Fracking as a guarantee of Energy Security in countries with low conventional oil reserves Fracking como garantía de Seguridad Energética en ...
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INGE CUC, Vol. 17, No. 1, Enero – Junio, 2021 (IN PRESS)
Fracking as a guarantee of Energy Security in countries
with low conventional oil reserves
Fracking como garantía de Seguridad Energética en países
con bajas reservas de petróleo convencional
DOI: http://doi.org/10.17981/ingecuc.17.1.2021.16
Artículo de Investigación Científica. Fecha de Recepción: 20/10/2020. Fecha de Aceptación: 28/11/2020
Angie Tatiana Ortega Ramírez
Fundación Universidad de América. Bogotá, (Colombia)
angie.ortega@profesores.uamerica.edu.co
Diego Fernando Marín Maldonado
Fundación Universidad de América. Bogotá, (Colombia)
diego.marin@estudiantes.uamerica.edu.co
Para citar este artículo:
A. Ortega Ramírez, D. Marín Maldonado, “Fracking as a guarantee of Energy Security in countries with low conventional
oil reserves”. DOI: http://doi.org/10.17981/ingecuc.17.1.2021.16
Abstract
Fracking is one of the most recent techniques presented by the hydrocarbon industry to guarantee the extraction of oil from
non-conventional fields and thus maintain the energy security of many countries such as the United States, China, Canada,
and even is one of the potential practices in Colombia. Although it is a promising technique because of its advanced level
of engineering, its impacts, and environmental effects are today a subject of debate partly due to limited information and
limited detailed research on the consequences. This article presents the generalities of the technique, a historical timeline,
advantages and disadvantages of the implementation, successful cases, and the implications on the environment. This is
achieved through a review and classification of information from studies and research developed in the world on the named
technique. The advantages are clear: increase in proven reserves, energy independence, increased employment, economic
development, among others. There are disadvantages such as excessive use of water, use of toxic additives, generation of
earthquakes, and negative environmental effects. All of the above is related to previous investigations carried out with
fracking.
Keywords: oil, economy, environmental impact, water, improved recovery, fracking.
Resumen
El fracking es una de las técnicas más recientes que ha presentado la industria de los hidrocarburos para garantizar la
extracción de petróleo de yacimientos no convencionales y con ello mantener la seguridad energética de muchos países
como Estados Unidos, China, Canadá e incluso es una de las técnicas potenciales en Colombia. Aunque es una técnica
prometedora por su nivel avanzado de ingeniería; sus impactos y afectaciones ambientales son hoy en día un tema de debate
en parte a la información limitada y poca investigación detallada en las consecuencias. El presente artículo expone las
generalidades de la técnica, una línea de tiempo histórica, ventajas y desventajas de la implementación, casos exitosos y las
implicaciones en el ambiente. Lo anterior se logra mediante una revisión y clasificación de información de estudios e
investigaciones desarrolladas en el mundo sobre la técnica nombrada. Las ventajas son claras, aumento en reservas probadas,
independencia energética, aumento de empleo, desarrollo económico, entre otros. Se presentan desventajas como el uso
© The author; licensee Universidad de la Costa - CUC.
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excesivo de agua, empleo de aditivos tóxicos, producción de sismos y efectos ambientales negativos. Todo lo anterior
relacionado con investigaciones previas realizadas en relación al fracking.
Palabras clave: Petróleo, economía, impacto ambiental, agua, recuperación mejorada, fracking
I. INTRODUCTION exploitation of hydrocarbons. However, society
often relates this technique to problems such as
Oil represents almost 40% of the energy water quality and availability, air quality, soil,
consumed globally. It is the fuel that makes it greenhouse gas emissions, ecosystem integrity, and
possible for the world to be as we know it [1]. human health impacts [8]. These cause the
Obtaining the fossil resource from the subsoil and technique to have a confrontation between the
its subsequent treatment has allowed humanity to positive and negative side effects of oil reserve
have a remarkable development. Products such as extraction. Once described, a question arises on
gasoline and kerosene have revolutionized which the present paper revolves: are the effects of
society's survival instinct and, if not available, fracking on soils, bodies of water, and human
could lead humanity to stagnation in terms of health justifiable to maintain energy security?
energy development.
To answer this question, we will first discuss the
In 2001, a 40.3-years of hydrocarbon reserves technical details of fracking, based on its
worldwide is reported [2]. For 2014, a 54-years of background, and then analyze the context of its
hydrocarbon reserves worldwide is reported, if oil development, from the causes and consequences of
production remain constant [3]. However, with its use and finally compare its advantages and
increasing reserves comes a growth in population disadvantages, from where we can draw
and greater development in the industry, increasing alternatives for its use as a conclusion.
the demand for oil and gas.
II. METHODOLOGY
Known as hydraulic fracturing, fracking is
currently the most widely used technique in the oil The methodology used for this article is
industry, particularly in the United States, for the conducted through the collection of documents
recovery of hydrocarbons from unconventional with pertinent information found in databases such
fields [4]. This technique was developed as a result as Science Direct, OnePetro, Google Scholar, Legis
of the ever more pronounced decline in and EBSCO HOST, along with the use of different
conventional oil reserves, on which humanity has search engines. The study begins with an analysis
long relied, not only in the energy sector but also in of the historical period of publications related to
other industries unrelated to it. Since the crisis of hydraulic fracturing followed by an analysis of
2008, the application of this practice has stimulated statistical distribution by language, type of
economic growth in the United States [5], making document and country of publication.
it today the largest producer of hydrocarbons
worldwide, and partially guaranteeing its energy A. Historical Period
security, besides proposing the vision of a potential For the analysis of the historical period, the
exporter in 2030 [6], which will bring about SCOPUS database is taken as a reference, which
positive socio-economic effects, related to the allows the collection of information from scientific
increase of jobs and the economic development of articles and books, as well as the graphic
the country. representation of the results according to the use of
Hydraulic fracturing is not a new technique for Boolean operators using the key words and other
the oil industry, developed approximately 100 filters such as the central theme, the type of
years ago [7]; it has played a greater role in recent document, the language and the year of publication.
years, due to the difficulty of finding reservoirs Next, Figure 1 shows the graph of the historical
with petrophysical properties suitable for the period obtained through SCOPUS.
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Figure 1. Historical period of research on Figure 2. Distribution by language
fracking
29%
English
Spanish
71%
Source: Scopus, consulted on June 25, 2020. Source: own elaboration.
In Figure 2, it can be seen that the predominant
According to this figure, there is information
about the technique since 1989, however, in the language in fracking is English, with a 71% share
following years, no articles are published about this coming from 49 documents, while Spanish has a
29% share in 20 documents. English is the most
technique but from 2007. For this document, the
information published between 2009 and 2020 is common language because the fracking technique
analyzed. comes from the United States, where it originated.
However, information is available in Spanish
In Figure 1, an increase in the research because there are Spanish-speaking countries with
development around fracking is shown. In the reserves of unconventional deposits with feasibility
scientific databases, there are documents related to studies, such as Argentina, with the Vaca Muerta
this technique, addressing issues such as its origin, field, one of the largest unconventional deposits in
the political, economic, social, and environmental the world. [9].
impact, and the development of new technologies
To choose the documents by language, a
that reduce environmental impact.
comparative analysis is made between scientific
B. Distribution by Language documents that provide truthful information
depending on the context and place of origin. For
To search for information, the keywords example, to talk about fracking in Colombia, a
described at the beginning of this writing are taken compilation of documents must be made that deal
into account, in addition to a time interval from with case studies from said country, which are
2010 to the present. 69 documents are selected generally in Spanish. But if it is about scientific
from different databases: Science Direct, Google information on the technique, this information must
Scholar, OnePetro, Legis and EBSCO Host, which come mainly from countries where fracking has
are related to the technique. The percentage of been developed for several years, which usually
distribution by language can be seen in Figure 2. generate information in English, since this is
considered a universal language.
C. Distribution by Type of Document
Figure 3 shows the distribution of the
information found for the development of the topic
according to the type of document in the databases
consulted.
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Figure 3. Distribution by type of document
Figure 4. Distribution by number of
documents published by country
6% 7%
10% Books
Thesis
Articles
77%
News
Source: Scopus, consulted on June 25, 2020.
Source: own elaboration.
According to Figure 4, it can be seen that the
According to Figure 3, most of the documents United States heads the list with the highest number
recovered come from articles, because this type of of published articles related to fracking. This is
document is published more frequently than a because this country invented and developed this
book. For this research, 53 documents were technique to increase its reserves and become one
recovered from articles, with a 77% participation. of the largest hydrocarbon producers in the world.
The theses propose new technologies that aim to
increase economic profitability or decrease Another country with the largest number of
environmental impact. In this document, there is published documents is China because it is one of
information about seven degree projects, with a the largest importers of crude oil due to its low
participation of 10%. To a lesser extent, there are perspective. However, according to several studies,
news and books. Within the information gathered, large reserves of oil and gas from oil shale have
there is a 6% participation from news, and 7% from been found.
books, which contain the concepts and generalities
Canada, like China, is another country that has
referring to fracking.
found a high amount of hydrocarbon reserves from
unconventional fields. For this reason, they also
study the viability and publish scientific articles
D. Distribution by country related to the subject. Those two countries
mentioned are mostly importers of this energy
Figure 4 below shows the distribution according
resource; but since they have deposits suitable for
to the number of documents published by country
exploitation by means of hydraulic fracturing, they
from 2007 onwards.
are studying how to reduce imports and generate
greater energy independence through innovative
techniques that will be presented throughout this
article.
In Australia, Netherlands, Spain, Russian
Federation and South Africa, less than one hundred
documents have been published so far in 2020,
however, the presence of hydrocarbons trapped by
poor petrophysical properties means that technical-
financial feasibility studies have to be carried out
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for the exploitation of non-conventional fields by Figure 5 shows the exploitation of
hydraulic fracturing. aconventional deposit, while Figure 6 shows the
exploitation of unconventional reservoirs.
III. DEVELOPMENT
Figure 5. conventional hydrocarbon
This review article aims to take advantage of the reservoir Source: [12]
research contribution of the documents consulted,
to show aspects such as the generalities of fracking,
its history, advantages and disadvantages, some
success stories in energy, and finally, its
environmental effects.
A. Generalities of Fracking
Natural gas
oil
To address the issue of fracking, some concepts
must be taken into account. Fracking, commonly
known as hydraulic fracturing, is used in non-
conventional deposits. These are deposits in which
the generating rock is the same storage rock, that is,
it is a shale with a high organic matter content.
Since it is composed of shale, it does not contain a
good connection between pores, which hinders the
flow of hydrocarbons through the rock [10]. The Figure 6. Unconventional hydrocarbon
reservoir Source: [12]
main difference regarding a conventional deposit is
that the latter has a storage rock composed of
sedimentary permeable rocks that allow the flow of
gas and oil [11].
Unconventional deposits have other
subclassifications depending on the origin. Shale
gas, also known as shale gas or lutite gas, is the gas
trapped in the pores of clayey rocks that form the
bedrock in the petroleum system. They are
generally found at a depth between 3900 and 13100
Well continues
feet [12]. Tight gas, known as compact sand gas, is
horizontal
found in formations with permeabilities below 1
mD and porosities between 3 and 10%. It is
hydraulically fractured zone
associated with almost cemented carbonate
formations that hinder the flow of gas. This type of
deposit is found at depths between 20,000 and Figure 5 shows the conventional hydrocarbon
21,000 feet [13], however, being at such a high extraction technique, in which the fluid is in a
depth and degree of compaction, it has a low system composed of a source rock, a storage rock
production yield. Coal Bed Methane is methane gas and a seal rock [12]. On the other hand, hydraulic
trapped in coal beds. This type of gas is found at fracturing or fracking, in Figure 6, is the extraction
depths between 500 and 10,000 feet [14], it is also technique for non-conventional hydrocarbons,
mentioned that they generate a lower production which is developed through six phases. Initially, in
when exceeding 7,000 feet deep due to the decrease the exploration phase, the amount of gas trapped in
in permeability of the formation. a formation and its economic profitability is
determined; different techniques are used, but the
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most common is the three-dimensional seismic which is exothermic, the viscosity is reduced to
method through the use of dynamite cartridges on between 95 and 96% of its original value [23]. In
the surface, which are spaced from 5 to 20 meters China, an innovative technique was presented that
[15], with the image obtained from this process, the ensures less environmental impact as well as a
direction of drilling is defined to reach the prospect reduction in the cost of used water; the technique
zones. The next phase, called construction, is consists of injecting liquid nitrogen at -196°C that
where the drilling platform is located and 100 to generates a thermal shock at the bottom of the well,
150 trucks are used to transport equipment and which generates fractures and a better connection
another 100 to 1000 trucks to load fluids and between them [24], however, several recirculations
chemical additives [16]. The third phase is drilling. are required to generate the expected fractures.
Horizontal drilling is done in a layer of rock, the Other techniques developed over time are
shales that form the unconventional deposits are Slickwater fracking, which uses larger quantities of
generally found at depths between 1500 and 2000 water with surfactants and lubricants to create
meters [17]. For the fourth phase, which is longer horizontal fractures; the Movable Sleeves is
hydraulic stimulation, a process of injection of a a tube that generates the fracture and allows only
mixture of water, sand, and other chemicals is the return of gas; the HiWAY process, patented by
made, which generates a fracture and allows the Schlumberger, creates larger cracks using less
flow of fluids through the rock [18]. The mixture water and sand than fracking; and RapidFrac,
that will be pressurized at the bottom of the well is which consists of fracturing the formations
composed of approximately 99% water and sand, horizontally and then injecting fluids to ensure that
which acts as a propping agent [19], while 0.5% is neighboring rocks are also fractured [25]. It is
a mixture of hybrid chemical ingredients that claimed that this process is cheaper and faster than
perform additional functions during the fracture fracking. This type of practices is characteristic of
process [20]. The fractures that are generated must lutite-type rocks [26], due to their high degree of
be amplified to generate more channel connections compaction.
to have a bigger flow area, therefore, it is required
to pump the mixture at pressures between 345 and B. History of Fracking
690 atmospheres, depending on the depth of the The trend in recent years is for emerging and
formation. In the fifth phase or production and developed countries to increase their consumption
distribution phase, the gas produced is separated by of natural gas [27]. With an upward consumption,
a three-phase separator, then treated and finally proven oil reserves must also be increased, because
distributed through pipelines. The sixth and final it is a non-renewable resource. That's why
phase is the well completion, in which the well is companies are opting to extract oil from
cemented according to abandonment protocols; unconventional fields.
after production is exhausted.
The first time the word "fracking" appears is on
In addition to the previous phases, new October 12, 1953, which originated in the
technologies have been developed that allow the hydrocarbon industry itself. On that date, an article
extraction of oil or gas from non-conventional was published in the Oil & Gas Journal entitled
fields with increased profitability or decreased "Fracking, A New Exploratory Tool" [28].
environmental impact. One of the technologies is However, this word was used five years after the
high-volume fracturing, in which each well technique was named "hydraulic fracturing," which
fractures 15 to 20 consecutive times [21], and up to was first mentioned in the same magazine on
six independently working wells are produced from October 14, 1948.
a single platform. Another technique being
developed for the production of heavy oil is The fracking technique was developed in the
catalytic hydrogenation [22], which consists of an early 20th century in the United States; however, it
injection of nanofluid that reduces the activation was only applied until the mid-1940s. In that year,
energy, and when the hydrogenation is generated, the extraction of natural gas was carried out in
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Grant County, Kansas, by the operating company low in porosity and permeability, making this
Stanolind Oil [29]. However, that same year it was extraction process costly and less productive than
decided not to continue producing using the conventional explorations [37]. One of the reasons
technique due to the low economic profitability. why the expansion of the hydraulic fracturing
Later, in the 1970s, the United States launched a technique can be generated is the decrease of
horizontal exploration research program, which conventional oil and gas reserves worldwide [38]
concluded the technical aspects of fracking. In and the search for innovative exploitation
2005 Barnett Shale began commercial production techniques that allow the combination of
in Texas [30], with which hydrocarbons began to operations already known [39], a condition that
be extracted from non-conventional fields in the fracturing fulfills excellently. Humanity is heavily
United States [31]. In 2011 the companies that dependent on the consumption of fossil fuels, and
applied the fracking technique in Wyoming were although alternative energies are currently being
Halliburton, Devon Energy, and Chesapeake [4]. In sought, the use of oil and gas is considerable, that
2012, an 8% increase in direct and indirect jobs was is, the demand for these sources is maintained;
reported thanks to fracking [32]; in 2017, the therefore, there is a need to continue exploiting this
United States applies the technique massively and natural resource and with it the need to confront the
is positioned as the largest producer of gas and oil new conditions in which the hydrocarbon is found
in the world [6]. and the requirements to convert it into an offer for
consumers.
On the other hand, there have been various
responses from governments: countries such as C. Advantages and Disadvantages of
France and Bulgaria have a total ban on the Fracking
operation, Austria and Lithuania have strengthened
the regulations for the application of the technique The advantages of fracking are vast. In the
[33], while Argentina is the country with the largest environmental context, this technique produces
number of wells in production under fracking, with lower greenhouse gas emissions than the
approximately 6,500 wells in operation [34]. The alternatives conventionally used in industry [40],
autonomy of governments is a critical variable in concerning exploitable shale reserves, that is, non-
the development of techniques such as fracking in conventional reserves, it has increased in recent
the oil industry because it can become their ally or, decades a positive situation for the energy security
on the contrary, their principal opponent and of countries [41], especially for nations with low
determine the viability of a project that can bring reserves, because this allows them to extend their
energy benefits, translated into economic energy sources [42]. This extension is important to
contributions for the populations or, on the countries' development since this makes them
contrary, a brake on operational development and competitive internationally, allowing the economy
even the abandonment of a production area, with to grow [43].
considerable effects for the communities and the On the other hand, among the disadvantages
governments. associated with fracking, the main controversy is
Hydraulic fracturing was created in response to the high use of water to carry out the technique [44]
the need to extract the high reserves of non- and the possible generated seisms during and after
conventional hydrocarbons in, for example, the its application [45].
United States, with an approximate total of 23.4 In summary, Table 1 shows the main advantages
billion cubic meters [35], and Argentina, with one and disadvantages of fracking.
of the largest formations in the world of
approximately 30,000 square kilometers in oil
shale tankers [36].
The reserves of these countries are based on
shale gas present in the shale rocks, which are very
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Table 1. Advantages and Disadvantages of D. Success Stories in the Energy Field
Fracking
At present, Canada and the United States are the
Advantages Disadvantages
main countries exploiting unconventional deposits.
Increases
Harmful to the These are characterized by not having a
employment rates
environment [6] sedimentary rock as storage, but the hydrocarbon is
[46]
Reduces carbon Excessive water use stored directly in the pores of the seal rock, made
emissions [40] [44] up of clay, which must be fractured by techniques
Doubts about the such as hydraulic fracturing, since it has poor
presence of toxic and petrophysical properties in as far as porosity and
Positive impact on permeability are concerned. In 2015,
carcinogenic additives
the country's
in the fluid, which approximately 668 reservoirs were reported,
economy [46]
affects the quality of distributed in 142 sedimentary basins [25].
life [12]
Decreases the price The U.S. House of Representatives aims to
Energy quantify the jobs created by the development of
of the barrel of oil due
independence [43]
to over-supply [44] unconventional oil and gas fields, including in non-
Water use is still producing states such as Illinois, where fracking is
Earthquakes may
lower than in other reported to have created 38,652 jobs in a 2012
occur during and after
industries, such as campaign, almost as many as in Ohio, where
fracking activities [45]
livestock [43] fracking is underway. Wisconsin, Minnesota, and
Source: own elaboration. Michigan are among the top 10 non-producing
states in the country in terms of fracking job
By observing the advantages and disadvantages
creation. On the other hand, Ohio and North
outlined in Table 1, the origin of the controversy
Dakota are among the top 10 producing states that
about whether or not it is necessary to carry out the
create fracking-related jobs with 38830 and 71824
technique in countries that have large reserves of
employees generated respectively, according to the
hydrocarbons from non-conventional fields is
study. Texas tops the list with more than half a
discussed. There are many situations supported: the
million jobs already created [46]. a total of 1.7
improvement in the economy, a rise in the
million jobs have been created, and it is projected
employment index, the useful life of the oil well,
to generate 3.5 million jobs by 2035 in direct and
which can be up to 40 years [18]; is usually larger
indirect jobs, associated with the exploitation of
than a well that produces naturally; the care for the
unconventional reservoirs. For the study, the
environment or the quality of life of ecosystems,
the people and the stability of the subsoil and of the IMPLAN model was developed, a tool that allows
the quantification and prediction of direct, indirect,
reservoir as such. Although there are cases in which
and induced jobs in each state. Direct jobs in
fracking does not increase employability or
decrease quality of life. There are several aspects producing states include construction, petroleum
extraction, and metal manufacturing, and truck
that must be analyzed.
transportation. In non-producing states, jobs
It should be considered that some of the created include the manufacture of chemicals and
advantages may have a short-term duration, for electronics used for fracking, as well as financial
example, energy independence may be short-lived, and administrative services and real estate related
due to the possibility of a production decline. Like to the properties. Induced jobs refer to wage
some of the reported disadvantages, they are spending by workers on goods and services that
usually associated with a less serious effect. For include health care, entertainment, food, and
example, excessive amounts of water are used, general merchandise. It should be clarified that the
however, this water comes directly from the study does not relate the number of producing wells
reservoir and not from surface sources, which through techniques such as hydraulic fracturing,
makes the use of this type of water less worrying, but only takes into account the number of jobs that
since it is not consumable.
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were generated to improve the economic buildings. Thus, there is uncertainty since some
development of the country's states. scientists affirm the magnitude and intensity of
vibrations generated by explosions at the bottom of
In China, research and feasibility studies are wells are not considered as microseismic on the
supported to carry out the technique through good Richter scale [25]. Experts affirm that no direct
practices and with responsibility, because, relationship is found between fracking and the
according to a report, in 2011, 70% of the total presence of earthquakes. However, the decrease in
energy in that country was supplied by the use of pore pressure can generate empty spaces that later
coal and 4% came from natural gas. The idea of become sinks, so it is necessary to inject the water
developing the fracking technique was thought produced on the surface to manage it at disposal.
since it presents a per capita consumption of 2.2
thousand cubic feet of gas per year; while in the About the pollution generated in the air, for
United States the per capita consumption is example, the tendency to leak methane, which is a
approximately 77.4 thousand cubic feet of gas [47]; greenhouse gas, was initially given in 5% of the
which led the Chinese government to create wells under this technique; after 30 years of work,
policies that promote the exploitation of gas 50% of the wells produce methane in high
reserves, given the potential of proven reserves proportions [52]. The air that escapes into the
coming from non-conventional fields, thus also atmosphere contributes to the weakening of the
increasing per capita gas consumption. The ozone layer; a phenomenon known as the
previous conditions such as the low consumption greenhouse effect. However, these emissions must
of gas per capita in China and the high prospecting be monitored under legislative parameters [53].
of hydrocarbons from unconventional reservoirs, Methane leaks are usually associated with several
are added to the lack of environmental regulation, operations carried out during the completion of
with which the use of the technique can be wells through which extraction will be made via the
maximized by means of operating companies fracking technique. One of these operations is [54]
without waiting for a closure of activities. drilling: during assembly and disassembly, there
may be gas leakage from the pipeline. It is
E. Environmental Effects considered a flammable risk because it can
The exploitation of subsoil resources always generate explosions and fires; during the
brings with its alterations and impacts that affect completion of the well, there is a gas return through
the environment [48]. It is relevant to study them pipes and separators. Being flammable fluids at
because these changes tend to cut down the quality high pressures, they can affect the integrity of the
of life of ecosystems and the health of systems, generating mechanical problems. During
communities. production and processing, the pipeline, from the
Christmas tree to the surface processing equipment,
The effects produced on the soil are reflected in is another opportunity for the presence of
its contamination by the action of spills when flammable gas, so purges should be made to help
executing procedures that fall within the technical with system pressure relief. Although greenhouse
scope. Many times, when a well is closed, the area gas leaks can occur in a well that produces the
is abandoned for restoration [18], but the spilled fluids of a conventional reservoir, this is less
fluid can have such a high salinity that inhibits the frequent, since there is a greater degree of control
growth of vegetation and affects potable aquifers of the pressures coming from the reservoir, while
[49]. Another impact on the soil is the landscape in fracking, there is a high degree of uncertainty
alteration, which affects the ecosystems of the because the fractures occur randomly and it is not
species in the influence area [50]. However, the possible to predict variables such as the
most controversial effect in the world is the whereabouts of the reservoir gases or the fracturing
generation and increase of seisms associated with fluid.
fracking, which in some cases can be considered
earthquakes [51], and undermine the stability of In terms of the impact of fracking on water
resources, several authors have reported that the
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use of water from streams, lakes, rivers, and marketing chemical products publish detailed
underground sources has consequences such as the technical data sheets on the additives, and thus
reduction of water flow and the degradation of the promote more detailed technical studies that show
quality of drinking water in the region. Besides, a clearer picture of these substances' effects on
this generates conflicts linked to the competition ecosystems and human health. For example, in
for the resource with agriculture, livestock, and the research conducted in 2019, scientists developed
supply of drinking water to communities [55]. The different methods to evaluate chemical risks caused
preparation of the mixture to be injected requires by products used in fracking. The methods are
high volumes of water that reach the surface again, generally divided into detection and indexing. By
corresponding to between 1500 and 4500 cubic reviewing the advantages and limitations of both
meters per week [56]. This water contains organic approaches, the scientists developed an integrated
additional components, toxics, heavy metals, and system for the detection of chemical hazards
natural material with radioactive residues, which associated with fracking fluid additives [61]. The
can be harmful in an uncontrolled fracture and results of this research show that more than half of
reach the shallow groundwater layers [57]. the additives are grouped into high health and
Likewise, if it reaches the surface, its treatment environmental hazard designations, suggesting
process would be complex, since techniques such mitigation. Scientists emphasize the
as reverse osmosis or bioreactors do not meet the underestimation of risks by using each approach
requirements to be treated [56]. Another separately.
disadvantage of the technique is that the 260
chemical compounds used as breakers, surfactants, It is necessary to consider that the impact studies
foaming agents, acids, biocides, scale controllers, carried out do not yet have the last word, due to the
clay stabilizers, and pH controllers [58] are used in uncertainty and ignorance of some variables related
the injected mixture but are not very well known to the technique. It is convenient to give continuity
according to the parameters of the companies that to the study of hydraulic fracturing as a technique
supply them, leaving an open gap for their study, and its collateral effects, also providing the
where it is determined that most of them are toxic, opportunity to the oil industry to rethink phases of
allergic, mutagenic and carcinogenic. [59]. In some the technique and to look for the ecoefficiency in
cases, the presence of heavy metals such as the obtaining of non-conventional fossil energy
cadmium and arsenic has been reported in crops resources. The first steps are the reuse of 95% of
such as cocoa; this is due to the irrigation of the wastewater obtained from the operation to
plantations with water supplied by the drinking reduce the consumption of freshwater [62], using
water tanks affected by the fracking return fluid propane-based gels instead of water for the
[60]. Even if treated, contaminated water can carry extraction of non-conventional ones [63], for
traces that diminish the quality of life of the people example; the evaluation of impacts from the
who benefit from the water resource from shallow planning, implementation, control, and monitoring
aquifers, which can generate long-term illnesses of the fracking activity [64], among other strategies
such as cancer. A study reports that 55% of the that maintain energy security through
substances in the fracture fluid have effects on the environmental, social and technical responsibility.
brain and nervous system, 78% affect the It is also worth doing studies associated with
respiratory system, skin, eyes, liver, and intestinal complementary processes to hydraulic fracturing,
system, 47% concern the endocrine system, such as: studies of the regulations and regulations
impairing reproductive capacity, and 44% of the for the discharge of production water, whether in
chemicals are unknown in their effects on human disposal, injection, among others, depending on the
health [26]. This problem, although critical, offers country where it is planned to carry out the
simple possibilities of a solution; at least in the technique; In addition to the above, the origin of
short term, because within the autonomy of injection fluids must be studied, which are not
governments to manage initiatives such as usually taken directly from rivers, seas and other
fracking, they can demand that the companies valuable water bodies, but from bottom-hole water,
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which must be continuously injected into the well due to the environmental consequences reported in
to keep reservoir pressure stable. studies of countries where the technique is being
used and the direct impact on human health.
Any exploitation of natural resources implies an
impact on the agents involved. There is a strong The growth of the Gross Domestic Product
effect in the case of fracking due to the magnitude related to the exploitation of hydrocarbons
of the operation and the expected response. oscillated between 3.5 and 5% between 2000 and
However, the oil industry has sought the 2008, [66] while in 2010 and 2014 there was a
mechanisms to mitigate the implications, growth of between 7 and 7.3% [67], and in 2020,
particularly the environmental ones, for example, the GDP was approximately 10% [68]. In
the recirculation of water currents used in the Colombia, there is increasing interest in
processes to reduce the amount of freshwater, the implementing fracking by operating companies
monitoring of gas emission through gas chambers, since the economic development linked to this
water simulator gels, among others, which offer activity is on an upward trend. For this reason, the
great possibilities to reduce the effects on vital companies Drummond, Ecopetrol, Parex, Exxon
natural resources. Mobil, and Conoco Phillips have prepared US$650
million to invest in pilot fracking projects in the
Any exploitation of natural resources implies an country. This announcement made by the
impact on the agents involved. There is a strong mentioned companies led the government to
effect in the case of fracking due to the magnitude implement a viability plan for this technique of
of the operation and the expected response. recovering hydrocarbons from non-conventional
However, the oil industry has sought mechanisms fields because this would increase gas and oil
to mitigate the implications, particularly reserves to 9.8 and 6.2 years of consumption,
environmental ones, for example, the recirculation respectively, which would make Colombia self-
of the water currents used in the processes to reduce sufficient in energy [69]. The government was
the amount of fresh water, the monitoring of the quick to issue a decree in March 2020 with the
emission of gases through of gas chambers, water technical norms for carrying out pilot projects to
simulating gels, among others. It is necessary to evaluate the possible environmental and social
find a mechanism that allows to control the length impacts of applying this technique. In this way, the
of the fractures to avoid that adjacent mantles are oil began to be produced through Zone Zero of
cracked, causing the affectation of underground fracking in Colombia, which is located in the
waters due to the migration of fluids from the Magdalena Medio region [70]. This project
reservoir and fracturing; with the above, it is outraged the inhabitants of Pueblo Patiño and
possible to offer great possibilities to reduce the different organizations that oppose the hydraulic
effects on vital natural resources. fracking technique, which led to the pilots not
IV. COLOMBIAN PERSPECTIVE having the expected productivity. Due to similar
situations, several protests against fracking have
In Colombia, the exploitation of the subsoil is been held by activists and organizations, delaying
one of the activities that generate the major oil activity because of the possible environmental
contribution to the country's economic risk that the technique could entail. Generally, they
development, since it is the most widely used are manifested through sit-ins and communiqués,
energy fuel for transportation; moreover, with the like the one issued on September 24, 2019, and
current price of a barrel of Brent crude, the signed by 44 organizations, [71] in which fracking
possibility of extracting hydrocarbons from non- is categorically rejected to preserve the
conventional fields is becoming increasingly environment over economic and social gain.
attractive [65]. However, there is controversy in the
country, as some companies support this form of Despite the plans by environmentalists to
production in oil fields while other organizations prohibit fracking in Colombia, the government is
refute the viability of implementing it in Colombia managing plans such as improving recovery in
mature fields, expanding onshore and offshore
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exploration in the Caribbean, and the feasibility The theoretical review of hydraulic fracturing
study for implementation fracking, for the latter should generate scope for new research and
there are different channels of dialogue between the recommendations. One drawback is the lack of
government and citizens for the debate and knowledge and access to information, which
subsequent possible acceptance of the technique on generates uncertainty and false news, which once
Colombian soil. increases the NO acceptance of these practices.
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