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Vol 13 2012
Fighting
Extinction
The red wolf (Canis rufus) was extirpated in the wild and only survived in human care; its threat status was subsequently reduced from
Extinct in the Wild thanks to the reintroduction of captive-bred animals. | © John Froschauer/Point Defiance Zoo & Aquarium
WAZA magazine Vol 13/2012
Contents
Editorial The Fall and Rise of the
Markus Gusset & Gerald Dick...... 1 Scimitar-horned Oryx
Tania Gilbert, Tim Woodfine,
Przewalski’s Horse William Houston, John Newby
Reintroduction to Mongolia: & Khaled Zahzah....................... 25
Status and Outlook
Chris Walzer, Petra Kaczensky, The Père David’s Deer:
Waltraut Zimmermann & Clinging on by a Cloven Hoof
Christian Stauffer........................3 Neil R. Maddison, Jiang Zhigang
Founding
Member & Maria Boyd.............................29
The Black-footed Ferret:
Into the Night The Wyoming Toad:
Paul E. Marinari...........................7 Partnerships for Recovery
Val Hornyak............................... 33
Efforts to Restore the
Imprint California Condor to the Wild The Fall and Rise of the
Michael Wallace......................... 10 Yarqon Bleak
Editors: Menachem Goren......................36
Markus Gusset & Gerald Dick The Arabian Oryx: Saved, yet…
WAZA Executive Office Mark R. Stanley Price................ 15 Controlled Propagation
IUCN Conservation Centre of the Socorro Isopod
Rue Mauverney 28 The European Bison: Brian K. Lang,
CH-1196 Gland A Species Saved Stephen M. Shuster &
Switzerland from Extirpation Rebecca Houtman.....................39
phone: +41 22 999 07 90 Wanda Olech.............................19
fax: +41 22 999 07 91
Extirpated in the Wild:
Layout and typesetting: Recovering the Red Wolf
michal@sky.cz William Waddell &
Print: David Rabon Jr........................... 22
Agentura NP, Staré Město,
Czech Republic
Edition: 700 copies This edition of WAZA Magazine
© WAZA 2012 is also available on
www.waza.org.
Printed on FSC paper.
© Janusz Sochacki
ISSN: 2074-4528
WAZA magazine Vol 13/2012 1
Markus Gusset1 & Gerald Dick2
Editorial »
Extinct (EX)
Extinct in the Wild (EW)
Critically Endangered (CR)
Extinction risk
Threatened
categories
The Red List of Threatened Species, Adequate data
compiled by the International Union Endangered (EN)
for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), Evaluated
is widely recognised as the most Vulnerable (VU)
comprehensive, objective global
approach for evaluating the conser-
vation status of animal and plant Near Threatened (NT)
species. Each species assessed is All
assigned to one of eight different cat- Least Concern (LC)
species
egories (see figure), based on a series
of quantitative criteria. Species clas-
sified as Vulnerable, Endangered and Data Deficient (DD)
Critically Endangered are regarded as
threatened; Extinct in the Wild means
that these species are known only to Not Evaluated (NE)
survive in human care.
There were 68 species that under- Fig. 1
went an improvement in conserva- Structure of the IUCN Red List categories.
tion status according to a recent © IUCN
assessment of the status of the
world’s vertebrates on the IUCN Red These figures were subsequently con- ures (Butchart et al. 2006; Oryx 40:
List (Hoffmann et al. 2010; Science tested (Balmford et al. 2011; Science 266–278). For mammals, conserva-
330: 1503–1509), all but four due to 332: 1149–1150) and updated (Conde tion breeding and reintroduction
conservation measures. For these et al. 2011; Science 332: 1150–1151): were more successful in improv-
64 species, conservation breed- there were 13 instead of 16 species ing conservation status than other
ing was implemented as a major or identified for which conservation conservation actions (Hayward 2011;
minor conservation action that led to breeding was implemented as a ma- Biodivers. Conserv. 20: 2563–2573) and
an improvement during the period jor conservation action. According to contributed to the genuine improve-
of change in 16 and three species, Conde et al. (2011), for at least nine of ment in IUCN Red List status of nine
respectively. Therefore, according these 13 species, zoos and aquariums species (Hoffmann et al. 2011; Phil.
to Hoffmann et al. (2010), 19 of the also provided substantial logistical, Trans. R. Soc. B 366: 2598–2610).
64 species showing genuine improve- technical and/or financial support.
ment in IUCN Red List status due to Overall, it seems that conservation According to the above-mentioned
conservation measures benefitted breeding in zoos and aquariums has evaluation (Hoffmann et al. 2010,
from conservation breeding. played a role in the recovery of one- 2011; Conde et al. 2011), species
quarter of those vertebrate species previously classified as Extinct in the
whose threat status was reduced Wild that have improved in IUCN
according to the IUCN Red List. Red List status thanks to the rein-
troduction of captive-bred animals
Breeding animals in human care include the Przewalski’s horse (Equus
followed by reintroducing them back ferus przewalskii), black-footed fer-
into the wild was one of the most ret (Mustela nigripes) and California
frequently cited conservation actions condor (Gymnogyps californianus).
that led to improvements in IUCN Thanks to the same conservation ac-
Red List status (Hoffmann et al. 2010). tions, the threat status of the Arabian
For birds, conservation breeding and oryx (Oryx leucoryx), European bison
reintroduction helped prevent the (Bison bonasus) and red wolf (Canis
extinction of six out of 16 species that rufus) was reduced from Extinct in the
would probably have gone extinct in Wild already before the time period
1 WAZA Conservation Officer & the absence of conservation meas- considered.
International Studbook
Coordinator
2 WAZA Executive Director
2 WAZA magazine Vol 13/2012
»
There are 33 animal species currently Animal species classified as Extinct in the Wild on the IUCN Red List
classified as Extinct in the Wild on (version 2011.2), with an indication of whether the species is actively bred
the IUCN Red List (see table). Ex- in human care, is managed in a studbook-based breeding programme
amples include the scimitar-horned and is being reintroduced.
oryx (Oryx dammah), Père David’s Scientific name Common name Breeding Manage- Reintro-
ment duction
deer (Elaphurus davidianus), Wyo-
Acanthobrama telavivensis Yarqon bleak Yes No Yes
ming toad (Anaxyrus baxteri), Yarqon Ameca splendens Butterfly goodeid Yes No No
bleak (Acanthobrama telavivensis) Anaxyrus baxteri Wyoming toad Yes Yes Yes
and Socorro isopod (Thermospha- Aylacostoma chloroticum (Tropical freshwater snail) Yes No No
eroma thermophilum). Thirty-one Aylacostoma guaraniticum (Tropical freshwater snail) Yes No No
Aylacostoma stigmaticum (Tropical freshwater snail) Yes No No
of these species are actively bred in Corvus hawaiiensis Hawaiian crow Yes No No
zoos, aquariums and other animal Cyprinodon alvarezi Potosi pupfish Yes No No
propagation facilities, which prevent Cyprinodon longidorsalis La Palma pupfish Yes No No
their outright extinction; 17 species Elaphurus davidianus Père David’s deer Yes Yes Yes
are managed in a studbook-based Gallirallus owstoni Guam rail Yes Yes Yes
Leptogryllus deceptor Oahu deceptor bush cricket No No No
breeding programme. Zoological Megupsilon aporus Catarina pupfish Yes No No
institutions are uniquely placed to Mitu mitu Alagoas curassow Yes No No
contribute to the conservation of spe- Nectophrynoides asperginis Kihansi spray toad Yes Yes No
cies that are no longer found in the Nilssonia nigricans Black softshell turtle No No No
wild, with reintroduction efforts using Oryx dammah Scimitar-horned oryx Yes Yes Yes
Partula dentifera (Polynesian tree snail) Yes Yes No
captive-bred animals already being Partula faba (Polynesian tree snail) Yes Yes No
implemented for six species classified Partula hebe (Polynesian tree snail) Yes Yes No
as Extinct in the Wild. Partula mirabilis (Moorean viviparous tree snail) Yes Yes No
Partula mooreana (Moorean viviparous tree snail) Yes Yes No
In this edition of the WAZA Magazine, Partula nodosa (Polynesian tree snail) Yes Yes No
Partula rosea (Polynesian tree snail) Yes Yes No
we have compiled cases where zoos Partula suturalis (Moorean viviparous tree snail) Yes Yes No
and aquariums have made unique Partula tohiveana (Moorean viviparous tree snail) Yes Yes No
contributions to fighting extinction Partula tristis (Polynesian tree snail) Yes Yes No
of those species most urgently in Partula varia (Polynesian tree snail) Yes Yes No
Skiffia francesae Golden skiffia Yes No No
need of conservation action; that
Stenodus leucichthys Beloribitsa Yes No No
is, species classified as Extinct in the Thermosphaeroma thermophilum Socorro isopod Yes No Yes
Wild on the IUCN Red List. Examples Yssichromis sp. nov. ‘argens’ (Cichlid fish) Yes No No
of such interactive ex situ and in situ Zenaida graysoni Socorro dove Yes Yes No
population management include the Information compiled from the IUCN Red List, International Species Information System (ISIS),
11 species mentioned in this Edito- IUCN/SSC Conservation Breeding Specialist Group (CBSG), systematic Internet searches
rial; they were either reclassified and personal communications
recently (Hoffmann et al. 2010, 2011;
Conde et al. 2011) or before the time
period considered in that evaluation, Aichi Biodiversity Target 12 of the that this edition of the WAZA Maga-
or reintroduction efforts driven by United Nations Strategic Plan for zine will substantially strengthen the
zoological institutions have been im- Biodiversity 2011–2020 states that “by case for the world zoo and aquarium
plemented that hopefully will qualify 2020 the extinction of known threat- community to play an increasingly
them for reclassification soon. ened species has been prevented and recognised role in the conservation
their conservation status, particularly policies of governments, non-govern-
of those most in decline, has been mental organisations and multilateral
improved and sustained”. We hope environmental agreements.
The establishment of select, targeted captive
populations with the goal of reintroducing species in the wild
may offer valuable opportunities once impacts in their native
habitat are brought under control. | Hoffmann et al. 2010
WAZA magazine Vol 13/2012 Przewalski’s Horse 3
Chris Walzer1,2 *, Petra Kaczensky1,2, Waltraut Zimmermann3 & Christian Stauffer4
Przewalski’s Horse Reintroduction »
to Mongolia: Status and Outlook
Summary
The last record of the Przewalski’s
horse (Equus ferus przewalskii) in the
wild occurred in the late 1960s in
south-western Mongolia. Thereafter
no more wild horses were observed
and in 1996 the species was classified
as Extinct in the Wild on the IUCN
Red List of Threatened Species. The
reasons for the extinction were seen
in the combined effects of pasture
competition with livestock and
overhunting. At this point in time the
species survived solely in captivity
due to breeding based on 13 founder
animals. Today the Mongolian popu-
lation again consists of some 350 Fig. 1
wild individuals, and the species was A small harem group of Przewalski’s horses
subsequently down-listed to Critically near Takhiin Tal in the Great Gobi B Strictly Protected Area.
Endangered in 2008 and Endangered © Chris Walzer/International Takhi Group
in 2011. A self-sustaining financial Introduction
base in conjunction with dedicated
training and empowerment of local The first documentation of Przew- Colonel Nikolai Mikailovich Przewal-
scientists and residents constitute es- alski’s-type wild horses date from ski (1839–1888), a renowned explorer,
sential prerequisites for the project’s more than 20,000 years ago. Rock obtained the skull and hide of a horse
future. engravings, paintings and decorated shot some 80 km north of Gutschen
tools dating from 20,000–9,000 BC on the Chinese–Russian border. These
were discovered in European caves. were examined at the Zoological
Historically, wild horses ranged from Museum of the Academy of Science
Western Europe over the Russian in Saint Petersburg by I. S. Poliakov,
steppes east to Kazakhstan, Mon- who concluded that they were a wild
golia and northern China. The first horse, which he gave the official
written accounts of the Przewal- name Equus przewalskii (Poliakov
ski’s horse (Equus ferus przewalskii) 1881). Present-day taxonomy places
were recorded by the Tibetan monk the Przewalski’s horse as a subspecies
Bodowa around 900 AD. In the of Equus ferus (Fig. 1).
Secret History of the Mongols, there is
a reference to wild horses that caused
Genghis Khan’s horse to rear up and
1 Research Institute of Wildlife Ecology, throw him to the ground in 1226. The
Department of Integrative Biology Przewalski’s horse is still absent from
and Evolution, University of Veterinary Linnaeus’ Systema Naturae (1758)
Medicine, Vienna, Austria and remained essentially unknown
2 International Takhi Group – Mongolia, in the West until John Bell, a Scottish
Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia doctor in the service of Tsar Peter
3 Cologne Zoo, Cologne, Germany the Great, in 1719–1722 observed the
4 International Takhi Group – Switzerland, species within the area of 85–97° E
c/o Zurich Wilderness Park Foundation, and 43–50° N (present-day Chinese–
Sihlwald, Switzerland Mongolian border). Subsequently,
* E-mail for correspondence:
chris.walzer@fiwi.at
4 Przewalski’s Horse WAZA magazine Vol 13/2012
»
The last wild population of Przew- The Takhiin Tal the wild from the adaptation enclo-
alski’s horses – called takhi in Mon- Reintroduction Project sures, and in 1999 the first foals were
golian – survived until recently in successfully raised in the wild. In the
south-western Mongolia and adja- With Mongolian independence in following years several further airlifts
cent China in the provinces of Gansu, 1990, the Takhiin Tal project was occurred and a total of 88 takhi from
Xinjiang and Inner Mongolia. The last initiated with the support of vari- various European zoos were brought
recorded sightings of the takhi in the ous international sponsors. By the to the Gobi (Slotta-Bachmayr et al.
wild occurred in the late 1960s north late 1990s project leadership and 2004). In the summer of 2009 some
of the Tachiin Shaar Nuruu in the management was overhauled with 150 takhi roamed over 3,000 km2
Dzungarian Gobi in south-western research and scientific data firmly in the SPA (Fig. 2). Initially largely
Mongolia. Thereafter no more wild integrated into the decision-making confined to the north-eastern corner
takhi were observed and the species process. In 1999 the International of the SPA, range use of the reintro-
was subsequently (1996) classified Takhi Group (www.savethewildhorse. duced takhi population increased
as Extinct in the Wild on the IUCN org) was established as a non-gov- gradually. In 2005 one harem group
Red List of Threatened Species. The ernmental organisation to continue was successfully translocated to the
reasons for the extinction of the takhi and extend this project in accordance Takhiin Us water point, about 120 km
were seen in the combined effects of with the IUCN Reintroduction Guide- west of the original release site, to
pasture competition with livestock lines. The vision of the International speed up the expansion of the distri-
and overhunting. Takhi Group is the integral protection bution range within the area.
of the Gobi habitat and to conserve
At this point in time the species sur- the Great Gobi B Strictly Protected The Gobi is prone to large inter-an-
vived solely in captivity due to breed- Area (SPA) as a biosphere reserve in nual environmental fluctuations, but
ing based on 13 founder animals. the sense of IUCN. the winter 2009/2010 was particularly
Subsequent to the establishment of severe. Millions of livestock died
the International Przewalski’s Horse This SPA chosen as the reintroduction and the takhi population in the Gobi
Studbook at Prague Zoo in the Czech site was established in 1975 and en- crashed. Herders in and around the
Republic in 1959, the North American compasses some 9,000 km2 of desert SPA lost on average 67% of their
Breeders Group in the 1970s (which steppes and semi-deserts. Plains in livestock. Snow depth varied locally,
became the Species Survival Plan the east and rolling hills to the west resulting in livestock losses follow-
for the Przewalski’s Horse) and the dominate the landscape, with the ing an east–west gradient. Herders
initiation of a European Endangered mighty Altai Mountains flanking the had few possibilities for evasion, as
Species Programme in 1986 under park in the north. The Takhin Shar competition for available winter
the auspices of Cologne Zoo in Ger- Naruu mountain range in the south camps was high. Takhi used three dif-
many, the captive population grew to forms the international border with ferent winter ranges, two in the east
over 1,000 individuals by the mid- China. Elevations range from 1,000 and one in the west. Losses averaged
1980s. In the early 1990s, reintroduc- to 2,840 m. The climate is continental 60%, but differed hugely between
tion efforts started simultaneously with long cold winters and short hot east and west. Space use of takhi was
in Mongolia, China, Kazakhstan and summers. Average annual tem- extremely conservative, as groups
Ukraine. However, today Mongolia perature is a frigid 1 °C and average did not attempt to venture beyond
is the only country where true wild annual rainfall a mere 96 mm. Snow their known home ranges. In contrast,
populations exist within their histori- cover lasts an average of 97 days. De- Asiatic wild asses seemed to have
cal range. Reintroductions in Mongo- fining factor for this landscape is that suffered few losses by shifting their
lia began in the Gobi Desert around rain and snowfall are highly variable range westwards. The catastrophic
Takhiin Tal in the Great Gobi B Strictly in space and time. Open water (rivers winter 2009/2010 provided a text-
Protected Area (9,000 km²) and in the and springs) is unevenly distributed, book example for how vulnerable
mountain steppe of Hustai National with almost no water in the central small and spatially confined popula-
Park (570 km²) in 1992. A third po- and western part of the SPA. tions are in an environment prone to
tential reintroduction site, Khomiin environmental fluctuations and ca-
Tal (2,500 km²) in the Great Lakes In 1992 the first group of captive- tastrophes. This highlights the need
Depression, was established in 2004, born takhi were selected from various for multiple reintroduction sites with
as a buffer zone to the Khar Us Nuur European zoos and then airlifted to spatially dispersed populations for
National Park. Takhiin Tal at the edge of the SPA. reintroduced takhi, and a landscape-
The logistics were a nightmare at the level approach beyond protected area
time and the journey for the takhi boundaries (Kaczensky et al. 2011a).
was long and exhausting. Five years
later a harem group was released into
WAZA magazine Vol 13/2012 Przewalski’s Horse 5
»
Fig. 2
Two Przewalski’s horse bachelor males sparing in the Great Gobi B Strictly Protected Area.
© Petra Kaczensky/International Takhi Group
Public, media and zoological institu- For reintroduction programmes to the shared habitat (Kaczensky et al.
tions’ interest focused heavily on be successful in the long run, they 2008). Satellite-based technologies
the international transports from necessarily must be embedded in provide the backbone for all habitat-
Europe to Mongolia. However, the a broader context of ecosystem related project issues. At the onset
establishment of a permanent and conservation. Over the years the data collection was restricted to the
self-sustaining field station with the Takhiin Tal project greatly expanded eastern part of the SPA, but today the
necessary infrastructure (solar power, on various fronts. Early scientific spatial scale encompasses the entire
laboratory, office, vehicles and petrol) input was focused on the takhi and Gobi region in Mongolia and northern
and communication abilities (VHF concentrated on determining causes Xingjian in China.
communication, satellite-based e- of death and low reproductive rates
mail and telephone) proved equally (Robert et al. 2005). The elucidation Research has also focused on socio-
important. In 2004 the Takhiin Tal of the effects of an endemic para- economic aspects of local herders,
camp hosted the second internation- site disease (piroplasmosis) on the their impact on the SPA and its sur-
al workshop on the reintroduction population and subsequent manage- roundings, and their attitude towards
of the takhi. In 2005 facilities at the ment changes led to remediation wildlife and management issues.
Takhiin Tal camp were further upgrad- of this deadly problem. Takhi were In 2005 training workshops on the
ed with the construction of the SPA fitted with satellite tracking collars construction and application of fuel-
headquarters funded by the Austrian in order to determine their position, efficient stoves were conducted in
Ministry of the Environment and the home range and habitat preferences. order to reduce illegal saxaul and juni-
International Takhi Group. Facili- Home range sizes based on telem- per collection. In 2006 a concept for
ties now allow year-round living and etry showed that individual takhi environmental education for children
research. The camp provides training groups cover non-exclusive areas of in Takhiin Tal was developed, yet still
possibilities for young Mongolian and 152 to 826 km2. Simultaneously, the needs to be implemented. In 2007,
international scientists, has created Asiatic wild ass and grey wolf have with support from the Italian region
local employment options and is run been studied with these methods in
by well-trained and motivated local
staff.
6 Przewalski’s Horse WAZA magazine Vol 13/2012
»
of Lombardia and under the lead of Starting out initially as a single-spe-
the Instituto Oikos, a trans-boundary cies reintroduction project, the mag- References
project in collaboration with the nitude of the conservation activities
Xinjiang Institute of Ecology and has greatly expanded in recent years. • Kaczensky, P., Ganbaatar, O.,
Geography of the Chinese Academy Seen from a species perspective, von Wehrden, H. & Walzer, C.
of Sciences was initiated. This project integrated research projects dealing (2008) Resource selection by
aims to support rural communities with the Asiatic wild ass, grey wolf, sympatric wild equids in the
of nomadic pastoralists living in the wild Bactrian camel, various rodent Mongolian Gobi. Journal of Ap-
trans-boundary area of the Dzun- species and the vegetation have been plied Ecology 45: 1762–1769.
garian Gobi in China and Mongolia implemented. Whereas the initial • Kaczensky, P., Ganbataar, O.,
and investigates the possibilities of reintroduction efforts were driven Altansukh, N., Enkhsaikhan, N.,
expanding the ranges of the takhi mostly by health concerns for the Stauffer, C. & Walzer, C. (2011a)
and Asiatic wild ass across the inter- takhi, the disciplinary scope has sig- The danger of having all your
national border. Local livelihoods will nificantly broadened with zoologists, eggs in one basket – Winter crash
be improved through the strength- biologists, botanists and remote of the re-introduced Przewalski’s
ening of international collaboration sensing experts performing habitat horses in the Mongolian Gobi.
on sustainable development issues mapping and assessment, and with PLoS ONE 6: e28057.
and the integration of an environ- community development experts • Kaczensky, P., Walzer, C.,
mental component in the respective establishing a socio-economic frame- Ganbataar, O., Enkhsaikhan,
development processes. The project work for future project development. N., Altansukh, N. & Stauffer, C.
currently seeks additional funds to Away from the field, an important (2011b) Reintroduction of the
further strengthen local involvement aspect for project advancement “extinct in the wild” Przewalski’s
and community development in the has proven to be lobbying activities horse to the Mongolian Gobi. In:
project area. both in Ulaanbaatar and among the Global Re-introduction Perspec-
international community. Lobbying tives: 2011 (ed. by Soorae, P. S.),
activities not only enhance informa- pp. 199–204. Abu Dhabi: IUCN/
Conclusions tion flow and political support for the SSC Re-introduction Specialist
project, but also create collaborative Group.
Mongolia, often called the “land opportunities and necessary alliances • Robert, N., Walzer, C., Rüegg, S.
without fences”, provides the last (Kaczensky et al. 2011b). R., Kaczensky, P., Ganbaatar, O.
remaining refuge for a number of & Stauffer, C. (2005) Pathologic
migratory species that require large With the free-ranging takhi popula- findings in reintroduced Prze-
areas of habitat. This region also sup- tion at the three sites growing – the walski’s horses (Equus caballus
ports a growing human population, population is currently estimated to przewalskii) in southwestern
including a large number of livestock consist of some 350 individuals – the Mongolia. Journal of Zoo and
herders, who maintain a fragile grip species was initially re-assessed in Wildlife Medicine 36: 273–285.
on survival after enduring the political 2008. Using IUCN’s categories and cri- • Slotta-Bachmayr, L., Boegel,
and economic upheaval wrought by teria, the takhi has been down-listed R., Kaczensky, P., Stauffer, C. &
the collapse of the socialist command in the IUCN Red List from Extinct in Walzer, C. (2004) Use of popula-
economy. With Mongolia’s transi- the Wild at the onset of the project tion viability analysis to identify
tion to a privatised market economy, to Critically Endangered (2008) and management priorities and suc-
more people and exploitative most recently to Endangered (2011). cess in reintroducing Przewalski’s
economic activities – notably mining Comprehensive trans-disciplinary horses to southwestern Mongo-
and road construction – will further monitoring and research are the lia. Journal of Wildlife Manage-
impact environmental security and foundation for management deci- ment 68: 790–798.
habitat needs of the wildlife in the sions at the present, but a sustainable
Gobi region. financial base, capacity building and
empowerment of local scientists and
residents constitute the future of this
programme.
WAZA magazine Vol 13/2012 Black-footed Ferret 7
Paul E. Marinari1*
The Black-footed Ferret: Into »
the Night
Summary
The black-footed ferret (Mustela
nigripes) has come precariously close
to extinction several times within the
past 50 years and was classified as
Extinct in the Wild on the IUCN Red
List of Threatened Species in 1996.
The last known wild population of
black-footed ferrets was discovered
on a prairie dog complex in central
Wyoming during the early 1980s, pro-
viding one last hope for the species’
survival. A successful captive breed-
ing programme spearheaded by the
Wyoming Game and Fish Depart-
ment, US Fish and Wildlife Service
and members of the Association of
Zoos and Aquariums increased our
scientific knowledge of black-footed
ferrets and provided enough captive-
born kits for reintroduction to begin
in 1991. Since then, more than 2,900
black-footed ferrets have been re- Fig. 1
leased and more than 700 individuals A black-footed ferret emerges from a prairie dog burrow.
now exist in nature. The species was © USFWS
reclassified as Endangered in 2008
and, due to the continued support Earth (Fig. 1). The black-footed ferret Against All Odds
and expertise of zoos, has a fighting is a specialist carnivore, with prairie
chance to be down-listed from the US dogs making up over 90% of its diet. Despite the loss of habitat and the
Endangered Species List by 2020. Black-footed ferrets also use prairie spread of plague, a population of
dog burrows to raise their young black-footed ferrets was discovered
and escape from predators, such as in Mellette County, South Dakota,
Introduction coyotes, owls and badgers. in 1964. This discovery provided an
opportunity for biologists to increase
The black-footed ferret (Mustela Throughout its history, the black- their knowledge of the species
nigripes) is one of three ferret spe- footed ferret has always been an (Linder & Hillman 1973). In 1971 a few
cies found in the world and the only elusive and secretive animal. It was individuals were trapped to initiate
ferret native to North America. This officially described in 1851 by John a captive breeding programme. Al-
charismatic, yet feisty, solitary, noc- James Audubon and Reverend John though kits were produced, no young
turnal member of the weasel family Bachmann, but had long been used were successfully reared. By 1979 the
has long been considered one of by Native Americans during ceremo- last captive animal had died and no
the most endangered mammals on nial activities. Large-scale poisoning black-footed ferrets were being seen
campaigns increased in frequency in the wild. Had this unique animal
during the early 1900s, reducing vanished forever?
prairie dog numbers and fragmenting
1 Center for Species Survival, Smithso- colonies. Additionally, sylvatic plague,
nian Conservation Biology Institute, an exotic disease, was spreading
National Zoological Park, Front Royal, east, devastating both prairie dogs
VA, USA and black-footed ferrets. The black-
* E-mail for correspondence: footed ferret was being “attacked”
marinarip@si.edu from the east and the west. Was the
species doomed for extinction?
8 Black-footed Ferret WAZA magazine Vol 13/2012
»
On 26 September 1981, a ranch dog Ex Situ Meets In Situ
named Shep was able to do what
countless biologists could not – The 1988 US Fish and Wildlife Ser-
provide conclusive evidence that vice’s Black-footed Ferret Recovery
black-footed ferrets still roamed the Plan had four main goals: (1) produce
prairie night. Shep’s owners, John and as many kits as possible (Fig. 2), (2)
Lucille Hogg, brought Shep’s find to initiate a multi-institutional propa-
a local taxidermist who identified it as gation programme, (3) investigate
a rare black-footed ferret! The events assisted reproductive techniques, and
of that night and those that followed (4) reintroduce black-footed ferrets
over subsequent months would set at multiple locations within their
the stage for more than 30 years of historical range. The Association of
intensive conservation management Zoos and Aquariums (AZA) has been
that has included diverse stakehold- a valuable partner in black-footed Fig. 2
ers, including zoos. ferret recovery for decades, bringing A 40-day old kit born at the US Fish and Wildlife Service’s
expertise in animal care and propaga- National Black-footed Ferret Conservation Center.
This discovery of a black-footed ferret tion of endangered species, financial © USFWS
population on a prairie dog complex and political support and a huge
outside of Meeteetse, Wyoming, visitor base. These components have In 1996, due to budget constraints
gave the conservation world hope been instrumental in assisting the and expansion of reintroduction ef-
that the black-footed ferret was not US Fish and Wildlife Service to meet forts to additional states within the
destined for extinction. From 1981 overall recovery goals. The Black- historical range of the black-footed
to 1984 biologists conducted routine footed Ferret Species Survival Plan ferret, the US Fish and Wildlife Ser-
spotlight surveys and used radio te- (SSP) is one of many subcommittees vice assumed operational responsibil-
lemetry to increase their knowledge that make up the Black-footed Ferret ity of the colony formerly managed
about black-footed ferret life history Recovery Implementation Team. This by the Wyoming Game and Fish De-
and behaviour (Forrest et al. 1988). In collection of federal, state and tribal partment. The National Black-footed
1985 sylvatic plague was confirmed governments, zoos, private landown- Ferret Conservation Center was born.
throughout the prairie dog complex ers and non-profit organisations work Utilising an adaptive management
and field biologists reported an cooperatively to reproduce, release approach, the SSP began addressing
alarming decrease in the number of and recover black-footed ferrets various research and management
black-footed ferrets being detected. to the prairies of the United States, questions pertaining to vaccine de-
Mexico and Canada. velopment, disease, genetics, animal
It was once again decided that cap- husbandry, nutrition, enrichment and
tive breeding would be necessary to The two primary objectives of the reproductive biology (Howard et al.
prevent extinction. From 1985 to 1987 Black-footed Ferret SSP are to: (1) 2006; Marinari & Kreeger 2006).
a total of 24 individual black-footed manage the captive population to
ferrets were trapped and brought minimise loss of genetic diversity, In 1991 enough black-footed ferrets
into captivity; the species was sub- and (2) produce as many kits as were being produced in captivity that
sequently (1996) classified as Extinct possible for reintroduction purposes. reintroduction of the species could be-
in the Wild on the IUCN Red List of Additionally, partner zoos provide gin. The Black-footed Ferret SSP along
Threatened Species. Unfortunately, education and outreach opportunities with other AZA groups have assisted
six of those animals died of canine pertaining to the prairie ecosystem reintroduction efforts by producing
distemper. The Wyoming Game and for thousands of visitors. As the cap- animals as well as supporting various
Fish Department and the US Fish and tive population continued to increase field survey efforts. In 2001 a biomedi-
Wildlife Service began the captive during the late 1980s, additional SSP cal survey was initiated to investigate
breeding programme with only 18 facilities began housing the managed the health of wild populations in
surviving black-footed ferrets; seven population of breeding stock. The several states. Information collected
males and 11 females. A total of eight Wyoming Game and Fish Depart- during this survey has led to more
kits from two litters was produced ment’s captive breeding effort was efficient management of the captive
in 1987. Seven of these kits survived. joined by that of the Smithsonian population and increased collabora-
Finally, the black-footed ferret was on National Zoological Park (and its Con- tion among programme partners. To
the road to recovery. servation Biology Institute), Omaha’s date, the SSP has produced almost
Henry Doorly Zoo, Louisville Zoo, 8,000 kits, with nearly 3,000 individu-
Cheyenne Mountain Zoo, Phoenix als being reintroduced at 19 locations
Zoo and Toronto Zoo. in eight US states, Mexico and Canada.WAZA magazine Vol 13/2012 Black-footed Ferret 9
The Black-footed Ferret SSP has been disease. The SSP played a pivotal role
developing and implementing assisted working with the Merial Corporation References
reproductive techniques for decades. in development of a safe and effective
The continued banking of semen in canine distemper vaccine for black- • Forrest, S. C., Biggins, D. E.,
the Genome Resource Bank and devel- footed ferrets. Other Black-footed Richardson, L., Clark, T. W.,
opment of laparoscopic intrauterine Ferret Recovery Implementation Team Campbell III, T. M., Fagerstone,
artificial insemination has captured partners have developed a safe and K. A. & Thorne, E. T. (1988)
the genetic material of animals that effective sylvatic plague vaccine for Population attributes for the
would have otherwise been lost. More black-footed ferrets and innovative black-footed ferret (Mustela
than 150 kits have been produced by research involving development of an nigripes) at Meeteetse, Wyoming,
artificial insemination using both fresh oral sylvatic plague vaccine for prairie 1981–1985. Journal of Mammal-
as well as frozen/thawed spermatozoa. dogs is underway. Hopefully, this will ogy 69: 261–273.
Incorporation of the Genome Re- be the missing management tool • Garelle, D., Marinari, P. &
source Bank into active captive breed- needed to recover black-footed ferrets Lynch, C. (2011) Black-footed
ing management has further mini- on large tracts of federal and tribal Ferret (Mustela nigripes) Popula-
mised the loss of genetic diversity over lands as well as areas of private land tion Analysis and Breeding and
time. Because the black-footed ferret suitable for recovery of the species. Transfer Plan. Silver Spring: AZA.
has low levels of heterozygosity, it has • Howard, J. G., Santymire, R. M.,
been essential that the SSP utilises all Will the black-footed ferret ever be Marinari, P. E., Kreeger, J. S., Wil-
of the resources and expertise within recovered? I think if there is one liamson, L. & Wildt, D. E. (2006)
AZA and the Population Management species that has a chance, it is the Use of reproductive technology
Center (Garelle et al. 2011). black-footed ferret. Today there for black-footed ferret recovery.
are approximately 700 to 750 black- In: Recovery of the Black-footed
Thanks to a grant from AZA’s Con- footed ferrets in at least seven states Ferret: Progress and Continuing
servation Endowment Fund, Chi- within the historical range, including Challenges (ed. by Roelle, J. E.,
cago’s Lincoln Park Zoo has initi- populations in Canada and Mexico. As Miller, B. J., Godbey, J. L. & Big-
ated a unique partnership with the further evidence of progress, the spe- gins, D. E.), pp. 28–36. Reston:
Northern Cheyenne Reservation in cies was down-listed to Endangered US Geological Survey.
Montana. Some of the areas of focus status in 2008. • Linder, R. L. & Hillman, C. N.
include sharing scientific expertise (1973) Proceedings of the Black-
and resources, as well as the critical footed Ferret and Prairie Dog
need for enhanced community em- We Can All Do More Workshop. Brookings: South
powerment in close proximity to the Dakota State University.
reintroduction site. New professional As the sun sets on North America’s • Marinari, P. E. & Kreeger, J. S.
development programmes for educa- western prairie and a purple and (2006) An adaptive management
tors and summer scientist youth orange sky gives way to the dark of approach for black-footed ferrets
programmes are being designed to night, a small yet resilient animal in captivity. In: Recovery of the
develop the next generation of wild- emerges from its underground world. Black-footed Ferret: Progress and
life biologists. Other AZA institutions For this is the time of the black- Continuing Challenges (ed. by
have developed their own black-foot- footed ferret. Persistence is not futile. Roelle, J. E., Miller, B. J., Godbey,
ed ferret-based curricula. And, although no one individual can J. L. & Biggins, D. E.), pp. 23–27.
recover a species from the brink of Reston: US Geological Survey.
The road to recovery has been long, extinction, biologists like the late
slow and often times bumpy. The last JoGayle Howard, Elizabeth Williams
act of this drama has not yet been and Tom Thorne have left an indelible
written. Undoubtedly, AZA members mark on the conservation world. They,
and institutions have provided valu- together with dedicated members of
able knowledge, resources and inspira- AZA, have shown that endangered
tion to partners within the black-foot- does not have to result in extinction,
ed ferret recovery programme and that the importance of the individual
those who support our efforts. The is surpassed by the survival of the
primary obstacles to black-footed fer- species. The zoo community and all
ret recovery are the same issues that members of the Black-footed Ferret
forced biologist to make the tough Recovery Implementation Team will
decision to bring animals into captiv- ensure that these wonders of Wyo-
ity in the early 1970s and again in the ming, these mustelids from Meeteet-
mid-1980s: lack of suitable habitat and se, will forever go into the night.10 California Condor WAZA magazine Vol 13/2012
Michael Wallace1*
Efforts to Restore the California
Condor to the Wild
Summary Introduction
By the early 1980s new studies using The California condor (Gymnogyps to extinction by the early 1980s due
radio telemetry and moult patterns californianus) is one of the most to excessive human-caused mortality
to identify individuals indicated that impressive American birds, mostly as opposed to a lack of reproduc-
only 21 California condors (Gymno- because of their enormous size and tion. At that time the drastic and
gyps californianus) existed, with five their beauty in flight. Its scavenger hotly debated action of capturing all
pairs sporadically breeding. With lifestyle, sociality and intelligence remaining 21 birds for captive breed-
continuous and poorly understood make it one of the more interest- ing was thought to be the only way of
mortality, the decision was made to ing species to study. Weighing 9 to saving the species (Snyder & Snyder
capture the remaining animals and 12 kg and standing nearly a meter 2000); by 1987 the California condor
in 1987 all 27 birds were placed in the tall, they dwarf other “large” avian was considered Extinct in the Wild.
protective custody of the San Diego species like golden eagles and turkey The gamble paid off. Their population
and Los Angeles zoos, at which time vultures that often compete for the has increased in numbers from the
the species was considered Extinct large animal carcasses on which they original captive group of 27 California
in the Wild. Enough offspring were specialise, such as deer, sea lions, condors in 1987 to just under 400
produced in this small, genetically large domestic animals, cetaceans animals today (Fig. 1).
managed group to begin releases to and pinnipeds.
the wild in 1992. Using techniques de-
veloped with other cathartid vultures Casting a 3.2 m shadow, the sight and Breeding Strategy
as surrogates, California condors sound (if close enough) of a soaring
have been reintroduced into their for- California condor leaves an indelible Caught by canon net and pit traps
mer range at five release sites in the memory on any high altitude hiker as through 1986 and1987, they were
USA and Mexico. Currently classified they did for eons with Native Ameri- placed in Los Angeles Zoo and San
as Critically Endangered on the IUCN cans who revered them in folklore Diego Zoo according to sex and fam-
Red List of Threatened Species, this and traditional use of their feathers ily line that was determined by the
brings the overall population close and images in ceremony. The species genetics department at San Diego
to the recovery goal of a total of 450 survived the Pleistocene when a large Zoo. They were arranged in pairs
birds in three disjunct populations, mega-fauna food supply supported based on family line to maximise out-
one in captivity and two in the wild. a guild of other large avian scaven- breeding and placed in large aviary
gers that did not survive the massive breeding facilities similar to success-
extinctions of the epoch. Probably ful captive breeding programmes
numbering in the hundreds and with Andean condors. We are fortu-
possibly thousands before the 1800s, nate that the species is behaviourally
they were reduced drastically over plastic and adjusted rapidly to the
the last two centuries, likely because captive environment, beginning to
of the decline of their marine-based breed within a couple of years and
food supply along the coast and an sometimes within only months of
increase of human-caused mortality being placed in appropriate housing
factors such as shooting and lead and conditions. Eventually, members of
other poisoning. It was nearly driven all of the family lines were success-
fully bred in captivity.
1 San Diego Zoo Institute for Conserva-
tion Research, San Diego Zoo Global,
Escondido, CA, USA
* E-mail for correspondence:
mwraptor@gmail.comWAZA magazine Vol 13/2012 California Condor 11
»
Fig. 1
Ventral view of mature California condor showing tag and transmitter.
© Mike Wallace/San Diego Zoo Global
In the wild, both Andean and Califor- To maintain adequate chick behav- valuable eggs or hatchlings was also
nia condors lay one egg, on aver- iour during the ontogeny of the extra reduced by allowing many of the
age, every two years due to the long chicks, life-like puppets were em- new pairs to first practice the hatch-
parental dependency period. If the ployed to mimic the behaviour and ing process with less endangered
single clutch egg is lost through pre- movements of parents in this highly and available Andean condor eggs in
dation or accident early in the 57-day social species. This artificial parental their first reproductive efforts. Over
incubation period, the pair will often substitution effectively bridged the several seasons competent pairs
“recycle” and lay a replacement egg gap until, at about six months of age, were eventually allowed to raise their
in about 30 days. Capitalising on this the fledgling could be introduced to own offspring. Also, early on in the
trait, we removed the first, and some- a more socially natural group of older programme, the eggs of genetically
times the second, egg laid to artificial birds that included an adult mentor valuable pairs were often reared arti-
incubators for hatching and were to help maintain social order. Another ficially or given to more reliable pairs.
able to get the captive pairs to lay tool employed to increase success in The goal was to maximise production
more eggs than they normally would. new, inexperienced pairs was the use while concurrently training pairs to
Called double or triple clutching, we of fake eggs to allow them risk-free be reliable enough to raise their own
were able to increase the reproduc- time to learn the temporal rhythm young without undue risk to the eggs
tive rate four to six times; a sig- of swapping incubation duties in or chicks.
nificant breakthrough in saving this unproven mates. When incubation
normally slow reproducing bird. With behaviour improved to an adequate
the genetic status of each individual level, the real egg was surrepti-
known, we were able to maximise tiously replaced. Risk to genetically
out-breeding when forming pairs that
normally mate for life in the wild.12 California Condor WAZA magazine Vol 13/2012
»
To ensure the best possible pairings, tags attached to the patagial on the
meetings of the Species Survival smaller vultures proved efficient and
Plan by the Association of Zoos and safe, allowing individual identification
Aquariums continue annually to while flying or perched. Lightweight
guide the arranging of new pairs and radio transmitters were later incorpo-
maintain as near a genetic balance as rated into the wing tag and the tag/
possible between the four California transmitter combination was suc-
condor breeding facilities: The Per- cessfully tested on free-flying Andean
egrine Fund’s World Center for Birds condors during research to develop
of Prey in Boise, Idaho, San Diego release techniques for them in Peru.
Zoo Safari Park, Los Angeles Zoo All served as surrogate species to
and Oregon Zoo. Chipultapec Zoo in work out trapping, transport and
Mexico will soon have two pairs and husbandry techniques for California
will be producing young to support condors long before efforts were
the reintroduction programme in that directly applied to North America’s
country. The effort to bring family largest flying land bird (Fig. 2).
lines to parity continues to this day at
the release sites and captive breed-
ing centres, with an annual meeting Release Strategies
to line up which birds and eggs need and Techniques
to be transferred to specific release
sites in light of continual changes in Before releases could begin, seven
each metapopulation due to varying offspring (96% heterozygosity) were
survivorship and new recruitment needed as genetic back-up from each
from wild nests. pair. This basically ensured a duplica-
tion of genetic material was retained
in the relative safety of captivity
Research on Surrogates before any members of that family
line could be released to the higher
The effort to recover this highly risk conditions in the wild.
endangered species really began with
research on other cathartid vultures. In 1979 successful release experi- The key to the success of the Peruvian
The first Andean condors were bred ments on 33 black and turkey vultures Andean condor release experiments
in captivity at San Diego Zoo in in Florida led to an appreciation of relied on the existence of a healthy
the 1940s and 1950s. Then, with an the differences in the two species and wild population for which the young
importation of 11 Andean condors the need for further tests with An- birds to socially integrate with and
from Argentina, the Patuxent Wildlife dean condors; a species much more learn from (Wallace & Temple 1987).
Research Center at Patuxent, Mary- similar to California condors in size, In California all of the knowledgeable
land, created a breeding colony to anatomy, physiology, behaviour and members of the population had been
further refine breeding techniques. ecology. Eleven Andean condors were removed from the wild and were too
Research to develop release tech- produced in North American zoos valuable genetically to be placed
niques for condors began in 1979 with and released into the low mountains again at the risk of lead poisoning and
black vultures and turkey vultures in of the Cerro Illescas in Peru. Between other dangers. Also, their tradition
Florida. Because new world or cathar- 1980 and 1984 the one-year old birds of feeding on hunter-killed carcasses
tid vultures “urohydrate” on their legs were taught to forage on their own was too dangerous for a new popu-
and feet to cool themselves through using the techniques developed with lation of inexperienced California
evaporation, traditional leg bands for the Florida vultures, in which typical condors to emulate. Without an exist-
identification cannot be used since carrion of the area was placed out un- ing wild population of condors in the
they allow dangerous faecal build-up der the cover of darkness at varying California environment, naive young
that can damage their legs to the distances and directions to stimulate animals would need to be taught
point of foot loss. Numbered wing natural foraging. The proffered food
gave sufficient time and support for
the juvenile birds to successfully inte-
grate with the wild population.WAZA magazine Vol 13/2012 California Condor 13
»
Although a small sample size, the test
with Andean condors in California
gave us confidence to move ahead
with the California programme and
in 1992 the remaining birds were
trapped and joined other Andean
condors being released in Colombia
(Wallace 1989). With sufficient young
California condors being produced
at the two breeding centres, by 1992
we were able to release 13 California
condors between 1992 and 1994.
Over those two years four California
condors were killed by power line col-
lisions; a mortality rate much higher
than what we experienced with the
Andean condors or what could be sus-
tained in the long term. On analysis
it appeared that the newly released
California condors developed a habit
of using power pole wood cross
arms, commonly found throughout
the release area, as day perches and
night time roosts. These convenient
perches were found in condor habi-
tats all over southern California.
Fig. 2 The decision was made to trap the
Pair of California condors remaining eight free California con-
perched in territory cliffs showing dors and experiment with aversion
tag and transmitter. training on the pre-released fledgling
© Mike Wallace/San Diego Zoo Global Mortality Factors birds in the controlled zoo environ-
ment. Mock power poles were set up
To further test more specific release in the large pre-release pens, with
basic foraging techniques by their hu- techniques, Andean condors were the perching surfaces fitted with bare
man handlers. Similar in concept to again used as a test subject when wire that connected to a standard
the techniques used to maintain Cali- 13 were released between 1988 and livestock shocker that produced
fornia condors isolated from human 1990 within the Los Padres National a mild, but noticeable, electric charge
contact early on in the process with Forest; an area previously inhabited when contact was made. Time-laps
puppets, one-way glass and video by California condors and likely to be cameras recorded the identification
cameras, released California condors our first release site when there were tags and behaviour of the pre-release
were monitored at night time and sufficient birds. Only young females birds as they chose between the
with telescopes from blinds in the day. were released because of their simi- electrified and more natural perches
One important goal in the reintroduc- larity in weight and aerodynamics placed within the pens. They quickly
tion of this highly social species is to and to ensure that the exotic species learned to stay off the simulated
develop an initial group of California could not successfully breed in the power pole perches and, fortunately,
condors in the release area with good California habitat should re-trapping retained that behaviour after release
natural-like behaviours that subse- prove difficult. This effort was most to the wild. With a 95% reduction in
quently released California condors helpful for better understanding the time spent around power poles in
can emulate (Clark et al. 2007). specifics of condor releases such as the wild, the mortality rate caused by
tracking with radio telemetry in the wire collisions dropped to under 5%
chaparral habitat, training a team of and we were able to continue the re-
biologists and working out the coor- introduction programme. Power pole
dination of participating parties. Of aversion training continues to be an
the 13 Andean condors released over important component in the rearing
the three-year period, there was one process of California condor release
death due to a power line collision. candidates.14 California Condor WAZA magazine Vol 13/2012
»
Recognised in the early 1980s as an Recovery Plan
important mortality factor for Califor- References
nia condors, lead poisoning remains California condors have been re-
a significant hindrance to the full leased at five sites in California, • Clark, M., Wallace, M. P. & David,
recovery of the species throughout Arizona and Mexico. The US Fish and C. (2007) Rearing California con-
its range. Legislation against the use Wildlife Service sponsored California dors for release using a modified
of lead bullets for big game hunting, Condor Recovery Plan, written by the puppet-rearing technique. In:
the availability of reasonably priced Condor Recovery Team, states that California Condors in the 21st Cen-
lead alternatives for lead bullets and before reclassification to threat- tury (ed. by Mee, A. & Hall, L. S.),
intense education in other parts of ened status can occur, three disjunct pp. 213–226. Cambridge: Nuttall
their range are recent developments populations of California condors are Ornithological Club.
slowly reducing this issue. Change needed, numbering at least 150 birds • Kiff, L. F., Mesta, R. I. & Wallace,
in hunter attitudes and behaviour each; two in the wild and one in cap- M. P. (1996) Recovery Plan for the
has been gradual and not without tivity. Each population should have California Condor. Portland: US
tremendous effort on the part of approximately 15 breeding pairs and Fish and Wildlife Service.
programme participants from gather- have a positive rate of increase (Kiff • Snyder, N. & Snyder, H. (2000)
ing blood lead level data in the birds, et al. 1996). At the moment there are The California Condor: A Saga of
lobbying government and legislative nearly 400 California condors in exist- Natural History and Conservation.
representatives to educate hunters ence, with about 200 in captivity and San Diego: Academic Press.
directly. Hopefully, the issue will be 200 in the wild at five release sites. • Wallace, M. (1989) Andean
sufficiently regulated to make self- Roughly ten chicks are produced in condor experimental releases to
sustaining California condor popula- the wild and 40 chicks in captivity at enhance California condor recov-
tions feasible within a decade or so. four facilities annually. The species ery. Endangered Species Update
is currently classified as Critically 6: 1–4.
Emerging as a significant disease in Endangered on the IUCN Red List of • Wallace, M. P. & Temple, S. A.
the USA in the last decade, West Nile Threatened Species. The programme (1987) Releasing captive-reared
virus is lethal for many birds including is not without obstacles and challeng- Andean condors to the wild.
California condors. Before it arrived in es but seems to be on track overall for Journal of Wildlife Management
California, the Condor Recovery Team recovery of the species, as outlined 51: 541–550.
approached the Center for Disease in the Recovery Plan, within the next
Control in Washington, DC, for help. two decades.
Within a year they were able to pro-
duce a genetic-based vaccine specific
for California condors. Administered
over a three-month period beginning
at one month of age, the vaccine
protects the birds nearly 100%. We
have lost several California condors
to the virus both in captivity and in
the wild that were not vaccinated. Im-
munity titres are checked on a yearly
basis and natural immunity seems
to be building in the population with
repeated exposure in the wild.You can also read
