Firewood Production in Southern Ontario - Hyemin (Hailey) Kim - Ontario Woodlot ...
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10 Campus Dr., Unit 4
Kemptville, Ontario KOG 1JO
(613) 713-1525
generalmanager@ontariowoodlot.com
Firewood Production in Southern Ontario
Hyemin (Hailey) Kim
In coordination with
Eleanor Reed, R.P.F. (General Manager, Ontario Woodlot Association)
Paul Robertson (President, Ontario Woodlot Association)
2020.05.11
* This study was commissioned by Environment and Climate Change Canada (ECCC) and conducted by
the Ontario Woodlot Association (OWA).
Firewood Production in Southern Ontario May 2020
Summary
This study collected and analyzed data about firewood production in southern Ontario, including
sources, harvest methods, and harvest intensity.
First, the study developed an estimate of the proportions of firewood that come from different land
uses and different land ownership. It was found that more than 90% of firewood was estimated to have
originated from woodlots larger than 1 hectare, and private woodlots te nd to have a large share of
firewood production in southern Ontario.
Woodlots larger than 1 hectare Woodlots smaller than 1 hectare Urban areas
Land use
91% 5% 4%
Private woodlot County Conservation Other
Land ownership (Personal harvest) (Professional harvest) forest Authority forest public
64% 27% 4% 3% 2%
Personal Professional
harvest harvest
Firewood harvest in private woodlots can be divided into two types: personal harvest and professional
harvest. It was estimated that around 70% of firewood volume was cut and used personally, while the
remaining 30% was cut and sold through professional harvests by hiring forestry consultants and loggers.
In terms of harvest system, single tree selection or stand improvement cut was by far the most
commonly used method, and diameter-limit cut was also widely used in professional harvest in southern
Ontario. Private woodlot owners usually cut less than 5% of stand volume for firewood for their
personal use, while professional harvest removed about 35% on average. Since personal harvesting
mostly occurred at a small scale, chainsaws and farm tractors or ATVs were generally utilized. Whereas,
professional harvesting predominantly made use of conventional harvesting equipment such as line or
grapple skidders and feller bunchers. The harvesting in community forests, such as County or
Conservation Authority forests, showed similar characteristics to the professional harvest in private
woodlots.
Personal harvest Professional harvest
Harvest system Single tree selection Single tree selection (50%), Diameter-limit cut (30%)
Harvest intensity Less than 5% 35%
Harvest machine Chainsaw, Farm tractor, ATV Skidder, Feller buncher
Ontario Woodlot Association 2
Index
Introduction.......................................................................................................................................4
Methods ............................................................................................................................................7
Results...............................................................................................................................................9
Personal harvest .............................................................................................................................9
Professional harvest...................................................................................................................... 11
(1) Land ownership.................................................................................................................... 11
(2) Land use type ....................................................................................................................... 12
(3) End use ................................................................................................................................ 13
(4) Forest type........................................................................................................................... 14
(5) Harvest system..................................................................................................................... 16
(6) Harvest intensity .................................................................................................................. 18
(7) Harvest machinery ............................................................................................................... 19
(8) Harvest volume .................................................................................................................... 20
(9) Harvest months.................................................................................................................... 21
(10) Tree parts .......................................................................................................................... 22
(11) Tree species ....................................................................................................................... 23
Personal vs. Professional harvest ................................................................................................... 24
Discussion ........................................................................................................................................ 26
References ....................................................................................................................................... 28
Appendices ...................................................................................................................................... 30
Firewood Production in Southern Ontario May 2020
Introduction
In human history, wood has been a principal source of fuel for a long time (Lancaster & Hunt, 1978).
Since wood can be harvested periodically from the forest without significant disturbance to the
ecosystem, it has been regarded as an environmentally friendly and renewable energy source (Lancaster
& Hunt, 1978; DeWald et al. 2005). Nowadays, energy sources have been diversified into electricity,
natural gas or oil, but firewood remains a significant alternative (DeWald et al. 2005).
According to the energy use statistics created by Natural Resources Canada (NRC, 2020), firewood
accounted for roughly 11% of residential heating energy in 2017, constituting the third-largest source of
energy used to heat Canadian homes, after natural gas (44%) and electricity (40%) (Figure 1). In Ontario,
wood accounted for a bit lower proportion, 7% of the overall provincial energy use, than the entire
country (Figure 2). Compared to 1990, the percentage of firewood as a residential heating source has
dropped by 4% in both Canada and Ontario: from 15% to 11% in Canada, and from 11% to 7% in Ontario
(Figure 1, and Figure 2). It is assumed that a dramatic increase in the proportion of natural gas was due
to its price decline between 2014 and 2016 (Government of Alberta, 2020).
Canada
Figure 1.
Residential energy use by fuel type in
Canada, in 1990 and 2017 (NRC, 2020).
Ontario
Figure 2.
Residential energy use by fuel type in
Ontario, in 1990 and 2017 (NRC, 2020).
Ontario Woodlot Association 4
Firewood Production in Southern Ontario May 2020 Although firewood is one of the main energy sources in Ontario, little is known about its production process. Firewood related data in southern Ontario, where population density is high and most of the forest is privately owned (Figure 3), are particularly difficult to obtain, due to the absence of an agency in charge. In order to clearly understand both the benefits and the impacts of the use of firewood as a residential heating source, it is essential to investigate from where the firewood is harvested, and how it is extracted from woodlots or other forested lands. First, we need to look at the characteristics of forests in southern Ontario, which is the area of interest. Based upon Kim (2020), the geographical analysis showed that private woodlots account for more than 90% of the southern Ontario forests (1.3 million hectares, located in the Mixedwood Plains ecozone1). Further to this, the most abundant type of private forests in this area is deciduous forests (46%) followed by mixed forest (21%), coniferous forest (18%), and plantation (7%) (Figure 4). Kim (2020) also showed that most of the private woodlots are small and fragmented, unlike Crown lands in the northern area. She demonstrated that the average size is estimated to be approximately 6-8 hectares in southern and western sub-regions where the majority of woodlots are located at the back of farmlands (The definition of the sub-region will be explained in the method section, Figure 5). Furthermore, it is estimated that typical woodlots account for around 10% of farmlands. On the other hand, the average area of private woodlots in central and eastern sub-regions is estimated to be a bit larger, 20-40 hectares. In these sub-regions, woodlot owners are mostly known as non-farmers who are local residents or urban dwellers. These woodlands in southern Ontario produce firewood on a large or small scale . A small amount of firewood might be occasionally produced just for personal use, and larger volumes could be yielded as a by-product of sawlog harvesting. However, there was virtually no information about the overall firewood production process, and hence further research was needed. This study collected and analyzed a variety of information related to firewood production in southern Ontario. Firstly, the production sources of firewood were examined with regard to landownership and land use type. Secondly, various data regarding the firewood harvesting were analyzed, including forest type, harvest systems, harvest intensity, and harvest machine. In addition, other useful information was gathered: harvest volume, harvest months, tree parts that make up firewood, and common firewood species. 1This Ontario’s southernmost ecozone is composed of limestone and dolostone bedrock that occurs south of the Precambrian Shield (MNRF, 2020). Ontario Woodlot Association 5
Firewood Production in Southern Ontario May 2020
Figure 3.
Map of land ownership classes in Ontario
designed by the MNRF. Most of the areas
belonging to the “other” class are privately
owned lands and situated in the southern
region. The map was retrieved from Watkins
(2011).
(Private)
Figure 4. The geographical distribution of privately owned forests in the Mixedwood Plains ecozone. Only partial
lands of some municipalities (names are indicated in the map) that locate at the boundary of the ecozone are
included. Green color represents deciduous forests, and red color shows coniferous forests. Agricultural lands and
urbanized areas are also described. The figure was retrieved from Kim (2020).
Ontario Woodlot Association 6
Firewood Production in Southern Ontario May 2020
Methods
The study area is southern Ontario, located south of Sudbury. Given that the total area is fairly large and
there are different characteristics depending on the region (Kim, 2020), we decided to divide the study
area into five sub-regions: southern, western, central, eastern, and northern (Figure 5). A list of upper-
and single municipalities in each sub-region is included in Appendix 1.
In order to understand firewood production in southern Ontario, two types of surveys were utilized: the
2019 OWA member survey and the 2020 forestry expert interview. In August 2019, the OWA surveyed
its members in an effort to learn more about their woodlot management, interests, and challenges. A
total of 530 members (around one-third of the total OWA members) participated in the survey. The
survey included a number of questions about firewood harvested from members’ woodlots. By
analyzing the results, we were able to obtain information about personal firewood production in terms
of harvest systems, harvest intensity, annual harvest volume, etc.
Although the OWA survey helped us understand personal firewood harvesting, it did not clearly show
professional harvesting that might produce a higher volume of firewood in southern Ontario.
Considering the fact that the total number of respondents selling firewood (n=59) was relatively small
and there were quite a few people who answered they did not know harvest volume or intensity, we
needed to investigate more about this type of firewood production. Since many people answered that
they received harvest assistance from certified tree markers (CTMs), Registered Professional Foresters
(RPFs) or Managed Forest Plan Approver (MFPAs), we decided to interview these forest professionals.
First, a questionnaire was created for the interview. The principal questions were prepared on the basis
of the ECCC’s requests, and a couple of supplementary questions that might be useful were added
(Appendix 2). In the meantime, 184 potential interviewees were selected by OWA executives. MFPAs,
CTMs, RPFs, forestry consultants, loggers, sawmill managers, County or regional forest managers,
Figure 5.
Sub-regions of southern Ontario:
southern, western, central, and
eastern regions. Sub-regional
boundaries were drawn based on the
regional classification of OMAFRA
(2019).
Ontario Woodlot Association 7
Firewood Production in Southern Ontario May 2020
Conservation Authority forest managers, by-law officers, and arborists were included in the list of forest
service providers. In order to increase the response rate and to complete interviews in a timely manner,
we asked some forestry service providers to be the interviewers and 13 of them agreed to assist us. We
conducted training sessions by directly interviewing them and delivering detailed instructions, and 4-6
potential interviewees were allocated for each interviewer based on their primary working sub-region.
Among the 184 potential interviewees, a total of 87 people responded to the survey (response rate was
47%): 16 from southern, 23 from western, 16 from central, 21 from eastern and 11 from northern sub-
region (Appendix 3). The majority of interviews were conducted by telephone conversation along with
the pre-distributed questionnaire. Some interviewees without direct harvesting experience answered
only some questions based on their indirect experience.
For quality assurance, there were measures put in place. Firstly, the interviewers were selected among
forestry service providers who had a working knowledge of firewood production and forest
management in southern Ontario. Secondly, we used a formalized questionnaire to ensure that all
interviews could be conducted under similar conditions. Thirdly, the questionnaire was modified several
times through a number of pilot tests. Fourthly, we conducted interview training on each interviewer by
directly interviewing them. Also, in order to support the interview process, the document containing
detailed instructions for the interview was delivered to all interviewers.
In terms of the firewood measurement unit, a certain conversion work was necessary. In southern
Ontario, the most common unit measuring the volume of firewood is “cord”, but the meaning of the
word “cord” varies from sub-region to sub-region. The official and standard measurement of firewood is
a bush cord or full cord which is four feet high by four feet wide by eight feet long (4 ft. x 4 ft. x 8 ft.; a
total volume of 128 cubic feet) (Wood Heat Organization, 2019; OWA, 2001). Some forestry service
providers use other “cord” terms, such as face cord, stove cord or furnace cord, to describe a stack of
firewood measuring 4 ft. high, 8 ft. long and less than 4 ft. in width. One of the common widths of a
“face cord” is 16 inches, and it is one-third of a bush cord (Figure 6). All data with volume units gathered
through the surveys were converted to a bush cord, and therefore “cord” in the text means a bush cord.
(a) (b)
Bush cord Face cord
Figure 6. The measurement of firewood stack. (a) bush cord or full cord (4 ft. x 4 ft. x 8 ft.). (b) face cord, which
is 4 ft. high, 8 ft. long and 16 inches wide. The width of face cord can be varied. Figures are retrieved from
Backwoods Firewood (2018).
Ontario Woodlot Association 8
Firewood Production in Southern Ontario May 2020
Results
Personal harvest
In 2019, the OWA surveyed its members. Among 530 respondents who filled out the survey, 405
answered the section related to firewood production, and almost 84% (n=342) said that they cut
firewood from their woodlots. However, the majority of them (83%) do not sell firewood but cut only for
their personal use. For the firewood harvest, they mostly use selection cut (including stand
improvement cut) which generally removes diseased trees or standing deadwood. The most commonly
used machine for this type of personal harvest is chainsaws, farm tractors, or all-terrain vehicles (ATV).
Their firewood harvest intensity tends to be low: 74% cut less than 5%, and 24% cut between 15 and 35%
of forest stand volume (Figure 7a). The landowners who sell firewood, however, showed a higher
intensity of cutting than those who do not sell (Figure 7b). Regarding firewood volume measurement,
survey results showed that 50% of respondents use a bush cord and the other 50% use a face cord. For
comparability, every unit was converted to a bush cord, and thus “cord” here refers to a bush cord. In
terms of the annual production volume, 41% of respondents produce less than 5 cords, 52% produce 5-
50 cords, and only 7% produce more than 51 cords per year (Figure 8a). Whereas, the landowners who
sell firewood showed a tendency to harvest more volume of firewood (Figure 8b).
The OWA survey respondents were evenly distributed by sub-region: 17% from southern, 17% from
western, 26% from central, 34% from eastern, and 6% from northern. Therefore, we can assume that
the survey results fairly describe the overall trend of personal firewood harvest in southern Ontario.
(a) (b)
Harvest intensity
Figure 7. (a) The proportion of firewood harvest intensity (forest stand volume reduction) of the 2019 OWA survey
respondents. (b) The different proportions between respondents who sell firewood (sale) and who do not sell
firewood (no sale).
Ontario Woodlot Association 9
Firewood Production in Southern Ontario May 2020
(a) (b)
Harvest volume
Figure 8. (a) The proportion of annual firewood production volume of the 2019 OWA survey respondents. (b) The
different proportions between respondents who sell firewood (sale) and who do not sell firewood (no sale). The
“cord” here means a bush cord.
Ontario Woodlot Association 10Firewood Production in Southern Ontario May 2020
Professional harvest
The results of the 2020 forestry expert interview were analyzed in 11 different sections: land ownership,
land use type, end use, forest type, harvest system, harvest intensity, harvest machinery, harvest
volume, harvest months, tree parts, and tree species.
(1) Land ownership
We examined the proportion of firewood harvested from each land ownership in terms of production
volume. Land ownership in southern Ontario can be classified as follows.
• Private woodlot: forest owned by private owners including family, farms and corporations.
• County forest: forest managed by counties or regional municipalities.
• Conservation Authority (CA) forest: forest managed by conservation authorities.
• Other public forest2 : Crown lands or street trees in urban areas.
The majority of interviewees responded that most firewood is harvested from private woodlots. On
average, around 77% of firewood is harvested from private woodlots, and the remaining 23% comes
from community forests including County forests and Conservation Authority forests (Figure 9a). A
couple of interviewees argued that these community forests often leave the crown and its branches as
downed woody debris instead of producing firewood. Northern sub-region showed that only 1% is
produced from community forests, in contrast with other sub-regions where the portion of community
and other public forests accounts for about 25-30% (Figure 9b). This may result from fewer County or
Conservation Authority forests located in the northern sub-region.
(a) (b)
Land ownership
Figure 9. (a) The average proportion of firewood produced from different land ownership in southern Ontario. (b)
The average proportion in each sub-region. Individual percentage figures in each graph can be found in Appendix 4.
2Although we specified that we did not consider Crown lands in our survey, some participants included them in their responses.
Therefore, it is difficult to say that this ratio clearly represents the proportion of Crown lands in southern Ontario.
Ontario Woodlot Association 11Firewood Production in Southern Ontario May 2020
(2) Land use type
The proportion of firewood harvested from different land use types was also investigated. The land use
type was divided into three categories. Since fruit tree cutting is quite minimal in terms of contributions
to firewood overall, we decided not to include it as a category. Woodlots larger than 1 hectare included
woodlots located on farms and hardwood forests being tapped for maple syrup.
• Woodlots larger than 1 hectare: independent forests, forests on farmland, maple syrup farms, etc.
• Woodlots smaller than 1 hectare: orchard (fruit trees), fence-row, hedgerows, etc.
• Urban areas: woodlands or street trees located inside an urban boundary often owned by the
urban centre.
Most of the respondents estimated that a large percentage of firewood was harvested from woodlots
larger than 1 hectare, recording an average of 91% (Figure 10a). Interviewees in the southern sub-region
answered that smaller woodlots (less than 1 hectare) and urban areas produced a relatively higher
portion of the total firewood volume (Figure 10b), but their total contribution was less than 25%.
(a) (b)
Land use type
Figure 10. (a) The average proportion of firewood produced from different land use types in southern Ontario. (b)
The average proportion in each sub-region. Individual percentage figures in each graph can be found in Appendix 4.
Ontario Woodlot Association 12Firewood Production in Southern Ontario May 2020
(3) End use
We asked interviewees about the end use of firewood harvested from various sources. The end use was
categorized as follows.
• Residential use: residential heating.
• Recreational use: campfires, bonfires, smoking, etc.
• Agricultural use: greenhouse heating, maple syrup production, etc.
On average, interviewees responded that approximately 83% of firewood was consumed for residential
heating (Figure 11a). They also mentioned that a very high percentage of residents heat their homes
with firewood, especially in rural areas. The residential portion was expected to be a bit higher in central
(89%), eastern (85%) and northern (88%) sub-regions (Figure 11b).
(a) (b)
End use
Figure 11. (a) The average proportion of firewood according to its end use in southern Ontario. (b) The average
proportion in each sub-region. Individual percentage figures in each graph can be found in Appendix 4.
Ontario Woodlot Association 13Firewood Production in Southern Ontario May 2020 (4) Forest type Southern Ontario forest can be categorized as four different types (Figure 4) (MNRF, 2015). • Deciduous Forest: more than 75% of deciduous tree species. • Mixed Forest: more than 25% of deciduous and more than 25% of coniferous species. • Natural Coniferous Forest: more than 75% of coniferous tree species. • Coniferous Plantation: artificially created coniferous dominant forest. The forest types that interviewees have harvested, marked, or managed the most in southern Ontario were Deciduous Forest (51%) and Coniferous Plantation (29%) (Figure 12a). Respondents from southern and northern sub-regions were more likely to work in Deciduous Forest, whereas those from the central sub-region showed a higher percentage of Coniferous Plantation (Figure 12b). (a) (b) Forest type Figure 12. (a) The average percentage of forest types harvested, marked or managed in southern Ontario; (b) The average percentage in each sub-region. Individual percentage figures in each graph can be found in Appendix 4. However, in southern Ontario, not all types of forests produce firewood. The majority of forestry service providers responded that harvesting in Deciduous Forest and Mixed Forest is mostly accompanied by firewood production (Figure 13). However, half of 32 respondents said that Natural Coniferous Forests do not produce firewood, and only 15% of 52 participants confirmed that some Coniferous Plantation harvesting might produce a certain amount of firewood (Figure 13). We also asked what percentage of forests that are regularly harvested produce firewood. The meaning of regular harvesting here is to receive a professional harvesting operation at every cutting cycle. Kim (2020) showed that the average cutting cycle is 12-15 years in southern and western, 15 years in central, Ontario Woodlot Association 14
Firewood Production in Southern Ontario May 2020 20 years in eastern, and 25-30 years in northern sub-region. According to the forestry service providers, it is estimated that around 89% of Deciduous Forest harvesting and 64% of Mixed Forest harvesting produce firewood on average (Figure 14). Natural Coniferous Forest and Coniferous Plantation, however, show much lower percentages, 26% and 5% respectively (Figure 14). A number of interviewees mentioned that most of the firewood harvested from these coniferous forest types is unacceptable hardwood species which are diseased or which discourage the growth of desirable softwood species. Due to their low heat value or BTU3, softwood species are not commonly preferred as firewood in southern Ontario. Since high density species have the higher heat value, hardwood species, such as sugar maple or ash, can burn longer and produce more heat than softwood species (pine, spruce, etc.) (JØTUL, 2016; OWA, 2003). Figure 13. The number of respondents who answered whether or not each forest type produces firewood. “Yes” means that corresponding forest type produces firewood, “No” means the opposite. The percentage on the right is the proportion of respondents who said “Yes”. Individual figures for each forest type can be found in Appendix 4. Figure 14. The percentage of harvested forests that produce firewood by forest type. 3 British thermal unit (BTU). This is a traditional unit of heat which is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of water by one degree Fahrenheit. Ontario Woodlot Association 15
Firewood Production in Southern Ontario May 2020
(5) Harvest system
As discussed in the previous section, Deciduous Forest and Mixed Forest are the major forest types that
produce firewood (Figure 13, and Figure 14), and hence their harvest information is mainly analyzed
here. Among forestry service providers in southern Ontario, the most commonly used harvest system
for Deciduous Forest was Single Tree Selection (77%). Group Selection and Salvage Cut accounted for
around 5 percent respectively (Figure 15a). However, regarding harvest systems actually taking place in
their sub-regions, there was a large difference in the proportion. Respondents stated that Single Tree
Selection might happen less than 50%, while Diameter-limit Cut tended to be more prevalent (29%)
(Figure 16a). According to Kim (2020), the proportion of Diameter-limit Cut in southern Ontario is likely
to be much higher: on average, Diameter-limit Cut is 66% and Good Forestry Practice 4 is 34%.
Harvest system – Deciduous Forest – Direct experience
(a) (b)
Figure 15. (a) Based on interviewees’ own professional harvesting experience, the average proportion of harvest
systems for Deciduous Forest having been used by forestry service providers in southern Ontario; (b) the average
proportion in each sub-region. Individual percentage figures in each graph can be found in Appendix 4.
Harvest system – Deciduous Forest – Direct & Indirect experience
(a) (b)
Figure 16. (a) Based on interviewees’ overall direct and indirect experience, the estimated proportion of harvest
systems for Deciduous Forest that have been used in southern Ontario; (b) the estimated proportion in each sub -
region. Individual percentage figures in each graph can be found in Appendix 4.
4 Good Forestry Practices represent silvicultural activities which pursue long-term forest health by minimizing damage to forest
values, including single tree selection, group selection, shelterwood etc. (Kim, 2020).
Ontario Woodlot Association 16Firewood Production in Southern Ontario May 2020
Respondents in southern and western sub-regions thought that the proportion of Diameter-limit Cut
was likely to be higher, 45% and 38% respectively (Figure 16b). This tendency corresponds with Kim
(2020)’s finding. A large proportion of eastern deciduous forest is poplar species dominated, and hence
Clearcut is more common in this sub-region (Figure 15b, and Figure 16b). A few respondents stated that
they have often observed high-grading in their areas, but this type of harvest barely produces firewood
since only good quality sawlogs would be cut.
Harvest systems in Mixed Forest are slightly different from Deciduous Forest above. Single Tree
Selection was still the most popular system, but its portion was smaller (56%). Instead, Shelterwood
system accounted for around 17% in Mixed Forest (Figure 17a). However, Diameter-limit Cut and
Clearcut were actively occurred across the region in general, along with Single Tree Selection (Figure 18).
Harvest system – Mixed Forest – Direct experience
(a) (b)
Figure 17. (a) Based on interviewees’ own professional harvesting experience, the average proportion of harvest
systems for Mixed Forest used by forestry service providers in southern Ontario; (b) the average proportion in
each sub-region. Individual percentage figures in each graph can be found in Appendix 4.
Harvest system – Mixed Forest – Direct & Indirect experience
(a) (b)
Figure 18. (a) Based on interviewees’ overall direct and indirect experience, the estimated proportion of harvest
systems for Mixed Forest that have been used in southern Ontario; (b) the estimated proportion in each sub-
region. Individual percentage figures in each graph can be found in Appendix 4.
Ontario Woodlot Association 17Firewood Production in Southern Ontario May 2020
(6) Harvest intensity
How much does each harvest system reduce the stand volume in terms of basal area? The harvest
intensity, the percentage of stand volume reduction, of each harvest system was investigated. Single
Tree Selection, the most widely used system in both types of forest, reduced approximately 25% of
stand volume on average (Figure 19), ranging from 5% to 45%. On the other hand, Shelterwood,
Diameter-limit, and Salvage Cut tended to remove a higher volume (Figure 19). Clearcut literally cleared
the forest, with the harvest intensity ranging from 80% to 100%. Given the proportion of harvest
systems and their harvest intensities (Figure 16, Figure 18, and Figure 19), a harvesting operation
generally reduces 35% of stand volume in Deciduous Forest or 36% in Mixed Forest of southern Ontario.
Deciduous Forest Mixed Forest
(a) (b)
Figure 19. (a) Harvest intensity of each harvest syste m for Deciduous Forest in southern Ontario; (b) Harvest
intensity of each harvest system for Mixed Forest in southern Ontario. Individual percentage figures in each sub-
region can be found in Appendix 4.
Ontario Woodlot Association 18Firewood Production in Southern Ontario May 2020
(7) Harvest machinery
For professional harvesting, various types of harvest machinery are needed. A feller buncher is a
harvester, which is a motorized vehicle with a cutting head that cuts and holds several stems at a time.
Skidders drag logs from the woods to a landing or roadside, and they normally come with either cable
(skid line) or grapple which can grab the materials (USDA, n.d.). Cut-to-length (CTL) harvester can delimb
and cut to length directly at the stump (LeDoux & Huyler, 2001).
Many forestry service providers responded that the most commonly used harvest machinery was the
rubber tired line skidder and feller buncher in both Deciduous and Mixed Forests (Figure 20, and Figure
21). In general, they used a feller buncher to cut trees down and a line or grapple skidder to skid them to
the landing. For smaller operations, a chainsaw was used for cutting, and a farm tractor or an ATV was
utilized for forwarding or skidding. Whereas in Coniferous Plantations, CTL harvester and forwarder
were predominately used. Other harvest machinery includes Ski-Doo Snowmobiles, Skidsteer, and Bell
Harvester. Individual percentage figures in each graph can be found in Appendix 4.
Harvest machinery – Deciduous Forest
(a) (b)
Figure 20. (a) The average proportion of harvest machinery for Deciduous Forest used by forestry service providers
in southern Ontario; (b) the average proportion in each sub-region.
Harvest machinery – Mixed Forest
(a) (b)
Figure 21. (a) The average proportion of harvest machinery for Mixed Forest used by forestry service providers in
southern Ontario; (b) the average proportion in each sub-region.
Ontario Woodlot Association 19Firewood Production in Southern Ontario May 2020
(8) Harvest volume
As discussed in the Method section, people use different units to measure the volume of firewood
(Figure 6). The most common unit is a bush cord, used by 64% of the interviewees. 26% said that they
use a face cord, and 10% measure firewood by truckload or by tonne (Figure 22a). The northern sub-
region, in particular, use face cord and truckload more than bush cord. The southern and eastern sub-
regions showed a relatively high proportion of the face cord usage (Figure 22b). The length of the face
cord is generally 16 inches, but some respondents stated that it can range from 12 to 18 inches.
(a) (b)
Measurement
Figure 22. (a) The proportion of interviewed people who use different measurement units. (b) The proportion in
each sub-region. Individual percentage figures in each graph can be found in Appendix 4.
As discussed in the (4) Forest type section, the primary forest types that produce firewood are
Deciduous Forest and Mixed Forest (Figure 13, and Figure 14). On average, the Deciduous Forest
produces approximately 6.5 bush cords per acre, and Mixed Forest produces approximately 3.8 bush
cords per acre. Harvesting in Natural Coniferous Forest or Coniferous Plantation hardly produce
firewood, but around 2 bush cords per acre tended to be produced if they were harvested (Figure 23).
Figure 23. The average production
volume (bush cords per acre) of firewood
in southern Ontario by forest type.
Ontario Woodlot Association 20Firewood Production in Southern Ontario May 2020
(9) Harvest months
The interviewees were asked when harvest operations usually take place during the year. Figure 24
shows that harvesting occurs mostly in the winter months, and less in the spring months. Respondents
prefer winter operations because the dry or frozen ground can minimize impacts on fragile terrain and
timber. On the other hand, springtime, when breeding season starts and soils are soft, is normally
avoided. Some municipalities and Conservation Authorities have a shutdown period for bird nesting
season, spring break-up and half-load restrictions5.
Figure 24. The percentage of
interviewees who harvest in each
month of the year
5 Some municipalities put half-load, or reduced load restrictions on select roadways during the spring thaw to prevent roads
from permanent damage caused by heavy loads of vehicles (Town of Huntsville, 2020).
Ontario Woodlot Association 21Firewood Production in Southern Ontario May 2020
(10) Tree parts
We examined which parts of the tree are mainly used to make firewood. Firewood is usually cut (as a by-
product) as part of or following a sawlog harvest. Therefore, firewood volume includes the crown
(sawlog tree tops, boles, and other sections of trees that do not reach sawlog quality), whole standing
trees that are over-stocked or defective, and some deadfall. The analysis of interview results showed
that on average firewood is composed of 60% of standing trees, 32% of the crown, and 8% of deadfall
trees in southern Ontario (Figure 25). The proportion can be variable depending on the forest quality,
harvest system, or machinery used. For instance, the loggers who perform good forestry practices will
harvest a higher percentage of diseased or defective standing trees. In addition, well-managed woodlots
that have received sustainable selective harvesting over a long period of time are less likely to produce
firewood generated from the whole tree.
(a) (b)
Tree parts
Figure 25. (a) The average percentage of tree parts that compose firewood in southern Ontario. (b) The average
proportion in each sub-region. “Crown” includes sawlog tree tops, boles, and other sections of trees that do not
reach sawlog quality. “Whole” refers to the entire standing tree. Individual percentage figures in each graph can be
found in Appendix 4.
Many forestry service providers argued that in the past when commercial logging was conducted more
frequently, the sawlog crown accounted for a considerable portion of firewood yield. Due to the recent
poor market prices, fewer sawlog harvests have led to a smaller proportion of firewood being generated
from crowns. Some stated that sawlog crowns are not uniform and too small, so they are not preferred
for firewood. Also, crowns or their large branches are left behind as slash in some County or
Conservation Authority forests. In recent years, Emerald Ash Borer (EAB) and Beech Bark Disease (BBD)
have significantly increased the firewood in the whole tree or deadfall category.
Ontario Woodlot Association 22Firewood Production in Southern Ontario May 2020
(11) Tree species
What are the most common firewood tree species in southern Ontario? We asked the interviewees to
list the top five tree species in order of harvested volume. To determine the overall ranking, the scores
for each species were calculated by applying a weighting on a scale of 1 to 5: a weight of 5 for the top 1
rank, a weight of 4 for the top 2 rank, a weight of 3 for the top 3 rank, and a weight of 2 for the top 4
rank. For example, the score of Hard (Sugar) maple can be calculated as follows (Equation 1).
5 * (the number of responses that pick Hard maple as the top 1)
+ 4 * (the number of responses that pick Hard maple as the top 2)
+ 3 * (the number of responses that pick Hard maple as the top 3)
+ 2 * (the number of responses that pick Hard maple as the top 4)
+ 1 * (the number of responses that pick Hard maple as the top 5)
= The score of Hard maple
Equation 1. The score calculation of Hard maple
Figure 26a and Figure 26b were created according to the calculated scores for each tree species in the
Deciduous Forest and Mixed Forest. The majority of respondents chose Hard maple6 as the most
predominant firewood species in both Deciduous and Mixed Forests. White or Green ash was
determined as the second common species in southern Ontario. It is due to the impact of EAB, and there
is a much higher percentage of Ash cut and sold for firewood today compared to 20 years ago. Since
many woodlots have suffered from BBD, the proportion of Beech was still fairly high in the rankings.
(a) (b)
Deciduous Forest Mixed Forest
Figure 26. (a) The most common tree species of firewood in Deciduous Forest; (b) in Mixed Forest. Both bar graphs
were created by calculating the score of each species as described in Equation 1.
6 Hard maple includes sugar and black maples.
Ontario Woodlot Association 23Firewood Production in Southern Ontario May 2020 Personal vs. Professional harvest Through the 2019 OWA survey, we confirmed that around 83% of private woodlots cut firewood only for personal use, and the remaining 17%, which receive professional harvesting operations, produce and sell firewood. Based on the different harvest volumes of these two types of harvest (Figure 8), we calculated their proportions of firewood production in terms of harvest volume. First, it was necessary to calculate the maximum annual volume of Figure 8b. According to Kim (2020), southern Ontario consists of 46% Deciduous Forest and 21% Mixed Forest. In other words, in southern Ontario, firewood is produced from 70% Deciduous Forest and 30% Mixed Forest. In consideration of the yield from each forest type (Figure 23), the average harvest volume per acre was calculated: 6 cords per acre7 . Since Watkins (2011) argued that only 0.2% of the southern Ontario forest is greater than 100 hectares (250 acres), it was assumed that a maximum area was 250 acres. Therefore, this maximum- sized forest can produce approximately 1,500 cords8. Given the average cutting cycle of southern Ontario, around 15 years (Kim, 2020), the maximum annual yield was calculated as 100 cords. Based on the percentage figures in Figure 8b, the average harvest volume of “sale” was 32 cords per year9 and that of “no sale” was 18 cords per year10. Therefore, in terms of harvest volume, the proportion of personal harvest (no sale) and professional harvest (sale) among private woodlots was calculated as 70% and 30%11 . Combining this ratio and the landownership proportion of professional harvest (Figure 9a), the whole landownership percentages were derived (Figure 27). Considering both personal and professional harvest, approximately 91 percent of the total firewood volume is expected to be extracted from private woodlots. The proportion of land use types is not expected to change, even if the personal harvest is taken into account. According to the 2019 OWA survey, most of the private woodlots producing firewood for personal use are larger than 1 hectare, as with the professional harvest (Figure 10). In regard to harvest intensity, personal harvest and professional harvest showed a different pattern. The majority of private woodlots are harvested almost every year at low intensity to get firewood for personal use. However, some private woodlots and community forests which receive professional harvesting operations are cut at a higher intensity. They tend to be harvested with a certain cutting cycle (15-20 years, on average), not every year. 7 70%*6.5 cords/ac (Deciduous Forest) + 30%*3.8 cords/ac (Mixed Forest) ≈ 6 cords/ac 8 250 ac * 6 cords/ac = 1500 cords 9 24%*2.5 cords/y + 55%*27.5 cords/y + 21%*75cord/y = 32 cords/y 10 45%*2.5 cords/y + 52%*27.5 cords/y + 3%*75cord/y = 18 cords/y 11 Personal harvest : Professional harvest = 83%*18 cords/y : 17%*32 cords/y = 70% : 30% Ontario Woodlot Association 24
Firewood Production in Southern Ontario May 2020
< 2019 OWA survey > < 2020 forestry expert interview >
Private Private
County Conservation Other
woodlots
(no sale)
woodlots
(sale)
+ Private woodlots
(professional harvest) forest Authority forest public
70% 30% 77% 11% 7% 5%
Private woodlots Private woodlots County Conservation Other
(personal harvest) (professional harvest) forest Authority forest public
64% 27% 4% 3% 2%
Figure 27. The proportion of firewood produced from different land ownership, in terms of volume. It considered
both personal and professional firewood harvest, and the calculation was based on the results of the 2019 OWA
survey and the 2020 forestry expert interview.
Ontario Woodlot Association 25Firewood Production in Southern Ontario May 2020 Discussion This study investigated various aspects of firewood which is the third most commonly used fuel for residential heating in Ontario, in terms of production sources, harvest methods, and composition. Since there were no available data and there was no agency in charge of firewood production in southern Ontario, we utilized two kinds of surveys for the study: the 2019 OWA survey and the 2020 forestry expert interview. The OWA is an organization representing private landowners in Ontario, and thus it is assumed that the 2019 OWA survey is a good representation of the characteristics of private woodlots. In addition, as selected interviewees of the 2020 forestry expert interview (n=87) are professionals in forest management, we are confident that the interview results based on their direct and indirect experience are reliable. This study contributed to improving understanding of the firewood production process in southern Ontario. Much of the firewood yield was expected to be extracted from private woodlots, in the manner of personal harvest or professional harvest. According to the 2019 OWA survey, not many private woodlot owners showed interest in harvesting for sale in the next 10 years. This is because they mostly took advantage of high timber prices in the 1990s to early 2000s and are waiting for forest growth and the cutting cycle to indicate the next harvest. Currently, they tend to place a higher emphasis on nature conservation, environmental protection and maintaining wildlife habitat by managing their woodlots. Therefore, around 83% of private woodlots are harvested at low intensity by simple equipment, to produce a small volume of firewood mostly for personal use. On the other hand, the other 17% private woodlot owners tend to have a professional harvest operation on a regular basis, producing sawlogs as well as firewood by using conventional harvest equipment. Their harvest intensity is much higher than that of personal harvest. In addition, it was confirmed that forest pests and pathogens, such as EAB or BBD, have greatly affected the composition of firewood in regard to tree species or tree parts. There were some limitations to the research. First, it was hard to obtain detailed information from some of the interviewees, as firewood was not their main interest. This was due to the fact that firewood is normally produced as a by-product of the sawlog harvesting, and its price is much lower than sawlogs. Second, many of the interviewees were forestry consultants who provided advice and marked trees, and some argued that the firewood extraction tended to be determined by loggers. In other words, tree marking and actual harvesting might be a bit different. Loggers have different markets and firewood is a market-driven product, so firewood production may largely depend on market conditions and sub- region. Third, only a small number of arborists who work in urban areas were included in the surveys. Even though other forestry service providers gave opinions on their sub-regions including urban areas, we might have underestimated the contribution of urban centres. Fourth, with respect to the proportion of Diameter-limit Cut, there was a discrepancy between the 2020 forestry expert interview and Kim (2020), 29% and 66% respectively. Kim (2020)’s study was largely based on the actual number of permits in each county. However, the 2020 forestry expert interview is based on the opinion of forest service providers, who have mostly adopted good forestry practices, and most of them might underestimate the occurrence of diameter-limit operations more than they really are. Unfortunately, Ontario Woodlot Association 26
Firewood Production in Southern Ontario May 2020 the opinion of loggers who practice Diameter-limit Cutting could not be reflected, since most of them refused to participate in the study. Last but not least, some people were reluctant to provide the information because they worried that the study would negatively affect their business. A few of them were concerned about regulations reducing wood as a heat source , and others did not want to divulge their firewood business information, which is usually traded in cash, to the government. Firewood is an important energy source in southern Ontario, and many houses rely on firewood for their residential heating. Furthermore, firewood is a significant by-product that can be produced through sustainable forest management by removing low-quality trees and providing more space for the remaining healthy and high-quality trees. Additional benefits of thoughtful firewood harvesting can include stimulation of natural regeneration, increased biodiversity, improved wildlife habitat, reduction of pathogens, reduction of fire load and woodland hazards, the establishment of recreational trails, an increase in productive forest area, and the generation of a modest income. This study will enhance the understanding of these benefits and the impacts of the use of firewood as a residential heating source in southern Ontario. Ontario Woodlot Association 27
Firewood Production in Southern Ontario May 2020
References
Backwoods Firewood. (2018). Our Products. Retrieved from http://www.backwoods-firewood.com/
(accessed on Feb 16, 2020)
DeWald, S. J., Josiah, S. J., & Erdkamp, R. (2005). Heating with wood: producing, harvesting and
processing firewood. Lincoln, Neb.: Cooperative Extension, Institute of Agriculture and Natural
Resources, University of Nebraska-Lincoln.
Government of Alberta. (2020). Natural Gas Prices. Retrieved from
https://economicdashboard.alberta.ca/NaturalGasPrice (accessed on Mar 9, 2020)
JØTUL. (2016). Burning the Right Wood. Retrieved from https://jotul.com/us/home/burning-the-right-
wood (accessed on March 7, 2020)
Kim, H. (2020). The Economic Value of Private Woodlots in Southern Ontario. Master in Forest
Conservation (MFC) Capstone Paper. University of Toronto. http://hdl.handle.net/1807/99033
(accessed on March 1, 2020)
Lancaster, K., & Hunt, C. (1978). Improve your woodlot by cutting firewood. Broomall, PA: Dept. of
Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Area, State and Private Forestry.
LeDoux, C. B. & Huyler, N. K. (2001). Comparison of Two Cut-to-Length Harvesting Systems Operating in
Eastern Hardwoods. Journal of Forest Engineering. Retrieved from
https://www.nrs.fs.fed.us/pubs/jrnl/2001/ne_2001_ledoux_001.pdf (accessed on Mar 10, 2020)
MNRF (Ministry of Natural Resources and Forestry). (2015). Southern Ontario Land Resource
Information System (SOLRIS) 2.0. Retrieved from
https://geohub.lio.gov.on.ca/datasets/southern-ontario-land-resource-information-system-
solris-2-0 (accessed on Mar 15, 2019)
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systems. Retrieved from https://www.ontario.ca/page/introduction-ecological-land-
classification-systems#section-1 (accessed on Mar 23, 2020)
NRC (Natural Resources Canada). (2020). National Energy Use Database. Retrieved from
http://oee.nrcan.gc.ca/corporate/statistics/neud/dpa/menus/trends/comprehensive_tables/ list
.cfm (accessed on Mar 9, 2020)
Ontario Woodlot Association 28Firewood Production in Southern Ontario May 2020
OMAFRA (Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs). (2019). County Profiles: Agriculture,
Food and Business. Retrieved from
http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/stats/county/index.html (accessed on Dec 1, 2019)
OWA (Ontario Woodlot Association). (2001). A Landowner’s Guide to Selling Standing Timber. Retrieved
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Mar 19, 2020)
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Ontario Woodlot Association 29Firewood Production in Southern Ontario May 2020 Appendices Appendix 1. List of upper- and single municipalities in each sub-region Southern Western Central Eastern Brant Barrie Belleville Brockville Brantford Bruce Durham Cornwall Chatham-Kent Dufferin Haliburton Frontenac Elgin Grey Hastings Gananoque Essex Guelph Kawartha Lakes Kingston Haldimand Halton Northumberland Lanark Hamilton Huron Peterborough Leeds and Grenville Lambton Orillia Prince Edward Lennox and Addington London Peel Quinte West Ottawa Middlesex Perth Toronto Pembroke Niagara Simcoe York Prescott and Russell Norfolk St. Marys Renfrew Oxford Stratford Smiths Falls St. Thomas Waterloo Stormont, Dundas and Glengarry Windsor Wellington Ontario Woodlot Association 30
Firewood Production in Southern Ontario May 2020 Appendix 2. Firewood questionnaire Ontario Woodlot Association 31
Firewood Production in Southern Ontario May 2020 Ontario Woodlot Association 32
Firewood Production in Southern Ontario May 2020 Ontario Woodlot Association 33
Firewood Production in Southern Ontario May 2020 Ontario Woodlot Association 34
Firewood Production in Southern Ontario May 2020 Ontario Woodlot Association 35
Firewood Production in Southern Ontario May 2020 Ontario Woodlot Association 36
Firewood Production in Southern Ontario May 2020 Ontario Woodlot Association 37
Firewood Production in Southern Ontario May 2020 Ontario Woodlot Association 38
Firewood Production in Southern Ontario May 2020 Ontario Woodlot Association 39
Firewood Production in Southern Ontario May 2020 Ontario Woodlot Association 40
Firewood Production in Southern Ontario Mar 2020
Appendix 3. List of interviewees
Only the information that interviewees agreed to provide was included in the list.
Sub-region Name Job title Company name Company location
Southern 1 Allan Gibbs
Southern 2 Dan Drennan Niagara Region By-Law Officer & CA Forester Niagara Peninsula Conservation Authority Welland
Southern 3 Greg Greer Forestry Consultant / Owner GWG Resources Services Belmont
Southern 4 Ian Jean Forestry & Stewardship Specialist Ausable Bayfield Conservation Authority Exeter
Southern 5 John Enright Forester Upper Thames Region Conservation Authority London
Southern 6 John Todd Forestry Consultant Wildlife and forest consulting Paris
Southern 7 Oliver Clee Firewood Sawlog operator Toronto
Southern 8 Paul Robertson Forestry Consultant / Owner Trees Unlimited Welland
Southern 9 Reid Robertson Urban Forestry Technician Trees Unlimited Welland
Southern 10 Trevor Pachkowski Owner & professional arborist TREEMORE Welland
Southern 11 Tristan Knight Owner / President Terrastroy Environmental Consulting Inc. Hamilton
Southern 12 Anonymous Supervisor, Forestry Corporation of Norfolk County Simcoe
Southern 13 Anonymous Manager of Forestry
Woodlands Conse rvation Officer
Southern 14 Anonymous
Southern 15 Anonymous
Southern 16 Anonymous Essex
Western 1 Adam Baker Acting Forest Technician Lead Conservation Halton Burlington
Western 2 Alexander Kolodziej Forestry Consultant Forested Property Management Barrie
Western 3 Anne Lennox Forest technician Lennox Forestry Services Leith
Western 4 Brett Dixon Forest Technician County of Simcoe Midhurst
Western 5 Clare Sauder Owner & Operator Double S Logging Inc. Linden
Ontario Woodlot Association 41Firewood Production in Southern Ontario Mar 2020 Sub-region Name Job title Company name Company location Western 6 Donna Lacey Forestry Coordinator Formosa Western 7 Earl Dertinger Resource Technician, Retired Oro-Medonte Western 8 Eleanor Reed Forester Eleanor Reed Forestry Consulting Kawartha Lakes Western 9 Greg Scheifele Principal Ecologist/Forester GWS Ecological & Forestry Services Inc. Kemble Western 10 Jim Eccles Forestry Consultant Eccles Forestry Ltd. Durham Western 11 Jim Penner Western 12 Kevin Predon Forestry Technician Bruce County Wiarton Western 13 Lee Thurston Grey County By-Law Officer Grey Sauble Conservation Owen Sound Western 14 Marvin Smith Consultant & Perth County Bylaw Officer Marvin L. Smith Listowel Western 15 Ron Reinholt Regional Forester Halton Region Oakville Western 16 Ron Wu-Winter Watershed Forester Grand River Conservation Authority Cambridge Western 17 Terry Schwan Consulting Professional Forester Guelph Western 18 Tom Hildebrand Western 19 Anonymous Kitchener Western 20 Anonymous Western 21 Anonymous Western 22 Anonymous County of Huron Goderich Western 23 Anonymous Rockwood Central 1 Colin MacDonald Area Forester York Region Newmarket Central 2 Dave Pridham Forestry consultant / Sr. Partner Central Ontario Forest Consulting Buckhorn Central 3 David Beamer Manager of Conservation Lands Lower Trent Conservation Authority Trenton Central 4 David Puttock Forestry Consultant / President Silv-Econ Ltd. Newmarket Central 5 Doug Thain Forestry consultant / Owner Lakeside Forestry & Property Management L'Amable Central 6 Duncan Heyblom Forestry Consultant Self employed Huntsville Central 7 Ernie Demuth Stewardship Forester Haliburton Forest & Wildlife Resedrve Haliburton Ontario Woodlot Association 42
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