomous vehicles. The European
5 - Develop a national program for experimentation of all forms of autonomous vehicles.
Union has outlined a series of goals
6 - Build a framework to encourage the exchange of vehicle data by 2019. with the intent to establish Europe
7 - Prepare one or more connected infrastructure deployment plans. as a global leader in connected and
automated mobility in pursuit of
8 - Encourage the development of digital mapping.
safer roads and reduced emissions
9 - Establish the framework for an impact analysis of autonomous vehicles. and congestion. In pursuit of those
10 - Conduct a detailed analysis of the impact of autonomous vehicles on employment. goals, the EU has proposed several
categories in which to lend support
and expertise:
Figure 1 — france and eu context
• Funding for research on autonomous
vehicle technology and connected
infrastructure.
• Establishing a security approval
process for vehicles and infrastructure
that is flexible yet strong.
• Ensuring coordination across member
states to establish traffic rules and
infrastructure development.
• Regulating liability concerns.
• Data Management.
© DICOM-DGITM/B/18029 – May 2018
• Analyzing the socio-economic and
environmental impacts of driverless
mobility.
Significantly, there are also efforts
to coordinate an approach to
experimenting with autonomous
vehicles across EU member states.
Figure 2 — Government action on AVs in France Countries have agreed to concentrate
their efforts on a cadre of coherent
and complementary projects that
allow for a deeper understanding of its
technology and its applications. To that
effect, France recently opened a call for
autonomous vehicle projects.
© DICOM-DGITM/B/18029 – May 2018
Atelier parisien d’urbanisme 7
Other levers
In addition to traditional regulatory heavily dependent on road markers to
measures that govern the safety of ensure that they remain in their lanes
vehicles and testing on public roads, and follow the pertinent traffic rules, Governments today
it is important to note that there requiring clear and high-quality road
are many other potential actions networks. There is also consensus have the opportunity
that governments can take into that the growing connectivity of
consideration when determining their vehicles (whether autonomous to prioritize the
role in preparing for a new global or otherwise) will require next-
mobility system. Albeit not exhaustive, generation mobile networks in development of
as part of this study, we outline several the form of 5G. Governments today
other pertinent levers at the level of the have the opportunity to prioritize the infrastructures
state that can be used to incentivize development of these infrastructures to
experimentation, to limit potential ensure the sustainability of AVs, but also to ensure the
deleterious impacts and to even help to incentivize experimentation within
determine the shape of the final product. their borders. The Netherlands has sustainability of AVs
The application of several of these prioritized this route of action, with a
levers can be found exhibited in the case commitment to infrastructure in a wide and to incentivize
studies found in chapter 3. At end of this variety of forms. Its road infrastructure
report, we apply this research to the is rated among the best in the world by experimentation
city-specific context, looking into both the World Bank, it boasts the highest
the regulations and other levers that density of AV charging stations and within their borders.
cities themselves possess that can be enjoys a strong wireless network as well.
used to shape the arrival of autonomous
vehicles onto urban streets. The goal of Fiscal support
this report is to offer insights into best Funding in support of research and
practices for applying and engaging experimentation for AVs can come in
with those levers. It is important to note a wide variety of forms. Most directly,
that these factors can be applied to the governments have the opportunity to
adoption of new technology within the fiscally support experiments of vehicles
80 bil. $
transportation system more generally, that exhibit characteristics most in
but is being applied specifically to the line with their priorities for the future
case of autonomous vehicles in this of transportation. The city of Helsinki,
circumstance. for example, has clearly outlined
emissions reduction goals for 2030 and Estimated investment
Infrastructure has thus been involved in supporting in autonomous vehicle
AVs will require a wide variety of novel AV experimentations that promise to technology between 2015
infrastructures. Although it remains reduce emissions by encouraging more
and 2017 as determined
unclear who will be responsible for wide-spread public transportation use.
building those infrastructures— by The Brookings
and in some cases what form the Regulatory clarity Institution 1
infrastructure itself will even take— Beyond the content of the regulations
there are certain actions that can be themselves, governments have control
taken today in order to prepare for over the clarity of the regulatory content
and in some cases shape the future of and the complexity of the process to
AVs. To ensure the sustainability of the navigate those regulations. Several of
vehicles and to reduce their impact on the interviewees that we spoke to as part
the environment, for example, there is of this study indicated that they would
widespread agreement that AVs should be supportive of regulations targeted at
be electric. That requires an increased shaping the introduction of autonomous
density of electric vehicle charging vehicles onto city streets, but were eager 1 — https://www.brookings.edu/research/gauging-
stations. Similarly, many AVs are for those regulations to be outlined in investment-in-self-driving-cars/
8
Impacts and potential benefits of autonomous vehicles
a clear and comprehensible manner to was one of the first governments to
ease the corporate navigation thereof. establish a legal structure for the
Significantly, this also applies to the testing of autonomous vehicles in
approval process for AV experiments 2012 and has refined several aspects
on public roads: countries that have a of the law since to incorporate new
Countries that clearly defined process even if rigorous developments. In 2018, for example,
have an advantage in encouraging the state added a legal structure under
have a clearly experimentation and thus have the which companies can test without a
opportunity to develop a greater driver present in direct response to
defined process familiarity with the technology and its developments within the industry.
potential impacts. Singapore, for example,
even if rigorous has very clearly defined milestones that Coordination across levels
companies have to achieve in order of Government
have an advantage to be eligible for experimentations of Building on the need for regulatory
growing complexity and in more complex clarity, there is often a conflict of
in encouraging environments within the city. Helsinki, responsibility across different scales
meanwhile, has created the position of both nationally and internationally.
experimentation Chief Design Officer in the city responsible In the United States, for example, each
for applying design knowledge to ease and level of government has overlapping
and thus have the encourage a culture of experimentation responsibilities with regards to city
across companies and city agencies streets, including in the fields of
opportunity to within Helsinki. This new role is unique safety, security and sustainability.
and innovative in its attempt to centralize Based on research conducted at MIT,
develop a greater and innovate coordination across bodies, lower levels of government in the
thus easing key regulatory processes for United States are hesitant to engage in
familiarity with the corporate entities, as well as any internal several pertinent regulatory measures
bureaucratic confusion at the city level. out of concern of being preempted by
technology and its higher levels of government on the
Regulatory responsiveness matter at a later date. Governments
potential impacts. Autonomous and connected that can coordinate across scales thus
technologies continue to rapidly have an advantage in establishing
develop and evolve, requiring greater clarity, but also in ensuring
an approach to policy that is that all necessary aspects of regulation
responsive and open to evolution. have been covered.
Today, governments are in many
ways establishing regulation for Other
autonomous vehicles ‘in the dark,’ There are a wide range of factors
attempting to ensure such necessities that affect a nation’s willingness to
94 %
as safety and cybersecurity without experiment with new technology as well
yet fully comprehending the as its agility in managing and shaping
technology itself. As the technology the introduction of that new technology.
and its potential continue to become In addition to the above enumerated
Crashes in the United better understood, there is a need elements, it also important to take
States attributed for consistent refinement of those consumer acceptance and innovation
to human error 2 rules. Governments that have the culture into account. The former can
ability to be highly responsive to be encouraged through widespread
these changes in technology both to experimentation and engagement with
support its further evolution and to a new technology, for example. The
ensure that it remains on a positive latter, meanwhile, can be developed
path throughout its evolution have an through fiscal support for innovative
advantage in attracting experiments enterprises, clarity of regulations
and ensuring greater (and continuing) regarding new businesses and other
2 — https://crashstats.nhtsa.dot.gov/Api/Public/ safety and livability for citizens and related activities that encourage
ViewPublication/812115 residents. California, for example, entrepreneurial pursuits.
Atelier parisien d’urbanisme 9
Technology and impacts
2.
transport systems
Autonomous technology
According to SAE International, an is important to note that the technology
engineering standards developing will not necessarily progress in a step-
organization, there are five levels of wise fashion from level to level. In fact,
automation. As outlined in Figure several companies are experimenting
1 below, the levels begin with very with Level 4 automation today and
limited driver assistance and progress propose to skip Level 3 automation
gradually towards full automation in altogether. Significantly, as a result of
which a steering wheel and driver are the low turnover rate of vehicles, there
no longer required. Most vehicles on will be a mix of levels of autonomy in
the road today contain technology of at vehicles on the road for the foreseeable
least Level 1 autonomy and many boast future, creating a unique challenge in
Level 2 autonomous features as well. It the transitional period.
Figure 1 — Levels of Autonomy
Direction, Fallback System
acceleration Monitoring performance capacity
and of of Dynamic for driving
deceleration environment Driving Task modes
5
Full Automation
All functions performed by the vehicle without the need System System System All
Niv. for a human driver.
4
High Automation
Automation fully possible in most road conditions without
human intervention; steering wheel still in place in case
System System System Some
Niv.
of emergency.
Conditional Automation
3
autonomous transport
Actual level of tested
The vehicle handles most functions in mapped locations.
The human driver must intervene and manage the vehicle
System System Human Some
Niv.
in certain scenarios.
Partial Automation
Niv. 2 The vehicle is able to manage at least two simultaneous
autonomous tasks in specific scenarios.
System Human Human Some
Driver Assistance
Niv. 1 The vehicle is capable of managing at least two concurrent
standalone tasks in specific scenarios.
Human Human Human Some
No Automation
© Apur 2018
Niv. 0 A human driver performs all the necessary functions.
Human Human Human Some
10IMPACTS AND POTENTIAL BENEFITS OF AUTONOMOUS VEHICLES
FIGURES 2 — Most companies experimenting The structure of service can of course
LEVELS OF AUTONOMY MOBILITY with automation today rely on be varied as project partners see fit.
Deep Learning to do so. A subfield Routes can either have defined stops
of Artificial Intelligence within the or offer on-demand service based on a
family of Machine Learning, machines user’s location, for example. Similarly,
that apply Deep Learning ‘learn by AV systems can run on a set schedule
example,’ relying on extensive data (similar to public transportation)
collection to develop ever more or offer service in response to user
complex and hierarchical algorithms requests. Further, cities can decide to
for understanding the world around offer a lane dedicated specifically to
them. Thus, AVs require not only the autonomous vehicle, reducing the
software development to improve the number of obstacles encountered by the
technology used, but also experience vehicle on a regular basis, or allow the
driving on roads in order to develop vehicles to operate instead in regular
1 — Street, planning route connected greater familiarity with a wide variety traffic. A dedicated lane notably raises
of scenarios and obstacles. Figures 2 questions regarding the prioritization
represents a natural progression of of autonomous vehicle technology vis-
learning and thus experimentation à-vis other modes of transportation.
based on the Deep Learning paradigm.
Service is also affected by the location of
Today, the vast majority of experiments the route itself: it could either be within
within the field of autonomous vehicles a city in a dense, pedestrian-heavy area
are fixed single-route experiments (more complex to navigate with an
as exhibited in picture 1. Vehicles increased number of obstacles) or less
equipped with complex autonomous dense, suburban areas. Experiments
software learn a specific route by notably vary across public and private
traversing it routinely throughout a property with the latter presenting
2 — Higtway connected test phase and, once the route is fully fewer regulatory limitations.
learned, expand the service to the
general public. This approach applies As the technology continues to develop,
to AV truck testing on highways as well. a growing number of questions have
Trucks are able to learn and execute a arisen regarding data ownership,
fixed route for freight movement— exchange and security. Albeit largely
usually straight and unencumbered outside of the scope of this primer,
(picture 2). there are numerous approaches to
exchanging data and experience
As the vehicles develop added to support the development of the
experience and thus a greater familiarity software and technological capabilities
with their surroundings through beyond the individual company unit.
additional miles driven, it is possible The value of blockchain as a transparent
3 — Urban district connected to expand the fixed route approach to and secure decentralized ledger for data
a fixed district approach (picture 3). arose several times during interviews
Today’s robotaxis, for example, apply conducted. Nonetheless, blockchain
Deep Learning to a full district within challenges the proprietary and private
an urban environment: vehicles collect nature of data as approached today.
extensive miles driven in a specific
district, allowing them to accurately
map the area and better understand
the pertinent obstacles. Robotaxis
are subsequently able to offer service
throughout the district. The final stage
is to apply this approach to a much
© Apur 2018
broader area—perhaps to a whole city
(picture 4).
4 — Street network connected
ATELIER PARISIEN D’URBANISME 11Vehicles and transportation systems
To date, autonomous vehicle technology
has been combined with diverse systems Albeit smaller than buses, several ongoing
12-15
to serve in a wide variety of contexts. We experiments are exploring the value of
discuss the forms these experiments have shuttles as a demand-responsive form of
taken briefly below. They are notably mass transportation. These experiments
explored in-depth in a series of case apply the concept of platooning to expand
studies presented in Chapter 3. capacity in periods of high demand. Individuals generally fit
Platooning, in short, allows vehicles to in an autonomous
Mass of public transportation travel closely together in a convoy by shuttle
The form of autonomous vehicle most communicating with each other using
widely used for ongoing tests and connected vehicle technology. Thus,
experimentations is the autonomous vehicles can be added or subtracted based
shuttle. The two most prolific hardware on demand at any given stop at any given
firms for autonomous shuttles are time.
4-5
notably both based in France: Navya
and Easymile. Navya boasts over 120 The majority of autonomous shuttle
and Easymile boasts over 170 shuttles experiments today are fixed-route.
in circulation. The shuttles range in This notably fits well with the initial
size, fitting generally between 12 and conception of the value of autonomous Passengers generally fit
15 individuals and, although they are vehicles: the shuttles serve specific in a Robotaxi
able travel at varying speeds, are largely routes that are either underserved or
limited to a walking pace of between perhaps not ideal for larger-scale public
7 km/h and 10 km/h as a result of transportation. For this purpose, the
technological limitations in dense areas. shuttles only have to develop experience
with one specific route, which, during the
3
One of the reasons that these vehicles early days of experimentation with the
are widespread is their ideal size for technology, allows for earlier deployment
a variety of transportation system and familiarity with the technology and
solutions. Since autonomous vehicles its capabilities.
have the potential to be less expensive Trucks hauling freight
than their chauffeured bus brethren, There ongoing experiments with other could be replaced
many view shuttles as an ideal solution forms of mass transportation as well, by 1 autonomous truck
for replacing routes that are either not perhaps most notably with buses. The
as highly trafficked or not as well-suited experiments are targeted at replacing
for traditional public transportation. the existing fleet of buses with the novel
Shuttles also have the potential to serve technology.
as the solution for the first-mile/last-mile
conundrum: they offer an on-demand Robotaxis
form of transportation that can connect Robotaxis promise to address a different
individuals with the closest public transportation need. The size of a regular
transportation stop, thus encouraging passenger vehicle, such taxis are limited
greater public transportation use. to 4 or 5 passengers, making them ideal
Shuttles also present an ideal solution for more individualized requests, similar
for transportation on campuses that to today’s TNCs. Applying the Deep
are perhaps less trafficked, but are Learning approach, many companies
© By Diablanco CC BY-SA 3.0
nonetheless in need of transportation engaged in the pursuit of a robotaxi
options to ease movement throughout service are collecting thousands of miles
the area. Thus, many of the shuttle of experience in order to be able to serve
experiments have been conducted on a district with point-to-point on-demand
university campuses, in business districts service. Several cities, such as Singapore
and in other similar zones of activity. and Boston, have offered access to specific Uber’s self-driving car test driving in San Francisco
12Impacts and potential benefits of autonomous vehicles
Public transport
© istockphoto.com/Andrey Suslov
y Maximilian Dörrbecker (Chumwa) – CC BY-SA 2.0 from Wikimedia
Autonomous shuttle, new expectations for nightly
public transport
© Michaël Gounon – Navya
Commons
©B
Digital screen in Navya vehicle Easymile autonomes shuttle, Fahrzeug Bad Birnbach
Robotaxi
© istockphoto.com/Scharfsinn86
New service of robotaxi
© By Grendelkhan – CC BY-SA 4.0 from Wikimedia
© Michaël Gounon – Navya
Commons
Googlebil interior by David Castor Navya autonomous cab in Paris
Atelier parisien d’urbanisme 13districts within their borders for robotaxis rest permitted throughout the trip as the Autonomous trikes
to develop experience and familiarity with autonomous system takes over. With fewer accidents in an autonomous
the eventual goal of offering commercial vehicle future, is there still the need for
service to the public. From the urban perspective, there are a large-scale passenger vehicle? Several
a large number of municipal and other companies are challenging that notion
Although their limited size makes them freight vehicles that travel along fixed with the introduction of the autonomous
less ideal for the fixed-route, mass routes and traditionally advance at a trike. Boston’s MIT has introduced what
transportation service offered by today’s slow, deliberate pace, thus satisfying it calls its Persuasive Electric Vehicle
autonomous shuttle experiments, the preconditions for today’s levels of (PEV) and a company called Mobotiq
some experts view them as compatible autonomous technology capabilities. has been testing its own version in
with and a possible extension of public More directly, the autonomous vehicle Romania. These technologies offer a
transportation. In Rouen, for example, as technology of today could be applied more individualized, small-scale solution
explored more in depth in a case study in to vehicles such as garbage trucks to to passenger transportation—one with
Chapter 3, a group of partners is exploring ease the manpower required and to a smaller environmental footprint.
the value of the Robotaxi for servicing reduce emissions. As explored more Although it might be difficult to imagine
business parks. Typically areas not in-depth in Chapter 3, Hamburg has these vehicles replacing a full mass
dense enough to justify the investment recently announced plans to introduce transit system, they might, according to
of public transportation, business parks autonomous garbage trucks into its fleet MIT, “constitute a new and indispensable
are still in need of transportation within in early 2019. category of vehicles in the emerging
the area to discourage workers from constellation of mobility systems.”
bringing their personally-owned vehicles This logic could be applied to other
by offering an alternative way to get areas within the field of logistics, such Autonomous drones
around once in the park. Others profess as freight parks, airports and logistics Uber has made public plans to actively
the value of platooning for individual centers. Several companies are already investigate air taxi service. While scaling
vehicles as well, arguing that a platoon of experimenting (or have proposed back on its autonomous vehicle program,
individual vehicles could also serve mass experimenting) with vehicles to service the company has instead announced
transportation needs. these areas, but experimentation within research into a program it has dubbed
this area is still relatively inchoate. Uber Elevate, with demonstration
Today, there can be found a wide variety flights planned for 2020 and commercial
of actors within this space, experimenting Delivery robots operations for 2023. The company
in locations across the globe. Many have In 2015, start-up company Starship has partnered with other key actors in
announced plans to make the service Technologies introduced the novel the air space to start developing the
public by the end of 2018. concept of autonomous delivery robots. infrastructure and technology required
The robots are capable of delivering to make autonomous aerial ride-hailing
Freight and municipal services goods from their initial location to a a reality. Similarly, Airbus is currently
The field of freight has a wide variety convenient point as determined by conducting experiments whit arial taxis in
of functions that are ripe for the the consumer. After testing the robots sevent cities as well. While still in its early
introduction of autonomous technology. in 20 countries across the globe, the stages, these announcements portend a
Highways are notably straight and involve company announced earlier this year very different future from ground-based
relatively few obstacles, making them that they would be conducting their autonomous vehicles.
prime candidates for first generation, first commercial rollout in 2018.
fixed-route experimentation. Several Combined with the arrival of drone In fact, one can find a wide variety of
companies have been conducting tests to technology, these robots have the innovative ideas within the field of
that effect, ranging from Uber’s Otto to potential to upend the field of last- autonomous vehicles that present images
Volvo to Waymo. Nonetheless, highway mile delivery for both freight and of the future that are widely divergent
entry and exit and the navigation of consumer goods. They could reduce with the vehicles and systems that we
complex city streets remain challenging the need for store fronts as individuals have in place today across the globe.
for the autonomous technology of today, rely increasingly on goods delivery and These conceptions serve as a reminder
limiting the experiments to partial they also call into question the need that the future of AVs might not be as
freight routes. Initial studies have shown for delivery trucks and larger-scale predictable as it might seem at first blush.
that the introduction of autonomous freight movement within the urban Nonetheless, experimentations of widely
technology to this effect would allow the context as they offer a smaller-scale, divergent vehicles today are still quite
same manpower to be applied to triple more personalized alternative. limited in number.
the number of trucks as a result of the
14Impacts and potential benefits of autonomous vehicles
Freight trucks and transport services
© By Linneakornehed – CC BY-SA 4.0 by Wikimedia Commons
© Uber
The T-pod in front of San Fransisco, March 2018 Uber Elevate project, skyport design
Delivery robots
© istockphoto.com/Franck Boston
© istockphoto.com/Chesky_W
Illustration of delivery robot ans connected urban logistic Illustration of delivery by drone
Connected streets and infrastructures
© Metamorwork/Shutterstock.com
© Scharfsinn/Shutterstock.com
Illustration of connected environment with adapted traffic lights and vehicles Illustration of artificial intelligence technology
Atelier parisien d’urbanisme 15© Mairie de Paris/Christophe Belin Autonomous shuttle experiment between Austerlitz and Lyon train stations (Paris) Adapting the city Although it is perhaps simplest to think EV infrastructure then they should start thinking today of autonomous vehicles in isolation, When experts discuss AVs today, they about densifying and incentivizing the the technology in fact requires a generally do so under the umbrella of necessary infrastructure. variety of infrastructural investments connected, autonomous and electric. It to support its inception in addition is frequently assumed that the future will There is notably much innovation going to the technology within the vehicles invariably be electric because the fossil on in this space that runs parallel to the themselves. While this field is still fuel schema of today is not sustainable innovation happening on autonomous shifting as the technology and its in the long-term—and electricity is one vehicles themselves. Nonetheless, as requirements continue to develop, of the most promising alternatives. Yet AV technology moves rapidly forward, there are several areas of infrastructure the infrastructure hurdles that must it should not be assumed that electric that are sure to face changes and, in be overcome to realize a future of vehicle development will keep pace many cases, significant investment electricity are considerable. An electric without additional support and and adaptation. The private sector future requires first and foremost incentives. has a significant interest in expanding a high density of electric charging connected infrastructure in particular stations that offer routine (and speedy) Connected infrastructure : to support their experimentations and recharging options. It also, notably, networks efforts developing new technology. requires an increase in reliable and One of the biggest challenges facing Nonetheless, governments have a sustainable power provision. Should AV development and governments significant role to play in supporting governments wish to encourage the today is the role and form of connected experiments, coordinating across adoption of electric vehicles in tandem infrastructure. As AV technology has platforms and ensuring standardization. with the adoption of autonomous ones, evolved, so too has the approach to 16
Impacts and potential benefits of autonomous vehicles
connectivity. The challenge lies in how vehicle technology. Companies have an Nonetheless, connected infrastructure
to coordinate connectivity requirements interest, after all, in strengthening the is still largely in its experimental phase
across a wide variety of companies network in urban areas where demand and, while network standardization has
working on a wide variety of projects. is highest and less of an interest in begun, standardization of messaging
And, significantly, governments are ensuring full equity in access to the exchanged between vehicles and
asking themselves what connected network. Thus, experts are looking to infrastructure remains a challenge to be
infrastructure should be invested in, a range of solutions to ensure broader addressed.
and by whom. connectivity such as mesh networking,
strengthened Wi-Fi, Li-Fi and more. There is a need for good infrastructure
Connected infrastructure notably beyond connectivity. Cities and
requires an effective network for Connected infrastructure : roads companies should be weary of focusing
vehicles and infrastructure to connect Beyond the networks themselves, solely on technological developments
quickly, securely and reliably. There connectivity will require novel physical to the detriment of their existing
is a debate raging today as to what infrastructure. First-generation V2X ‘low-tech’ infrastructure. Today’s
form that connection should take. (vehicle-to-everything) experiments autonomous vehicles, for example, are
ITS G5 has emerged as a frontrunner are already underway as both companies still heavily reliant on lane indicators
for the near-term: it does not require and governments equip infrastructure for the accuracy of their routes.
extensive infrastructure build-out to be with technology to communicate Countries that have strong existing road
deployed, it doesn’t require a licensed with nearby cars. For traffic lights, networks have already been proven to
spectrum and it is readily available. the systems are able to warn vehicles be at an advantage in the number of AV
However, ITS G5 is also much more in advance as the lights change, for experiments being conducted on their
susceptible to interference and raises example, or to detect obstacles on the roads.
numerous cybersecurity concerns. road that might impede a vehicle’s
Thus, many are looking to 5G, the progress. Such technology could be It is above all important to note that
next-generation mobile network to embedded within a wide variety of investment in infrastructure—who
address the weaknesses of today’s ITS infrastructural forms, ranging from does so and where—raises myriad
G5 system. 5G offers greater security, buildings to roads to even toll booths (for equity issues for the proliferation of the
longer range, higher speed and low more on Sanef’s toll booth experiments technology and its promised benefits
latency. Nonetheless, its build-out is in partnership with Renault, see Box as well as its potential disadvantages.
more expensive and more complex, 2). This connectivity is seen as a way It is important that cities follow these
begging the question of its availability to supplement the autonomy of the developments closely and determine
(at least initially) in rural or less-dense vehicle, offering additional information their appropriate role therein.
areas. Limited availability in the near- in advance of the vehicle’s arrival on the
term could significantly affect access scene via short-range communication,
to and the structure of autonomous thus easing the vehicle’s route.
Connected infrastructure : tolls
In June 2016, Renault and Sanef communicate with cars a kilometer
announced a partnership to explore before arriving with pertinent details for
how connected technology could be the vehicle such as which toll booths are
applied to and enhance the existing open. Cars are thus able to reduce speed
infrastructure of the French toll system. as directed and more easily navigate the
They subsequently developed a system toll booth area. The experiment is being
that would allow communication conducted on a highway in the Normandy
between the toll infrastructure and region of France and has been proven
oncoming vehicles using a short-range highly successful thus far.
Wi-Fi network. The system is able to
Atelier parisien d’urbanisme 173. Case studies
Autonomous vehicles present the a strong incentive to experiment with
unique policy challenge of planning for a autonomous vehicles today and to learn
technology that does not yet exist in its from that experience. Notably, learning
final form. While we have many theories also comes from the observation of other
and proposals for how autonomous cities conducting similar experiments
vehicles should be introduced onto city and studies in pursuit of the same goals.
streets, the result will ultimately depend
on the final form that the technology In the past several years, there has
itself takes. It thus behooves policymakers notably been a growth in autonomous
to develop a familiarity with and an vehicle experiments taking place across
understanding of the technology itself; to the globe. Chapter 3 highlights a wide
experiment with its implementation on variety of those experiments, aiming to
city streets. The more that policymakers consolidate the insights and knowledge
learn about autonomous vehicles, gained through diverse experiences.
including the functionality of the Each case study included in Chapter 3
technology, the response of citizens was selected for specific a reason: each
to its use, and its ability to integrate one evinces either a unique approach,
into larger transit systems, the more a unique set of insights or a unique
prepared they will be to help shape an scenario itself. Cities highlighted (and
autonomous vehicle future. There is thus their defining features) include:
AV garbage trucks, Sweden
The future of municipal services?
Singapore
Wide-spread testing of diverse technologies.
Wageningen, Netherlands
Fixed-route shuttles for last-mile solutions.
Helsinki, Finland
A targeted, Smart City approach to AVs.
Phoenix-area, United States
Limited regulations and a car-focused approach.
Paris, France
Strong consumer feedback in a pedestrian-friendly area.
Rouen, France
A ride-hailing car service to supplement public transportation.
Shenzhen, China
An eager interest in new technologies combined with a high consumer acceptance.
Sion, Switzerland
A tourist attraction in a dense, pedestrian-heavy area.
18Impacts and potential benefits of autonomous vehicles
AV garbage rucks, Sweden
The future of municipal services?
Location ———— Testing dates ———— AV mode ————
Gothenburg, Sweden May - December 2017
Overview Context
In mid-2018, Volvo unveiled its next- In addition to human transportation, Summit in Brussels, the vehicle is parked at
generation autonomous garbage trucks. autonomous technology presents a the top of a street and subsequently backs
The vehicles have the opportunity unique opportunity for the hauling of up slowly as the garbage man walks ahead
to improve the efficiency, safety and freight in a wide variety of use cases. and deposits the various receptacles into
sustainability of waste management in The context of highway driving in fair the vehicle as it progresses down the
cities. As a low-speed, traditionally fixed weather conditions has been perhaps road. The concept thus saves time (and
route, garbage trucks are notably ripe for the most widely discussed: while human physical impact) for the garbage man
early adoption of autonomous technology. drivers are limited in the hours they are who no longer has to continuously climb
Volvo’s designs offer insights into the permitted to work, an autonomous truck up into the driver’s seat between bins;
potential of autonomous technology could theoretically drive itself while the Volvo also anticipates that the vehicle will
for freight within the urban context driver rests. Under some calculations, be able to reduce emissions by offering
specifically beyond to the much-discussed an autonomous truck combined with a a smoother trip along the street with
opportunity for autonomous trucks on human driver could complete the work of more limited braking and acceleration.
straight, long-distance highways. From three non-autonomous trucks. Similarly, The truck uses LIDAR sesors to detect
may to december 2017, Volvo Group, auonomous trucks on highways could obstacles in its environment, but Volvo
together with Swedish waste and recycling serve as a prime use case for the concept has announced that initial prototypes will
specialist Renova, tested during 6 months of platooning: decreasing the distance operate in areas where the company has
a pioneering autonomous refuse truck that between trucks in order to improve gas fully mapped the streets that make up the
has the potentiel to be used across the mileage and streamline travel on roads. truck’s route. Despite the many potential
urban environment. This refuse truck could Eased by the autonomous technology positive impacts, concerns remain about
enhance efficiency of municipal service, and connected infrastructure, several the vehicles’ ability to navigate dense
reduce urban congestion and improve trucks could drive in short succession urban contexts, particularly when moving
safety and working conditions. to increase the load delivered while against the flow of traffic.
decreasing emissions and congestion.
Beyond the much-discussed highway AV actor spotlight
use cases, however, autonomous trucks
show much promise for urban context as • Volvo
well, particularly for slow-moving vehicles Volvo has been bullish with its ambitions
(such as garbage trucks) or vehicles with for autonomous vehicles for several years.
a fixed, pre-determined route. The company announced its Drive Me
pilot program in 2014 with the intent to
Project spotlight provide 100 self-driving cars to the public
© © istockphoto.com/Andrey Suslov
by 2017. While the company has scaled
In May of 2017, Volvo introduced its radical back its ambitions in recent months,
new idea of an autonomous garbage truck Volvo continues to experiment with a
tested in Gothenburg in Sweden with wide variety of vehicles including, notably,
Renova. According to the concept, debuted trucks. The company has conducted
later that year at the Volvo Innovation several highway tests in recent years (on
A garbage autonomous truck
the Triange Expressway in the United
States for example) and is looking into
the technology’s application in urban
10 % 3¨1 4 000 50/70 %
environments and other contexts as well.
up to 10 % reduction trucks hauling freight trucks accidents in Volvo is testing large-scale trucks for other
of trucks drivers
of fuel use as a could be replaced 2012 in US, of which
could be replaced
purposes such as mining, for example, in
result of truck by 1 autonomous 90 % were human
platooning truck error by 2030 the Kristineberg Mine in northern Sweden.
Atelier parisien d’urbanisme 19Singapore
Widespread testing of diverse technologies
Overview
Known as one of the world’s most
autonomous vehicle-friendly countries,
© Stamen Design, under a Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 3.0) license
Singapore has allowed testing of
autonomous vehicles on its streets
since 2015. The city has expressed
itself open to experimentation with a
wide variety of autonomous vehicle
formats ranging from autonomous taxi
fleets to buses to shuttles serving both
private use and public transportation.
Its strong and diverse partnerships and
extensive testing offer unique insights
into the juxtaposition of a wide variety
of potential technologies and system
Location of Test City NuTonomy AV Taxi Tests Proposed Test Sites
structures.
Location ——————— Singapore
Testing dates ———— 2015 - present
AV mode ———————
67 km 10+ 15 % 2
of trial routes companies testing car ownership rate hectares test city
on public roads vehicles within city complex dedicated
in city to testing © 2017 Energy Research Institute, Nanyang Technological University
© 2017 nuTonomy
NuTonomy vehicle Nanyang Technology University’s Centre of Excellence for Testing & Research
of Autonomous Vehicles (CETRAN)
20Impacts and potential benefits of autonomous vehicles
Context AV actor spotlight
Singapore is well-positioned for the provide the government with extensive • NuTonomy
introduction of autonomous vehicles insights into the state of autonomous The first private company to receive
into a larger transportation system. Car capabilities today and serves as one approval for public road testing,
ownership rates for the city state are an of the most articulated plans for AV nuTonomy vehicles have been on public
impressively low 15 percent as a result integration into a public transportation roads in Singapore since 2016. An MIT
of the taxes and fees associated with system to date. spin-off, the company became the
ownership. A wide-range of alternative Significantly, the city has a wealth of world’s first company to offer invite-
mobility options is a thus high priority partnerships and companies operating only driverless taxi rides and has since
for the city and its citizens. Officials on its streets and testing grounds, partnered with ride-hailing company
view autonomous vehicle fleets as allowing for a wide variety of concepts Grab to make hailing driverless rides a
an opportunity to increase access to and experiments including individual reality in the country in the coming years.
affordable transportation for citizens vehicles, on-demand shuttles, freight The company is owned by software
while simultaneously establishing and utility operations such as street supplier Aptiv.
the city-state at the forefront of sweeping. The majority of these tests • SMART (Singapore-MIT Alliance for
international innovation. Similarly, the are still being conducted in a cordoned- Research and Technology)
country sees autonomous vehicles as off test city that closely mimics the Testing autonomous golf carts since
a key opportunity to reduce congestion, cityùs roads, but several can be found on 2010, the SMART partnership produced
address labor shortage within several public streets One North District. the second autonomous vehicle
key industries and to reduce the cost NuTonomy, an MIT spin-off, has been approved for circulation on public roads.
of municipal activities such as street running tests of an autonomous ride- • A*STAR’s Institute for Infocomm
sweeping. To that effect, the country has hailing taxi service in Singapore in Research
engaged in a wide variety of partnerships partnership with Southeast Asian ride- One of the original players in the field of
and has established itself as a hub for hailing services company Grab. The autonomous vehicles in Singapore, I2R
the testing of a wide variety of AVs. tests are currently being conducted produced the first vehicle approved for
In addition to opening up specific on public roads and the companies public road testing in Singapore in 2015.
neighborhoods for testing on public have announced plans to introduce a ST Kinetics
roads, the city also has an extensive test commercial version of the service by the ST Kinectics has partnered with
city specifically dedicated to AV testing. end of this year. Singapore’s Land Transport Authority
The city has developed an extensive to develop a 40-seater bus that is both
regulatory system consisting of Future trajectory autonomous and electric with the
milestones required for testing at various intent of offering a larger scale public
locations throughout the city. The city has made it a clear priority to transportation supplement.
be at the forefront of AV technological • Other
Project spotlight innovation and implementation. As The city has on-going partnerships
a result of their strong and varied with Toyota and Scania to develop
In 2017, Singapore released a Request for partnerships, the city has truly become technologies for effective platooning,
Information designed to inform a future one of the world’s most AV-friendly as well with Katoen Natie to develop
Request for Proposals. The city intends to cities. The city’s RFI notably established autonomous trucks and other heavy-duty
operate fleets of autonomous vehicles in a clear intent to integrate AVs into public vehicles including city service vehicles
the form of buses or on-demand shuttles transportation, but the technologies that for such tasks as street sweeping. More
in three districts (Punggol, Tengah and are currently testing in Singapore would than ten companies are now testing
the Jurong Innovation District (JID)) indicate that the city will be a hotbed for vehicles at the country’s Nanyang
by 2022. The extensive RFI included a wide variety of services, both public Technological University AV testing
a wide variety of questions regarding and private. As a result, all eyes are on facility, including French firm Navya.
data, mobility networks, infrastructure Singapore for the best way to handle the
requirements, vehicle design, business dangers and address the technological
model and integration with existing public needs for AVs, ranging from connected
transportation systems. The RFI will infrastructure to safety regulations.
Atelier parisien d’urbanisme 21You can also read
