Gene Technology Research at CSIRO Plant Industry
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Gene Technology Research at
CSIRO Plant Industry
Research at CSIRO Plant Industry
CSIRO Plant Industry carries out research in the plant sciences to make Australia’s agri-food and
fibre and horticultural industries more profitable and sustainable. A major focus is on improving
production efficiency and reliability while maintaining the natural resource base.
CSIRO Plant Industry also focuses on product quality research for the processing and
manufacturing sectors, and the development of novel plant products. Its research also
contributes to conservation of biodiversity of Australian flora, and the implications of global
climate change for natural and agricultural ecosystems.
Gene Technology at CSIRO Plant Industry
CSIRO Plant Industry’s use of gene technology includes DNA markers to speed up plant
breeding, genomics – the discovery of genes and their function – and transferring genes between
species or manipulating genes within a species to obtain a desired trait.
CSIRO Plant Industry has been involved in developing genetically modified agricultural crops
currently in commercial production in Australia. This includes Bollgard® II cotton with insect
resistance. Also currently available is the herbicide resistant Roundup Ready Flex® cotton, which
provides resistance to Glyphosate throughout the growing season. Each of these GM cotton
traits are available in a number of cotton varieties developed by CSIRO Plant Industry to
specifically suit Australian conditions. The most popular are stacked varieties containing both the
insect and herbicide tolerance traits. In 2010 about 98 percent of the Australian cotton crop was
GM cotton.
Ingard® cotton was grown in Australia from 1996, and reduced the use of chemical pesticides to
control a major cotton pest, Helicoverpa, by approximately 50 per cent in areas where it was
grown. Bollgard® II was released in 2003, with better control of Helicoverpa and better insect
resistance management than Ingard® which was immediately phased out. Bollgard®II has
resulted in an 86 per cent reduction in pesticide use compared with conventional cotton. The
area planted to Bollgard®II now accounts for over 80 per cent of cotton in Australia. Growers are
obliged to manage the crop to prevent resistance build-up in Helicoverpa; these practices include
sowing refuge crops, sowing Bollgard®II cotton within a defined window of dates and ploughing
in Bollgard II stubble after harvest to ensure destruction of possible resistant Helicoverpa which
would overwinter in the soil.
Roundup Ready® and Roundup Ready Flex® cottons allow a shift away from older style residual
herbicides that can persist in the environment. These types of varieties currently occupy about 97
per cent of total cotton area, most of it stacked with the Bollgard® II trait to maximise the benefits
of better weed and insect control.
Liberty Link® cotton is a new herbicide tolerance trait that will give growers more options in their
weed control. CSIRO varieties with the new trait were released in 2006.
Current as at January 2010 Page 1CSIRO Plant Industry also conducts gene technology research in other agricultural crops. An information sheet providing examples of CSIRO Plant Industry’s gene technology research and a list of projects that have progressed to field trials is enclosed. Locations and details of field trials are publicly available on the OGTR website, www.ogtr.gov.au. Ingard®, Bollgard II®, Roundup Ready® and Roundup Ready Flex® are patented genes developed by Monsanto and used in CSIRO cotton varieties. Liberty Link® is a patented gene developed by Bayer CropScience and used in CSIRO cotton varieties. CSIRO Plant Industry conducts its gene technology research in strict accordance with regulations as set down by the OGTR and the Gene Technology Act 2000. Current as at January 2010 Page 2
CSIRO Position on Gene Technology
CSIRO believes there is a window of great opportunity for Australia, its
community and industries, in the adoption of biotechnology research, particularly gene
technologies. These give Australia scope to improve our health, create a safer and more secure
food supply, generate prosperity and attain a more sustainable environment. Our position on this
issue is:
• CSIRO will continue to play a valuable, ethical and responsible role in Australian and
international efforts to develop beneficial new products and processes from gene
technology.
• CSIRO will help to provide a clean, safe food supply, novel materials and products and
a sustainable environment for all Australians through the use of appropriate
biotechnology including gene technologies.
• CSIRO recognises and respects public interest and concerns on issues surrounding
genetically modified organisms. We will continue to consult with the community,
industry and government, listen to and recognise their concerns, and help inform
Australians about gene technology. We recognise that values and opinions about
these issues may change over time.
• CSIRO helps Australian industries to be world competitive in biotechnology and gene
technology. We will commercialise our research in the most effective way in accord
with our social responsibility, and promote the growth of local biotechnology
companies. CSIRO will continue to conduct world-class research and train our
scientists to the highest standards.
• CSIRO sees safety as a top priority in gene technology research. We set high internal
biosafety standards and comply with relevant Government legislation and guidelines.
• CSIRO is committed to the ethical, lawful, transparent and accountable conduct of
gene technology research.
• CSIRO supports the responsible protection of intellectual property rights in gene
technologies as a means to stimulate further public research and innovation.
• CSIRO undertakes to investigate both the benefits and risks of gene technology
research. We will help to enhance Australia’s capability for environmental risk
assessment.
Read more at www.csiro.au/resources/Gene-Technology
Current as at January 2010 Page 3The science behind gene technology
All plants and animals are made of billions of tiny cells. Each cell contains
several compartments including a nucleus. The nucleus contains a complete set
of all the genes that make up the coded instructions for the whole organism. A complete gene
set, called the genome, for plants and animals is estimated to contain 25,000 to 50,000 genes
depending on the complexity of the species.
DNA is composed of long strands of sugar
phosphate where every sugar molecule has
attached one of four possible molecules called
bases: A (adenine), C (cytosine), G (guanine)
and T (thymine). It is a long, string-like molecule
with two strands that stick together and are
wound around each other to form a helix – in fact
a double helix. It is compacted into a coil called a
chromosome. DNA is like an information library
with genes as individual instruction books. The
language is encoded in the order of the four
letters, A, C, G and T.
A gene is a coded set of instructions for proteins.
Proteins are the worker molecules of living
things. Different proteins have different functions.
Proteins may be structural parts of the organism -
Inside the cell: genes like bricks and mortar in a house, or they may
instruct protein
production
make other sorts of molecules like starch, oil,
fibre, or fat, which are used within the organism.
GENE (DNA)
Messenger (RNA) An organism is mainly made up of proteins or the
things proteins make. Genes make up much less
than 0.1 per cent of the weight of an organism,
PROTEIN but they control everything else.
When a gene is activated, it is copied many times
from the DNA. These copies, called messenger
ribonucleic acid or mRNA, are similar to DNA but
can move around the cell and work together with
DNA – the language of life the cell machinery to produce proteins.
Each messenger may be ‘read’ thousands of times to make many copies of a specific protein.
One gene can make millions of copies of its protein product.
What is gene technology?
Gene technology includes discovery of genes, understanding gene functions and interactions,
use of genetic markers, controlling gene activity, modifying genes and transferring genes.
Current as at January 2010 Page 4The discovery and identificationof genes is called genomics. Understanding gene functions and how genes interact with each other and other parts of cells is called functional genomics. Genetic markers, also known as DNA markers, are DNA sequences that naturally exist in an organism and sit near a specific gene of interest, and can be easily identified. DNA markers are tools that help locate a gene of interest used for both conventional and gene technology-based animal and plant breeding. Controlling gene activity, or expression, includes switching genes on, off, or modulating them up or down. Modifying and transferring genes is called genetic modification or genetic engineering. These techniques are used to introduce, enhance or delete characteristics, depending on whether they are considered desirable, like better starches, or undesirable, like unhealthy fats. Current as at January 2010 Page 5
How is plant gene technology different to plant breeding?
In conventional plant breeding, sexual crosses are made between closely
related plant lines to transfer a desired trait, such as disease resistance, into a useful crop line.
This cross produces plants with half the genes, somewhere between 25,000 and 50,000 genes,
from each parent plant.
Thousands of genes are transferred from each parent to the new plant including the genes that
give the desired trait and other genes that make unwanted traits. The genes that make the
unwanted traits are reduced in number by
PLANT BREEDING GENE TECHNOLOGY
performing backcrosses. This is where the
newly crossed plant is crossed back with the
original useful crop line. Backcrosses are x
done repeatedly over many generations until
the new plant eventually resembles the
original useful crop line with the addition of the
genes that make the desired trait, like disease
resistance. This can take many years.
Among plants, traditional breeding has also
used ‘wide crosses’. Wide crosses involve
crossing species that are quite unrelated and
are sometimes successful by using special
laboratory techniques.
Gene technology plant breeding
HUNDREDS OF SINGLE
When gene technology is used to introduce a EXTRA GENES GENE
desired trait, only one or two genes are TOGETHER WITH
RESISTANCE (R) GENE
introduced using recombinant DNA into a
useful crop line. These genes and their Transferring a desired trait using breeding
products are studied in great detail before the transfer takes place. The result is a controlled
change to the genetic make-up of the useful crop line.
Newly introduced genes are called transgenes and the transgenic plant line is also known as a
genetically modified (GM) plant.
How is a gene modified?
Gene technology is possible because DNA, constructed of the same four bases, is common in all
living things.
The first step in genetic modification is to identify and copy the gene that produces a desired trait
from a donor organism. Some traits are controlled by many genes. In this case, the trait cannot
be transferred using current methods of gene technology. Current gene technology methods
usually transfer one or a few genes.
Current as at January 2010 Page 6A gene transfer procedure must be developed for each individual plant species.
The gene sometimes needs to be reconstructed (i.e. modified) for it to work in a
different plant environment to produce the desired trait.
4 6
2 8
off 10
There are three basic parts of a gene: Control
Switch
Code for
Protein
Downstream
control region
• The gene promoter that determines the DNA
number of copies of mRNA made and when Start Stop
and where they are made in the organism. RNA
• The protein coding region, which specifies the
make up of the protein encoded by the gene.
• The downstream stop switch, which Protein
determines the end of the mRNA molecule.
The gene sequence is decoded into a protein via
an RNA molecule called messenger RNA
For a gene to work it must have all three basic parts, but they do not have to be from the same
source. That is, they can be “recombined” from different sources.
The protein-coding region is from the gene of interest of the donor organism.
The promoter must be able to understand and interact
with the signals of the cells in the receiving plant to work.
The promoter is often from the receiving plant because it
already knows how to work in that plant.
The stop control region is less complex than the
promoter and can be taken from a variety of plant genes.
The different gene parts are pasted together
(“recombined”) to make a functional gene with
instructions to produce the protein of interest. Scientists
call this a gene construct, which will become a transgene when it is transferred to a new host.
Gene reconstruction involves finding, purifying, and pasting together combinations of gene parts
to create a functional gene that makes the desired protein, in the right amounts, in the right
place, at the right time, in the desired plant.
How is a gene transferred into a plant?
Genes must be delivered into single plant cells. Inside the cell, the introduced gene is inserted
into one of the cell’s chromosomes where it becomes an integral part of the cell’s genome. The
cell is then referred to as a transformed cell. When that cell divides, the new gene will be passed
onto its offspring along with the plant’s other thousands of genes.
Two methods are commonly used to transfer genes into plants: biolistics and agrobacterium.
Current as at January 2010 Page 7DNA particle gun method
Biolistics involves coating the
DNA COATING DNA PARTICLE
gene construct onto tiny gold
OF MICROSCOPIC GUN METHOD or tungsten particles, which
METAL PARTICLES
DNA WITH TRAIT are then shot into the cell
Metal particles
using high pressure
DNA
acceleration.
CELL DIVISION Agrobacterium is a soil
DNA INSERTION microbe that infects a wide
ACCELERATION
PLANT CELL
OF PARTICLES range of broad-leaved plants
INTO PLANT
CELLS and normally transfers a
Transferred
number of its own genes into a
DNA host plant’s genome. Because
of its natural ability to transfer
Agrobacterium method genes to plant cells scientists
replace the bacterial genes in
Agrobacterium Genes for agrobacterium with their gene
transfer construct. The gene is then
Chromosome
T-DNA Cell Division transported directly into the
DNA of the plant cell using the
same mechanism that would
otherwise carry the microbe’s
genes into a plant. The
Agrobacterium agrobacterium method is the
cell most common method used to
transfer genes.
PLANT CELL
The frequency of transferring a
gene into plant cells is
relatively low, so scientists expose many cells to the agrobacterium and then use a selective
agent to find those that have successfully taken up the new gene.
How do we find the cells that have taken up the gene construct?
To track the transfer of new genes a ‘selectable marker gene’ is also added with the gene of
interest. A cell with a selectable marker gene is easily identified because the marker provides a
selective growth advantage such as the ability to survive in the presence of an antibiotic.
By using the marker gene which is linked to the desired gene construct, scientists can select the
cells that have taken up the new gene.
Cells that have taken up the new gene are called transformed, transgenic or genetically modified.
Current as at January 2010 Page 8What happens after a gene is transferred?
Plant genetic modification is made possible because plants can re-grow from a single cell using
specific tissue culture procedures.
Transformed cells are caused to divide, grow and develop into a small shoot or embryo and
finally form a whole plant. This is called regeneration. Growing transformed cells requires precise
and careful procedures, which means that new techniques have to be developed for each type of
plant transformation.
Depending on the plant species, plant
DNA INSERTION transformation can take between two and
12 months to select cells that have taken
up the new gene and regenerate plants
from these cells.
CELL DIVISION Transferred DNA
Once the genetically modified plants have
grown large enough, they can be put into
CELLS REGENERATE pots of soil in a PC2 glasshouse (see
INTO PLANTLETS “Using Gene Technology Safely”).
Transfer Transformed plants are tested thoroughly
to soil over a number of generations to ensure
that the added gene(s) are present and
PLANTS WITH working as predicted.
NEW TRAIT
Regenerating transformed cells into plants
Current as at January 2010 Page 9Examples of CSIRO Plant Industry gene technology projects Healthier wheat CSIRO’s Food Futures National Research Flagship has used CSIRO’s RNAi gene silencing techniques to produce an experimental wheat variety with an amylose content of 70 per cent. Amylose is a particular form of starch that is called resistant starch when incorporated into foods. Increasing wheat’s resistant starch levels could lead to a number of health benefits for consumers including a reduction in colorectal cancer risk and improvements in the control of blood glucose. By using gene technology researchers were able to define the genetic changes required to generate high amylose wheat, confirm the potential health benefits, and guide the team in developing both conventionally-bred and GM wheat varieties with this trait. Insect-proof cotton Cotton is one of Australia’s main rural exports earning up to $1.7 billion a year but, to protect the crop, growers used to spend up to $250 million a year on chemical pesticides to control insects. CSIRO Plant Industry scientists have produced cotton plants with built-in resistance to Helicoverpa, the industry’s most destructive pest. GM cotton, Bollgard® II, has been shown to reduce pesticide use 86 per cent. More than 90% of all cotton grown in Australia in 2010 was Bollgard II®. Bollgard II®, Roundup Ready® and Roundup Ready Flex® are patented genes developed by Monsanto and used in CSIRO varieties. Liberty Link® cotton is a patented gene developed by Bayer and used in CSIRO varieties. Lupins with added methionine Lupins are a major legume grain exported for animal feed and used on-farm as supplementary feed for sheep during the dry summer period. To increase the nutritional value of lupins, CSIRO Plant Industry researchers have added a sunflower gene that makes a rumen-protected methionine-rich protein that is predicted to boost wool and meat production. The lupins have been tested in the laboratory, glasshouse and in field trials. Feeding trials showed an eight per cent increase in wool growth and a seven per cent increase in live-weight gain in sheep fed the modified lupins. Virus-resistant clover White Clover provides protein for grazing animals, nitrogen for cropping, and helps improve soil structure and stability. Alfalfa Mosaic Virus (AMV) is a plant disease that reduces the productivity and persistence of the clover, costing dairy farmers in excess of $30 million per year. CSIRO Plant Industry researchers, together with scientists from the Victorian Department of Primary Industries, have developed clover with in-built resistance to AMV, providing the only control method for the virus so far. Researchers have also added to the GM clover a natural resistance to Clover Yellow Vein Virus (CYVV), another serious disease of white clover. CSIRO Plant Industry is also undertaking an investigation into the potential ecological impact of the GM white clover on natural and agricultural ecosystems. Current as at January 2010 Page 10
Understanding sugar cane CSIRO Plant Industry is using gene technology to study the genome of sugarcane and determine which genes are contributing to the accumulation of sucrose and other useful traits. By looking at the differences in DNA between sugarcane and closely related species and relating these differences to the varying amounts of sucrose and other sugars stored, researchers are identifying the parts of the genome that positively and negatively affect sugar accumulation. These techniques are allowing researchers to make use of previously untapped variation in sugarcane-related species. Researchers are exploring the use of genetic markers to speed the conventional selection process and determining which genes may be manipulated by intervention to increase sucrose content. Phosphorus efficient pasture plants In Australia, plants need fertiliser to help them grow. Phosphorus is a major fertiliser used by farmers for both pastures and crops, yet locked beneath the soil is a wealth of phosphorus waiting to be accessed. Using gene technology, a team at CSIRO Plant Industry is working on plants that are able to access the phosphorus ‘bank’. Seeds without sex Hybrid seed outperform seed derived from self-pollinating plants. However, the gains in yield and vigour are reduced in the next generation of plants. If seed could be derived as an identical copy of the mother plant, without fertilisation from pollen, these gains would be maintained permanently. This process, called apomixis, is present in many plants but is not present in crop plants. Apomixis would also help with the problem of pollination failure, a common cause for reduced seed set and hence reduced yield in a number of crops around the world. CSIRO Plant Industry scientists have found a gene that allows Arabidopsis, a test plant, to bypass the normal pollination process and produce endosperm without fertilisation. This is a major first step towards generating plants that produce seed by apomixis. Understanding flowering Flowering is the start of grain production so understanding the processes that control flowering has implications for breeding improved cereal crops for the future. Scientists at CSIRO Plant Industry have identified a gene responsible for determining the timing of flowering in cereal crops like wheat and barley, and shown that flowering genes respond to day length, not just temperature as previously thought. Virus resistance in plants Plants have diseases and viruses just like humans. They can affect plant performance and survival. Using gene technology developed by CSIRO Plant Industry, scientists can activate a plant’s natural defence mechanisms, enabling the plant to fight off debilitating plant viruses when attacked. The technology has been applied to produce wheat plants with immunity to the Wheat Streak Mosaic Virus, a new biosecurity threat in Australia. Technology may even have potential for protecting humans against viral diseases such as HIV AIDS. Current as at January 2010 Page 11
Healthy oils CSIRO Plant Industry scientists have developed the world’s first cotton plants genetically modified to produce healthier cooking oils and margarines that will help reduce the risk of heart disease. Cottonseed oil is used as an ingredient in margarines and cooking oils. To make it suitable for these products it is generally subjected to a process known as ‘hydrogenation’, which can produce cholesterol-raising trans fatty acids as a by-product. The new cottonseed oil is rich in oleic acid which is more stable to heat and does not require hydrogenation In a world first, CSIRO Food Futures Flagship has developed plants that produce DHA, a healthy omega-3 oil component normally only available from fish sources, which is vital for human health. The breakthrough is an important first step towards improving human nutrition, reducing pressure on declining fish resources worldwide and providing Australian grain growers with new high-value crops. Scientists from CSIRO Plant Industry are key members of the team working on this research project. Crop Biofactories Plants have the capability to produce a wide range of compounds that can be used as raw materials for making industrial chemicals. These crop ‘biofactories’ have huge potential to supply industry and estimates suggest that the value of new industrial biotechnology applications in the chemical industry alone could reach $160 billion by 2010. In the first phase of the Crop Biofactories Initiative, CSIRO and the Grains Research and Development Corporation (GRDC) are investing $13 million to look at a range of compounds that plants can produce and evaluate their potential as replacements for petrochemicals in the manufacture of polymers and other industrial products. Scientists from CSIRO Plant Industry are players in the oils component of this initiative. Improving fruit crops CSIRO Plant Industry and Food Futures researchers are investigating the genetic and physiological characteristics of grapes to uncover the basis of flavour and aroma development in grapes. Other projects are using genetic techniques to establish the mechanisms of disease infection. This information is being used to develop varieties of our favourite wine grapes that are resistant to mildews, a major cause of yield loss in wine and table grapes. Current as at January 2010 Page 12
CSIRO Plant Industry: using gene technology safely CSIRO Plant Industry operates within the regulatory framework when conducting gene technology research. This approach ensures the safety of the community and the environment, and also ensures that rigorous scientific practices are followed. CSIRO Plant Industry has specific procedures in place to ensure that gene technology research is conducted in a controlled and ethical manner, and that the products of its research are safe. CSIRO Plant Industry research strictly follows the regulations established by the Federal Government’s Office of the Gene Technology Regulator (OGTR). The OGTR was established according to the Gene Technology Act 2000 and is responsible for developing, implementing and monitoring Australia’s gene technology regulatory framework. The OGTR operates within the Federal Government’s Department of Health and Ageing, reporting to the Minister as required. OGTR regulations are designed to ensure that potential hazards to personnel, the community and the environment are identified and, where necessary, appropriately managed. The regulations require the controlled conduct of gene technology research within laboratories, and the controlled and safe release of genetically modified organisms into the environment. Institutional Biosafety Committees (IBC) The OGTR requires that organisations undertaking gene technology research are accredited, and that all work is overseen by Institutional Biosafety Committees (IBCs). CSIRO Plant Industry has two IBCs and another two jointly with other Divisions. Each committee has scientific experts from fields as diverse as taxonomy, molecular biology, microbiology, weed management, and entomology, as well as non-scientific, community members. The IBCs are responsible for monitoring five CSIRO Plant Industry sites conducting gene technology. They meet regularly to review the conduct of gene technology research and to ensure that OGTR regulations are followed. Genetically modified plants in the lab All laboratory and glasshouse facilities used for gene technology projects are certified by the OGTR. They are inspected regularly by IBC members to ensure compliance with regulations. All facilities used for gene technology research at CSIRO Plant Industry are certified as physical containment level two (PC2). This means that a basic level of safety is required for the operation and design of the laboratories and glasshouses. All CSIRO Plant Industry staff working in these facilities follow the OGTR regulations regarding safe laboratory and glasshouse practice. Gene technology project proposals submitted for OGTR approval are prepared by project supervisors, reviewed by the IBC, and approved by the Chief of the Division prior to submission to OGTR. Project registrations with the OGTR are reviewed annually by the IBC and new projects are routinely submitted. Current as at January 2010 Page 13
Projects are registered with OGTR as either Notifiable Low Risk Dealings (NLRDs), or where a higher level of biosafety is required, as Dealings Not involving Intentional Release (DNIRs). Ensuring the safe disposal of biological materials CSIRO Plant Industry follows the OGTR regulations relating to the disposal of biological materials. Laboratory wastes are discarded as ‘biohazard’ material. They are autoclaved, a process that destroys all biological materials under pressure at 121oC and disposed of as industrial waste in supervised landfill. The waste products from genetically modified plants in the glasshouses, including the soil, are steam sterilised at 100oC for approximately three hours and then stored securely for two to three years before being recycled as a non-commercial potting mix for further use by CSIRO Plant Industry. Reproductive plant material, the flowers and seeds, are disposed of as ‘biohazard’ material. Genetically modified plants in the field CSIRO Plant Industry only conducts field trials that have been approved and licensed for intentional release by the OGTR. Researchers must satisfy all testing requirements at the laboratory level, and at the glasshouse level before applications to OGTR for intentional release are considered. The approval process CSIRO Plant Industry follows OGTR regulations regarding field trials. Any proposal to conduct field trials must be approved by the IBC, the Chief of Plant Industry, and the CSIRO Chief Executive before it is submitted to OGTR. The OGTR assesses the proposed trial and supporting evidence provided by CSIRO Plant Industry according to its regulations and prepares a risk assessment and risk management plan. These procedures allow for both public notification and public comment. In addition, the OGTR informs and requests comment from relevant government agencies, state government bodies, and local municipalities of the proposed trial. If the application satisfies the requirements of all these parties and is approved, the OGTR issues a licence, known as a Dealing involving Intentional Release (DIR) which stipulates any conditions for the trial. As part of this process, CSIRO Plant Industry is required to prepare a compliance management plan and it is the responsibility of the proponent and the IBC to ensure adherence to these conditions. The OGTR may also carry out inspections of field trials to ensure compliance with licence conditions. For non-compliance severe penalties can be imposed. CSIRO Plant Industry’s DIRs, both completed and current, are listed on the OGTR web site. Trial conditions differ from crop to crop The crop in the trial determines the conditions under which they are grown in the field. Conditions may include buffer zones, bird proofing and/or insect proofing to minimise pollination, or Current as at January 2010 Page 14
specialised farming management. The size of the buffer zone depends on the crop in the trial; for example smaller buffer zones are used for crop plants that have low likelihood for pollen dispersal. Pollination is considered on a case by case basis as some plants self-pollinate. If the crop has pollen that is easily dispersed by wind, the field trial licence conditions may include containing the pollen by placing plastic bags over flowers prior to maturity or pruning to minimise flower formation. Where flowering and seed formation are not required, plants are harvested and destroyed before flowering, so seed and pollen are not produced. After field trials When field trials are complete, seed is harvested and all vegetative material, leaves, stalk and roots, are either removed or cultivated into the ground, unless otherwise specified by OGTR. Some material may be kept for further analysis in PC2 laboratories. If necessary, biological materials such as seeds are disposed of by autoclaving, incineration or deep burial. Plants in the buffer zone may be destroyed or examined by researchers to determine the extent of gene flow from the trial crop prior to destruction. The land where field trials are conducted is monitored for up to five years after completion of a trial. The length of monitoring is determined by the type of crop and its capacity to persist in the environment, as documented by the OGTR. Any plants that may grow are removed, may be analysed, and are then destroyed as above. Herbicide may be applied depending on licence conditions. Current as at January 2010 Page 15
Gene technology – frequently asked questions How do we know plant genetic modification is OK? Throughout the research process, genes are extensively examined to determine their function in a plant. If a gene (or genes) is added to a plant, the plant is tested at laboratory, glasshouse and field trial stages, to ensure the added gene is present, working as predicted and stable over many generations. Case by case assessment includes the plant health, plant growth and development, characteristics and nutritional components, as well as external impacts like soil health and pollen flow. Food Standards Australia New Zealand assesses the safety of GM foods by comparing the molecular, toxicological, nutritional and compositional properties of the food to the non-GM form. The assessment focuses on the new gene product(s), including the intentional and unintentional effects of the genetic modification, and examines any compositional changes, including whether the potential allergenicity and toxicity of the food has been altered. The assessment uses the commonly consumed conventional food as a benchmark for safety. This method is regarded by organisations such as the World Health Organisation (WHO)/Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) as the most practical approach for assessing the safety of a GM food. Procedures for assessment are regularly reviewed to ensure that recent scientific and regulatory developments are reflected in the process. There are strict regulations controlling the research, development, release and use of genetically modified organisms. The Federal Government, through various regulatory agencies, approves and monitors the use of gene technology. A genetically modified plant cannot be released from the laboratory until it has undergone years of rigorous testing with all regulatory requirements met. Will genetically modified plants harm the environment? Genetically modified plants must be assessed for any environmental impact and meet stringent regulatory safeguards before being considered for intentional release. CSIRO must demonstrate minimal environmental risk associated with any intentional release of a genetically modified organism before OGTR will consider a trial or commercial release for approval. To allay concerns about genes jumping to other species and creating new weed problems, and before undertaking any open field trials, scientists must show whether the modified plants can breed with wild plant relatives. Regulators assess this risk before a crop can be released. Throughout all research in the field, safety practices are always employed and for cotton this has included physical isolation from other cotton crops, planting of buffer zones of non-GM cotton around GM-cotton trials to minimise pollen drift and the destruction of seeds harvested from the trials to ensure that none enter the human food chain. Some genetically modified plants provide resistance to pests and help reduce the amount of pesticides used to produce a crop. The two-gene Bollgard II® has reduced pesticide use by over 80 per cent and over a greater proportion of the industry, significantly reducing the cotton Current as at January 2010 Page 16
industry’s reliance on chemical insecticides and increasing the opportunity for integrated pest management (IPM). IPM aims to reduce chemical use by combining knowledge of both pest and good insects for biological control, with judicious use of chemicals and better farming practices. Current as at January 2010 Page 17
What is gene silencing?
A gene that is producing undesirable characteristics in an organism can be
turned down or switched off. One way this can be achieved is by inserting a second copy of the
gene, or a fragment of the gene, back to front. This is known as hairpinRNAi. More information
on hairpinRNAi is at www.csiro.au/science/gene-silencing
Another way uses ‘gene shears’ that causes the gene message molecule to destroy itself. This
cancels the effect of the undesirable gene.
Gene silencing is being used by CSIRO Plant Industry to:
• protect plants from viruses
• make healthier cooking oils from cotton seed; and
• understand the function of selected genes.
Why are antibiotic resistance genes used?
Antibiotic resistance genes are research tools used to help identify and select plant cells that
have taken up a new gene. The antibiotic resistance genes used are not regarded as medically
important and have been shown to pose no health risk.
Is plant genetic modification likely to cause allergies?
Food made from genetically modified (GM) plants is no more likely to cause allergies than any
other food. Intolerance or allergy to a foodstuff occurs in some people, brought about by
components that are a natural part of the food - for example, gluten, which is a natural protein in
wheat, causes intolerance. Other proteins in the wheat grain can stimulate the immune system
and cause allergy.
The transfer of genes between different varieties or species may mean that allergy-causing
compounds, called allergens, are produced in a foodstuff in which they did not occur before.
Testing GM products for known allergens reduces this risk, but as allergenic proteins are
naturally present in some conventional foods, they may still be present in genetically modified
foods.
For example, soy naturally contains proteins that cause allergic reactions in some people. Unless
these proteins are specifically removed, they will remain present in GM soy varieties.
Future GM crops could be specially developed not to contain proteins that are known to cause
common food allergies. However, medical science cannot yet eliminate the occurrence of allergy
and food intolerance. People will continue to have unwanted reactions to many foods and must
still carefully scan the list of ingredients of many foodstuffs for potential allergens. This problem is
unrelated to gene technology.
GM crops are rigorously tested for allergens as part of a case-by-case assessment process. A
good example is the development of a CSIRO-developed GM field pea, modified with a gene
from beans to protect the peas from weevils. During the evaluation process, scientists noticed a
small structural change in one of the proteins produced by the new pea. To evaluate the effects,
Current as at January 2010 Page 18if any, of the protein, a feeding trial in mice was arranged. The trial showed evidence of a mild immune response to the protein in the GM peas, and, although the results could not reliably apply to humans, the research was halted. The findings demonstrate the rigorous nature of the testing process and emphasise the important role science can play in case-by-case assessment of GM crops. More information relating to allergens and GM foods is available from Food Standards Australia New Zealand at www.foodstandards.gov.au or on (02) 6271 2222. Genetic modification is not natural so should we transfer genes between organisms? Genetic modification is not considered ‘natural’ by some because it is brought about by humans. Most food we eat today is the result of intensive agriculture, using carefully created varieties that breeders, farmers and scientists have been improving over many years by conventional breeding. Conventional breeding methods enable the random transfer of thousands of genes at a time between two plants. Gene technology enables only one or two desired genes, which produce a specific trait, to be introduced into a plant. Genes are made of the same chemical substance – DNA – no matter in which organism they occur. The DNA of all genes contains four building blocks, commonly called bases. The different order of these building blocks is what makes genes distinct, but the nucleotides that make DNA are the same whether they come from a gum tree, a mouse, a mushroom, a butterfly or a person. There are also a number of genes that are shared between different organisms, like the gene for haemoglobin, the carrier of oxygen in human and plants. Gene technology is possible because DNA is common in all living things. Current as at January 2010 Page 19
Can genes be owned?
Genes and their functions are continually being researched. This new
knowledge helps us understand how plants grow, develop and respond to the environment.
While genes themselves cannot be owned, gene technology methods, like the ability to turn
genes off, can be covered by the application of Intellectual Property (IP) rights. CSIRO’s
Gene Shears or hairpin RNA technologies are good examples. The use of particular genes in
inventive ways or to produce novel traits can be protected for a period of time.
What is Intellectual Property (IP)?
Intellectual Property (IP) refers to innovations such as discoveries and inventions. Laws that
protect IP have existed since before Federation. In CSIRO Plant Industry’s case, its scientific
research produces IP. While patents and other means are used to protect some of its IP, most is
made freely available via scientific journals, conferences and advice to farmers and the
community in general.
Why do we have IP?
We have IP rights so that often expensive and time-consuming research is both recognised and
rewarded.
Some of the ways IP rights can be protected include:
• Trade secrets. Ideas and research are protected by being kept secret. This is an
effective way of protecting ideas and research in progress, but does not promote
information exchange between scientists. CSIRO Plant Industry prefers not to use
this method of protection.
• Patents. Patents give an inventor time-limited rights to an invention or to the
application of a discovery. Patents are designed to foster innovation in two ways.
First, they offer inventors legal protection for a period of time in which to recoup
development costs of novel and useful inventions. Second, they require inventors to
publicly disclose details of their invention that would otherwise be kept secret,
allowing other researchers to learn from their work. Patents are only valid in the
country in which they have been granted; they must be applied for in each country
protection is desired. Application for patents can cost large sums of money and take
many years to be processed. By owning international patents, Australia is able to
operate and trade in the world intellectual property environment, giving Australian
scientists access to many of the world’s latest innovations.
• Plant Breeders’ Rights. New varieties of plants are registered under a scheme
designed to provide a fair working environment for all plant breeders. Plant Breeders’
Rights do not rule out further breeding from a new variety, but aim to ensure
breeders receive a fair return for their work.
Patents and Plant Breeders’ Rights promote further innovation by allowing new ideas to be
communicated freely.
Current as at January 2010 Page 20Where can I find out more? The World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), a specialised agency of the United Nations system of organisations, promotes the creation, dissemination, use and protection of IP internationally. For more information on IP, provisions, and member countries of the WIPO see www.wipo.org. For more information on patents, see the Patent Lens section of BIOS - Biological Innovation for Open Society, an initiative of the Centre for the Application of Molecular Biology to International Agriculture (CAMBIA): www.bios.net/daisy/patentlens/ Plant Breeder’s Rights are administered by Plant Breeder’s Rights Australia, part of IP Australia. See www.ipaustralia.gov.au/pbr Current as at January 2010 Page 21
Gene technology in action Cotton is one of Australia’s main rural exports, earning the nation up to $1.7 billion a year. To protect the crop growers were spending up to $250 million a year on chemical pesticides to control insects, a figure that was expected to rise each year if control became more difficult. A source of protection Scientists at Monsanto identified genes which, when introduced into plants, produce a protein in their leaves that kills Helicoverpa caterpillars – cotton’s major insect pest. The genes come from a bacterium commonly found in soil, Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), that has been used in agriculture as a sprayed bio-pesticide for over 50 years. Because it is highly specific, this protein does not kill other insects or spiders and is also harmless to humans and other animals. Protecting Australian cotton CSIRO Plant Industry scientists worked with Monsanto and the seed company Cotton Seed Distributors to introduce one of the genes into CSIRO cotton varieties to develop GM Bollgard® II cotton varieties. Once the genes were added to the CSIRO cotton varieties, scientists conducted a series of tests to evaluate the performance and impact of the modified cotton. The series of tests included initial laboratory experiments, secure glasshouse trials, and both small and large scale field trials. All research was conducted under regulatory guidelines and at each research stage permission to proceed was sought from the Federal Government’s Office of the Gene Technology Regulator (OGTR). Public comment was also sought before OGTR approval was given for limited commercial release of Bollgard® II cotton. Apart from OGTR a number of other organisations were also involved in determining the level of risk, including State environment protection agencies, departments of agriculture, the National Registration Authority - now the Australian Pesticides and Veterinary Medicines Authority (APVMA) and because cotton oil is used in human food, Food Standards Australia and New Zealand (FSANZ). OGTR approval was dependent on CSIRO demonstrating that there was minimal environmental risk associated with the modified cotton, in particular to Australia’s native cottons. CSIRO showed the likelihood of the Bt genes ‘escaping’ into Australian cotton relatives was effectively zero. In 1996, commercial release of Ingard® cotton was approved, with planting restricted to 10 per cent, or about 30,000 hectares, of Australia’s cotton growing area. During the first five years of commercial release of Ingard® cotton, pesticides used to control the Helicoverpa caterpillar were reduced by around 50 per cent in areas where Ingard® was grown. Bollgard® II was released in 2003 and has demonstrated an 86 per cent reduction in pesticide use. Towards a sustainable future The additional Bt gene in Bollgard® II has significantly reduced the likelihood of Helicoverpa developing resistance to Bollgard® II, while at the same time reducing reliance on chemical pesticides. Current as at January 2010 Page 22
Management strategies have been developed to reduce insect resistance. This includes the planting of ‘refuge’ crops that attract Helicoverpa. Surviving Helicoverpa in these refuges will outnumber any survivors in the Bollgard® II crops therefore reducing the chances of a resistant population developing. These refuge crops can be small areas of unsprayed cotton, larger areas of cotton sprayed with conventional pesticides or even other crops like pigeonpeas. Most farmers are opting for non- cotton refuge crops in an effort to reduce their use of land and water for the refuges. Current as at January 2010 Page 23
CSIRO Plant Industry’s genetically
modified plant experiment
applications to the OGTR
CSIRO’s GM plant applications – 2003 to November 2010
Crop Trait
Cereals • Genes involved in grain development, dormancy and germination
• Rice biotechnology and functional genomics
• Manipulation of quality genes in cereals
• Phosphorus nutrition in cereal plants
• Genetic Improvement of crops for yield under stress
• Genes involved in grain development, dormancy and germination
Cotton • Fungal pathogen of cotton and related Fusaria
• Agronomic improvement of cotton through genetic engineering
• Study of cotton growth, development, physiology and metabolism
Eucalypts • Genetic engineering of eucalypts
Fruit Crops • Fruit quality genes
• Genes associated with flowering in mango
Legumes • Engineering of legumes for bloat-safety and nutritional improvement
• Virus resistance in pasture legumes
Other plants • Development of new food and industrial oils from plants
• Molecular genetics of gibberellin physiology
• Molecular fungal pathology
• Horticultural genomics
• Molecular basis of seed and fruit formation
• Cloning genes from plant pathogenic fungi
• Gene discovery and study of gene function in Arabidopsis thaliana
• Genetic transformation of poppy
• Transformation of Melampsora lini, the fungal pathogen responsible for
rust disease of flax and linseed
• Gene silencing in plants
• Modification of plant composition for feed and food
• Modification of carbon storage and allocation in plants
• Root processes that influence the availability and uptake of nutrients by
plants
• Genetic engineering of plants for resistance to plant pathogens
• Pathogenesis and management of closterovirus and geminivirus
diseases
• Expressing plant pathogenic organisms to elucidate infection processes
Current as at January 2010 Page 24Current field trials at January 2011
Crop Trait
Grapes • Expression of modified colour, sugar composition,
flowering and fruit development, expression of green
fluorescence protein, antibiotic resistance
Wheat and Barley • Altered grain composition
• Altered grain starch composition
• Enhanced nutrient utilisation efficiency
Maize • Antibiotic resistance, herbicide tolerance and reporter
gene activity
For further information about genetically modified field trials conducted Australia wide see the
OGTR Record of Licences: www.ogtr.gov.au.
Other contacts
Gene Technology Information Service:
1800 631 276
Fax: (03) 9348 2934
Email: gtis-australia@unimelb.edu.au
Office of the Gene Technology Regulator:
1800 181 030
Fax: (02) 6271 4202
Email: ogtr@health.gov.au
General information on the process of biotechnology and GM foods
Biotechnology Australia: www.biotechnology.gov.au
CSIRO Gene Technology website: www.csiro.au/resources/Gene-Technology
AusBiotech: www.ausbiotech.org
Food Standards Australia New Zealand: www.foodstandards.gov.au
Government policy in relation to gene technology
Regulation and approval processes
www.ogtr.gov.au
www.biotechnology.gov.au
www.foodstandards.gov.au
Genetically modified food labelling
www.foodstandards.gov.au
Current as at January 2010 Page 25Safety and genetically modified organisms www.ogtr.gov.au www.biotechnology.gov.au http://genetech.csiro.au/safety.htm Crops and agriculture www.biotechnology.gov.au www.foodstandards.gov.au www.csiro.au www.ausbiotech.org www.daff.gov.au Cloning, ethical issues and more information www.biotechnology.gov.au www.health.gov.au www.foodstandards.gov.au Current as at January 2010 Page 26
Commonwealth government departments and agencies Department of Industry, Tourism and Resources www.industry.gov.au CSIRO Gene Technology www.csiro.au Biotechnology Australia www.biotechnology.gov.au Food Standards Australia New Zealand www.foodstandards.gov.au Office of the Gene Technology Regulator (OGTR) www.ogtr.gov.au Australian Government Environment Portal www.environment.gov.au Department of Health and Ageing www.health.gov.au Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry www.daff.gov.au National Health and Medical Research Council www.nhmrc.gov.au Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA) www.tga.gov.au Australian Pesticides and Veterinary Medicines Authority (APVMA) www.apvma.gov.au Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service (AQIS) www.daff.gov.au/aqis State government departments Queensland Department of Primary Industries and www.dpi.qld.gov.au Fisheries University research centres University of Melbourne, Faculty of Science www.science.unimelb.edu.au University of NSW, Department of Biotechnology www.babs.unsw.edu.au Companies Monsanto www.monsanto.com BayerCropScience www.bayercropscience.com.au Syngenta www.syngenta.com Other Organisations ABC Science - The Lab www.abc.net.au/science Agrifood Awareness Australia www.afaa.com.au Australian Academy of Science www.science.org.au Ausbiotech www.ausbiotech.org Australian Conservation Foundation www.acfonline.org.au Australian Gene Ethics Network www.geneethics.org Australian Consumers Association www.choice.com.au Australian Food and Grocery Council www.afgc.org.au Organic Federation of Australia www.ofa.org.au Overseas Sites United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) www.usda.gov/agencies/biotech UK - National Centre for Biotechnology Education www.ncbe.reading.ac.uk UK Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs www.defra.gov.uk UK – Department of Business, Enterprise and Regulatory Reform www.dti.gov.uk NZ – Ministry of Health, New Zealand www.moh.govt.nz Canada – Agriculture and Agri-food Canada www.agr.ca Japan – Agro-biotech information in Japan www.s.affrc.go.jp/docs/sentan/ Current as at January 2010 Page 27
Gene technology glossary
Term Meaning
Allele An alternative form of a gene. For example, the gene for blue eyes and the gene for brown eyes
are “alleles” of the gene for eye colour.
Allergen An allergen is a substance from outside the body that triggers an allergic reaction in sensitive
individuals. Common allergens include grass pollen, dust and some proteins in foods.
Allergic reaction An allergic reaction is what results when a person’s immune system reacts adversely to an
allergen. Most allergic reactions involve the allergen being breathed in or entering through the
skin or via food and latching on to special immune system cells. The allergens cause these cells
to release chemicals that give rise to the symptoms of the allergy.
Amino acid The basic building block of a protein. There are 20 different amino acids involved in making
proteins. Long chains of amino acids make up a protein.
Antibiotic A chemical that can be used to kill or inactivate bacteria within a person or animal. Today there
are many different types of antibiotic, many produced using the techniques of modern
biotechnology.
Antibiotic The ability of bacteria to tolerate antibiotics and remain unaffected by them. Resistance may
resistance evolve naturally in bacteria after years of exposure to antibiotics. It is controlled by genes and
can be spread between bacteria.
Biotechnology A broad term originally used to describe the application of biology in the creation of helpful
products (for example, agriculture, brewing and baking were all considered types of
biotechnology). Recently, the word has come to refer more to modern methods of using
organisms and biological processes to create either genetically modified organisms or products
(such as insulin and pharmaceuticals) manufactured using genetic engineering techniques.
Bacteria Single celled organisms capable of reproduction and growth. Bacteria can be beneficial or
harmful.
Bases (and The building blocks of DNA are nucleotides, which consist of a phosphate and sugar group
nucleotides) linked to each of four bases — Adenine, Cytosine, Thymine and Guanine. A DNA strand
incorporates millions of these four building blocks. The same bases are present in all forms of
life.
Bt or Bacillus A bacterium commonly found in soil. It produces a protein (Bt toxin) which is naturally toxic to
thuringiensis some insects. Different Bt toxins (from different strains) affect different insect types.
Cell The smallest functional unit of a living organism (excluding viruses). Most animals, plants and
fungi are made up of many cells. A cell contains a number of compartments called organelles
including the nucleus which houses DNA.
Clone A copy. Genes, cells or entire organisms can be cloned using modern biotechnology techniques
or naturally, for example, when a new plant is formed from a cutting, or when humans produce
identical twins.
Chromosome A compact coil-like structure made of DNA and protein. Most living things above the level of
bacteria carry their DNA in the form of chromosomes.
DNA DNA is a long, complicated, molecule that looks like a coiled thread. Along its length occur
(deoxyribonuclei chemical groups called nucleotide bases (see base) that form specific sequences that are
c acid) instructions for making proteins. In nature, DNA is copied every time new cells are made. DNA is
usually contained within the nucleus of the cell.
Gene A portion of DNA carrying instructions. Genes usually code for the production of a protein
molecule, but some are the blueprint for the formation of other molecules. Genes are said to be
active or ‘expressed’ when they are being ‘read’ and used for the production of something.
Genetic code The code in which the instructions of life are written. The genetic code refers to the sequence of
bases in a DNA molecule.
Genetically An organism with genetic material that has been altered by genetic engineering (or gene
modified technology).
organism (GMO)
Genetic Another word for gene technology.
engineering
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