Falkland Islands Species Action Plan for Cetaceans 2008 2018
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The Environmental Planning Department
PO Box 611, Stanley, Falkland Islands FIQQ 1ZZ
Telephone: (+500) 28480
Facsimile: (+500) 27391
E-mail: fwallace-nannig.planning@taxation.gov.fk
Falkland Islands
Species Action Plan for Cetaceans
2008 - 2018
Sei whale in Berkley Sound Commerson’s dolphin
Adoption
This plan was approved by the Environmental Committee on September 12th 2008
and adopted by the Falkland Islands Government on November 28th 2008.
Falkland Islands Species Action Plan for Cetaceans, 2008 – 2018
Contents
Page
1 Objectives for recovery 3
2 Reasons for listing 3
3 Species information 4
4 Habitat critical to the survival of the species 11
5 Threats 12
6 Current management 15
7 Action tasks 16
8 References 22
9 Appendix 1 – Selection Criteria for Species and Habitat Action Plans 26
10 Appendix 2 – Falkland Islands Plan for Stranded Cetaceans 27
Acronyms
CITES Convention for the International Trade for Endangered Species
CFL Consolidated Fisheries Limited
CMS Convention on Migratory Species
EPD FIG Environmental Planning Department
FC Falklands Conservation
FIFCA Falkland Islands Fishing Companies Association
FIFD FIG Falkland Islands Fisheries Department
FITB Falkland Islands Tourist Board
IUCN International Union on the Conservation of Nature
IWC International Whaling Commission
JNCC Joint Nature Conservation Committee
MR FIG Mineral Resources Department
SMSG Shallow Marine Surveys Group
Input and comments received from
Kelly Macleod, Sea Mammal Research Unit, University of St Andrews, Scotland
Kim Chater, New Island, Falkland Islands
Grant Munro, Falklands Conservation
Paul Brickle and John Barton, Falkland Islands Fisheries Department
Complied by
Helen Otley, Environmental Planning Department
2Falkland Islands Species Action Plan for Cetaceans, 2008 – 2018
1. Objectives for recovery
The objective is to maintain the protection of (i) inshore cetaceans and (ii) migratory and offshore
cetaceans whilst in Falkland Island waters from human threats, in order to aid the global protection and
recovery of populations.
The aim is that the species can be considered secure in the wild, meaning that a population has a
sufficient geographic range and distribution, abundance, and genetic diversity to provide a stable
population over long time scales.
Many species of cetacean sighted in the deeper waters of the Falkland Islands are migratory, generally
having a pattern of summering in higher latitudes and wintering in warmer more northerly waters. The
species migrate across national boundaries and management zones and thus conservation efforts in the
Falkland Islands may ultimately play only a small part in achieving the international goal of securing
long-term survival.
2. Reasons for listing
Commerson’s dolphin and Peale’s dolphins are restricted to southern South America, with the Peale’s
dolphin having a continuous distribution across the Patagonian Shelf to the Falkland Islands, whilst the
Commerson’s dolphin seems to be a coastal species. They are considered data deficient by the
International Union on the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and are listed by both the Convention on
Migratory Species (CMS) and Convention for the International Trade for Endangered Species (CITES)
(Table 1).
Up to 25 species of cetacean have been sighted in the deep waters (>200 m) of the Falkland Islands
(White et al. 2002). However, only five whale and one dolphin species have been sighted regularly and
they are of global conservation concern, including being endangered, vulnerable and data deficient.
This group of species require a Species Action Plan because they meet one of the Falkland Islands
Selection Criteria for Species and Habitat Action Plans, being International Convention Criteria A (see
Appendix 1). Beaked whales are not commonly sighted but dead specimens have been found washed
ashore and they have also been included in this Species Action Plan due to their global conservation
status and apparent sensitivity to many human activities.
Parties to CMS are required to provide strict protection for endangered migratory species listed in the
convention. Appendix I species are in danger of extinction throughout all or a significant proportion of
their range, whilst Appendix II species have an unfavourable conservation status and species in both
category would benefit significantly from international cooperative agreements.
Trade in CITES Appendix I species is allowed only under exceptional circumstances, such as where
there is clear (non-commercial) benefit such as scientific research. Trade in Appendix II species is
3Falkland Islands Species Action Plan for Cetaceans, 2008 – 2018
much more permissible and generally requires parties to ensure that specimens were legally taken (or
bred) without detriment to wild populations.
Table 1. IUCN global conservation status, and CMS and CITES listings for the two coastal dolphins,
and the offshore dolphin and whale species seen in the deep waters of the Falkland Islands.
Species IUCN Conservation Status CMS CITES
Peale'
s dolphin Data deficient Appendix II Appendix II
Commerson'
s dolphin Data deficient Appendix II Appendix II
Beaked whales Lower risk – conservation dependent/ Not listed Appendix I/II
Data deficient
Fin whale Endangered Appendix I/II Appendix I
Hourglass dolphin Not listed Not listed Appendix II
Killer whale Lower risk – conservation dependent Appendix II Appendix II
Sei whale Endangered Appendix I/II Appendix I
Southern minke whale Lower risk – conservation dependent Appendix II Appendix I
Sperm whale Vulnerable Appendix I/II Appendix I
3. Species information
Peale’s dolphin
The Peale’s dolphin (Lagenorhynchus australis) is found in coastal waters of southern South America
from Valdivia, Chile (38°S) and Golfo San José, Argentina (44°S), south to Drake Passage at 59oS and
the Falkland Islands (Goodall 2002). It has a continuous distribution from the Falklands to South
America (Gillon et al. 2000). It is a Data Deficient species because there is inadequate information on
abundance to make a direct or indirect assessment of its risk of extinction.
In the Falkland Islands, the Peale’s dolphin appears numerous because it is very inquisitive and will
approach vessels to bow-ride (White et al. 2002). A total of 864 sightings of 2,617 animals, in groups
of one to 15 animals, were recorded during the at-sea surveys of 1998 - 2000, and no seasonality in
distribution or abundance was found. However, year round observations at New Island, suggest more
inshore foraging during autumn compared to other months (K. Chater personal communication). In the
Falkland Islands, the species appears to be restricted to shelf waters less than 200 m deep.
Photo-identifiable individuals around Isla Chiloe (Chile) showed limited or low site fidelity (Heinrich
2006). Based on focal studies conducted of the species in southern Chile and Argentina and sightings
in the Falkland Islands, the kelp forest is a particularly important habitat for Peale’s dolphins (Fathala
et al. 2002; Viddi and Lescrauwaet 2005; Falklands Conservation Cetacean Watch records). Its diet
consists of demersal fish, cephalopods, molluscs and crustaceans, including some commercial species
(Carwardine 1995).
4Falkland Islands Species Action Plan for Cetaceans, 2008 – 2018
A number of organisations in Patagonia study the biology and population structure of the species but it
has not been studied in any detail in the Falkland Islands.
On continental South America, Peale’s dolphins are accidentally drowned in coastal seine net fisheries
and mid-water trawl fisheries (Crespo et al. 1997; Iniguez et al. 2003). There are no reports of fisheries
bycatch of Peale’s dolphin in the Falkland Islands.
Commerson’s dolphin
There are two populations of Commerson’s dolphin (Cephalorhynchus commersonii), being in southern
South America and Kerguelen, which are separated by 8,500 km. Commerson’s dolphins at Kerguelen
are a recognised subspecies because they are larger than the South American animals and are black,
grey and white, as opposed to black and white markings of South American specimens (Robineau et al.
2007). In South America, Commerson’s dolphins range from 30 - 40 oS down to South Shetland
Islands (61oS) and Falkland Islands. It is a Data Deficient species because there is inadequate
information on abundance to make a direct or indirect assessment of its risk of extinction.
In the Falkland Islands, Commerson’s dolphins are relatively commonly sighted in inshore coastal
waters all year, particularly in sheltered waters of less than 10 m in depth, such as bays, harbours, river
mouths and around kelp beds (Strange 1992; Lescrauwaet et al. 2000; Falklands Conservation Cetacean
Watch records). Almost all of the records made during the at-sea surveys of 1998 - 2000 are within 10
km of the shore and no records were made further than 25 km offshore (White et al. 2002). In a study
of Commerson’s dolphin in an estuarine study site, individuals were often sighted in the river entrance
than up river and coastal marine areas (Iniguez and Tossenberger 2007). They appear to be
opportunistic bottom feeders, taking mysid shrimps, fish and squid (Carwardine 1995).
It appears that populations form well-defined territories, although mean group size at one long-term
study site in Patagonia was 1.88 (Iniguez and Tossenberger 2007). Iniguez and Tossenberger (2007)
were able to recognise a number of photo-identifiable individuals within their 3 x 1 km study site.
Current and on-going genetic studies suggest that there are separate populations along Argentina and
Chile (Hevia et al. 2005; Coscarella et al. 2007; Pimper et al. 2007).
It is thought that Commerson’s dolphins do not range across the Patagonian Shelf (Gillon et al. 2000),
and as such, there is a closed population in the Falkland Islands. However, a current study of the
genetics of the Chilean, Tierra del Fuego, Argentine and Falkland Islands populations (using skeletal
material) should resolve this question (L. Pimper and E. Crespo, personal communications).
On continental South America, Commerson’s dolphins are accidentally drowned in coastal seine net
fisheries and mid-water trawl fisheries and sometimes still taken for bait in the crab fishery (Crespo et
al. 1997; Iniguez et al. 2003). There are no reports of fisheries bycatch of Commerson’s dolphin in the
Falkland Islands.
5Falkland Islands Species Action Plan for Cetaceans, 2008 – 2018
Fin whale
The fin whale (Balaenoptera physalus) is classified as Endangered on the basis of an estimated decline
of at least 50% worldwide over the last three generations (assumed generation time was 20–25 years)
based on direct observation, an index of abundance and actual or potential levels of exploitation. Like
the blue whale, the fin whale was severely reduced worldwide by modern commercial whaling. Their
current status is poorly known in most areas outside the North Atlantic, where recent studies indicate
that there is a series of geographical stocks with limited genetic exchange (Reeves et al. 2003). Fin
whales are rarely encountered today in those areas of the Southern Hemisphere where they were taken
historically in large numbers.
Fin whales were once commonly sighted in the Falkland Islands as they migrated from the coast of
Brazil to the summer feeding grounds in the Antarctic. The whaling records from New Island during
1900 – 1905 are mostly of fin whales but it is possible that they were mistaken for sei whales.
Today, fin whales are not often sighted in Falkland Islands waters. During at-sea surveys in 1998 –
2000, 57 fin whales, singularly and in groups of up to 12 individuals were recorded on 27 occasions,
particularly between November and January (White et al. 2002). They were most commonly sighted in
waters greater than 200 m on the continental slope and adjacent to the Burdwood Bank. They did not
appear to associate with other cetaceans and on only one occasion were aggregations of seabirds seen
to be associating with the species (White et al. 2002). Baleen whales feed on small shoaling fish and
swarms of planktonic crustaceans, which could include lobster krill in the Falkland Islands (Bonner
1986).
Sei whale
The sei whale (Balaenoptera borealis) is classified as Endangered on the basis of an estimated decline
of at least 50% worldwide over the last three generations (assumed generation time was 20–25 years)
based on direct observation, an index of abundance and /or actual or potential levels of exploitation.
Sei whales were heavily exploited in Southern Hemisphere whaling grounds once the stocks of blue
and fin whales had been reduced. The extent to which stocks have recovered since then is uncertain
because there has been relatively little research in recent years. While a change in classification to
Vulnerable may be appropriate, there is a distinct lack of reliable survey data that could serve as the
basis for reassessment.
Bonner (1986) reported that sei whales passed the Falkland Islands on migration, which supported a
whaling industry at New Island in the early part of this century. Sei whales were recorded on 31
occasions in groups of 1-3 individuals during the at-sea surveys of 1998 – 2000, most commonly
during the austral summer between November and April on the Patagonian shelf and shallower waters
to the east of the Falklands (White et al. 2002).
6Falkland Islands Species Action Plan for Cetaceans, 2008 – 2018
Whilst distribution is highly variable from year to year, particular hotspots around East Falkland
include Sea Lion Island, MacBride Head, Cape Dolphin and Berkeley Sound, whilst Queen Charlotte
Bay, north and east of New Island, Saunders Island and Carcass Island are sites where sei whales are
regularly reported around West Falkland (White et al. 2002; A. Black personal communication; A.
Marsh personal communication). Sei whales have not been observed associating with cetaceans or
seabirds (White et al. 2002). Baleen whales feed on small shoaling fish and swarms of planktonic
crustaceans, which could include lobster krill in the Falkland Islands (Bonner 1986).
Southern minke whale
Following the distinctions made by CMS, it is now thought the southern (or Antarctic) minke whale
(Balaenoptera bonerensis) rather than the common minke whale (B. acutorostrata) occurs in the
Falkland Islands (IUCN website). The southern minke whale has a circumpolar distribution from
Antarctica to almost equatorial regions (Carwardine 1995).
In the Falkland Islands, minke whales were recorded on 60 occasions during the at-sea surveys of 1998
– 2000, usually alone and mostly during the austral summer from September to April over the
Patagonian shelf around East Falkland and to the northwest of the Falklands zone (White et al. 2002).
They were rarely associated with other cetaceans and seabirds. Baleen whales feed on small shoaling
fish and swarms of planktonic crustaceans, which could include lobster krill in the Falkland Islands
(Bonner 1986).
There is some scientific whaling of minke whales in Antarctic waters, which is licensed by Japan, but
this occurs in the Pacific/Indian sectors of the Southern Ocean and is unlikely to involve the stock of
minke whales that migrate through the waters of the Falkland Islands.
Sperm whale
The sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus) has a global distribution and individuals found north and
south of the equator are thought to be from separate breeding stocks, with seasonal movement from the
equator to the polar regions. Sperm whales sighted in Falkland Island waters are most likely to be
males, as most females and their calves do not venture this far south (Carwardine 1995).
The species was classified as Vulnerable on the basis of an observed, estimated, inferred or suspected
reduction of at least 20% over the last 10 years or three generations based on an index of abundance
and actual or potential levels of exploitation. As a species, the sperm whale is not immediately
threatened, but some regional populations require close evaluation and monitoring.
During the at-sea surveys of 1998 - 2000, 28 individuals were sighted on 21 occasions throughout the
year, particularly in waters greater than 200 m around the Burdwood Bank and in the extreme north
(White et al. 2002). Sperm whales have stranded in the Falkland Islands on four occasions (Strange
1992). Sperm whale diet consists predominantly of squid and some fish.
7Falkland Islands Species Action Plan for Cetaceans, 2008 – 2018
Fisheries observers have reported that sperm whales associate with fishing vessels, particularly with
longliners (Nolan and Liddle 2000). Fishing grounds may well be areas with naturally high numbers of
sperm whales, as often there is also high catch per unit, indicating high prey availability (Falkland
Islands Fisheries Department and Consolidated Fisheries Limited [CFL], personal communication).
However, the association appears very strong, with sperm whales often appearing once line hauling
commences.
The association between whales and longline vessels is a world-wide phenomenon and it is not known
if the whales are targeting fish lost from hooks, discarded fish or taking fish directly from hooks, either
on the seafloor or from the line as it is hauled upwards (Ashford and Martin 1996; Moreno et al. 2003;
Purves et al. 2004). Interaction rates and photo-identification studies are being conducted across the
world, including in the Falkland Islands by fisheries observers (Yates and Brickle 2007). Depredation
issues in the Falkland Islands need to be investigated and to this end, the Falkland Islands longline
company CFL is currently trialling a new method of fishing, which involves protecting the hooks in a
net sleeve (Moreno et al. 2008).
Sperm whales are not likely to suffer effects of feeding on toothfish caught by licensed longliners
working in the Falkland Islands. However, the behaviour does increase their risk of entanglement in
longline gear and elsewhere they are probably shot at or damaged by explosives directed at them.
Beaked whales
Seven species of beaked whale have been recorded stranded or seen at-sea in the Falkland Islands
(Lichter 1986; Strange 1992; White et al. 2002; MacLeod et al. 2006; Smith and Otley in prep). These
are: Andrew’s beaked whale (Mesoplodon bowdoini), Arnoux'
s beaked whale (Berardius arnuxii),
Cuvier'
s beaked whale (Ziphius cavirostris), strap-toothed whale (Mesoplodon layardii), Gray’s beaked
whale (M. grayi), Hector’s beaked whale (M. hectori) and southern bottlenose whale (Hyperoodon
planifrons).
Only the southern bottlenose whale has been recorded as a live sighting in the Falkland Islands, with 18
sightings of 34 animals between September and February in deep oceanic waters off East Falkland
(White et al. 2002) during the at-sea surveys of 1998 - 2000. There are an estimated half-a million
southern bottlenose whales in the Southern Ocean during summer (Kasamatsu et al. 1995).
The biology, distribution and abundance of most beaked whale species are not well known. Most
species appear to have circumpolar distributions from Antarctica to the low latitudes (Carwardine
1995). Arnoux'
s beaked whale and southern bottlenose whale are Lower risk – conservation dependent
because they are the focus of a continuing taxon-specific or habitat-specific conservation, the cessation
of which would result in the taxon qualifying for one of the threatened categories within a period of
five years.
8Falkland Islands Species Action Plan for Cetaceans, 2008 – 2018
However, because most of the other beaked whale species seen in the Falkland Islands can not be
reliably identified at sea, the remaining species are Data Deficient because there is inadequate
information on distribution and abundance to make a direct or indirect assessment of its risk of
extinction. The frequency of strandings in the Falkland Islands suggest that some species such as
Gray’s beaked whale and strap-tooth beaked whale are more common relative to Andrew’s beaked
whale and Hector’s beaked whale (Smith and Otley in prep).
Most beaked whales normally inhabit deep ocean waters (>2,000 m) or continental slopes (200 – 2,000
m) where they feed on deep-water mesopelagic squid and some fish species (Pitman 2002). The
anatomy and behaviour of the beaked whale makes them very sensitive to anthropogenic noises such as
sonar and airgun arrays, which can lead to strandings (Barlow and Gisiner 2006).
Killer whale
The killer whale (Orcinus orca) is the largest member of the dolphin family and has a worldwide
distribution in both coastal and oceanic waters. Behaviour varies within its range but killer whales
often form strong family groups, with pods specialising in one prey and/or water area (Carwardine
1995). During the summer months in the Falkland Islands when penguins and pinnipeds are breeding,
killer whales are commonly sighted in coastal waters and there appears to be at least one resident pod
to the southeast of the archipelago between Cape Meredith, Sea Lion Island and Beauchêne Island
(Falklands Conservation Cetacean Watch data). Killer whales seen in the Falkland Islands fit the
description of the A-type whale (Yates et al. 2007).
Killer whales seen off Sea Lion Island have been photographed each November between 2004 and
2006. Two pods have been observed with up to eight identifiable individuals recognised in 2004 and
some of these were matched to photos taken during the 1990s (Yates et al. 2007) and six of these were
re-sighted in 2006 (Dawson 2006). On Sea Lion Island, the killer whales use ambush and shallow
water hunting techniques along rocky outcrops and two beaches used by elephant seal pups and
juveniles.
Records of killer whales in the oceanic waters of the Falkland Islands are rarer, with seven records of
individual killer whales and small pods of less than five whales in coastal and shelf waters recorded
during at-sea surveys during 1999 - 2000 (White et al. 2002). However, they are also reported
infrequently at longline fishing vessels, particularly in the northern and eastern deeper waters at the
edge of the 200 nautical mile limit (Yates and Brickle 2007). Fishing grounds may well be areas with
naturally high numbers of killer whales, as often there is also high catch per unit effort, indicating
abundant prey (Falkland Islands Fisheries Department and Consolidated Fisheries Limited, personal
communication). The depredation issue is monitored by fisheries observers, who record whale
sightings and catch rates and take photographs for identification purposes.
9Falkland Islands Species Action Plan for Cetaceans, 2008 – 2018
Killer whales are not likely to suffer effects of feeding on toothfish caught by licensed longliners
working in the Falkland Islands. However, the behaviour does increase their risk of entanglement in
longline gear and elsewhere they are probably shot at or damaged by explosives directed at them.
Long-finned pilot whale
The long-finned pilot whale (Globicephala melas) has a worldwide distribution in both coastal and
oceanic waters. In the Falkland Islands, it was one of the more frequently recorded cetacean species
during the 1998 – 2000 at-sea surveys, with 27 records of 872 animals in pods of between two to 200
whales, particularly so in water depths greater than 200 m and during winter months (White et al.
2002). Long-finned pilot whales are often seen in association with other cetacean species, particularly
southern right whale dolphins and hourglass dolphins, as well as eleven species of seabirds.
The long-finned pilot whale has a propensity to strand and it is the most commonly stranded whale in
the Falkland Islands. Five hundred and seventy five long-finned pilot whales were sampled from six
mass strandings of between 27 and 273 animals on the beaches during 2000 and 2006. Tissue samples
for genetic analysis and teeth for age and growth studies were taken from every animal. Additionally,
diet composition was studied from stomach contents of 63 whales from the first stranding sampled in
2000.
Analysis of MtDNA haplotype composition and frequencies within pods indicates that pods in the
Falkland Islands are not composed of single matrilineal family units, but most likely comprise multiple
matrilineal family units (Shaw 2006). Growth increment counts on the longitudinal sections of teeth
revealed a rather complicated age structure within pods with three peaks in numbers of individuals
aged from 0 to 3, 9 to 10 and 14 to 19 years (Otley et al. 2006). The oldest male and female were 25
and 26 years old respectively, with one unsexed animal being 39 year old. The pilot whales fed mainly
on the mesopelagic squid Moroteuthis ingens with hoki (Macruronus magellanicus) being of secondary
importance especially for large males (FIFD, unpublished data).
Hourglass dolphin
The hourglass dolphin (Lagenorhynchus cruciger) probably has a circumpolar distribution in pelagic
waters of the sub-Antarctic and Antarctic zones and as far north as the southern subtropical
convergence (Carwardine 1995). The diet of this deep-water species includes myctophid fish, squid
and crustaceans, but nothing else is known about their ecology and behaviour (Carwardine 1995).
There are an estimated 144,000 hourglass dolphins south of the Antarctic Convergence in summer
(Kasamatsu and Joyce 1995).
In the waters of the Falkland Islands, the hourglass dolphin was frequently recorded during at-sea
surveys of 1998 – 2000 in continental slope and oceanic waters greater than 200m water depth,
singularly and in pods of up to 50 animals, particularly between September and March (White et al.
2002). However, the species may have been under-recorded in surveys, as it is a more wary species
10Falkland Islands Species Action Plan for Cetaceans, 2008 – 2018
and does not approach vessels. Their oceanic preference contrasts with the coastal and shallow water
distribution of both the Peale’s dolphin and the Commerson’s dolphin (White et al. 2002).
4. Habitat critical to the survival of the species
It is not currently possible to define habitat that is critical to the survival of the species due to the
limited knowledge about their distribution and abundance. For both coastal dolphin species, the kelp
forest appears to be an important habitat. The Commerson’s dolphin appears to have specific habitat
requirements, with all sightings with 10 km of the shore and at less than 100 m water depth, whilst the
Peale’s dolphin is found in waters less than 200 m deep but will travel over deeper waters to reach
shallower areas (e.g. Burdwood Bank).
Fin whales, sei whales and minke whales appear to migrate through the Falkland Islands during late
summer, whilst the remaining species appear to be present year round, although they are all sighted
more commonly in particular seasons (Table 2). The shelf, slope and continental deep waters are all
important to different species.
Table 2. Key locations and times of year for the deep water species
Species Location Most common in Calves seen
Fin whale Continental slope >200m and adjacent to the Burdwood Nov to Jan No
Bank
Sei whale Patagonian shelf and shallower waters, particularly Sea Nov to Apr No
Lion Island, Cape Dolphin, Berkeley Sound, Queen
Charlotte Bay, Saunders Island and Carcass Island
Minke whale Patagonian shelf around East Falkland and in the Sep to Apr No
northwest of the Falklands zone
Sperm whale >200m, particularly around the Burdwood Bank and in Year round No
the extreme north
Beaked whales Continental slope and oceanic waters >200m Year round Yes
strandings
Killer whale Southeast of the archipelago centring around Sea Lion Sep to Feb Yes
Island, records offshore are mostly around longliners
Pilot whale Continental slope and oceanic waters >200m Apr to Sep Yes
Hourglass dolphin Continental slope and oceanic waters >200m Sep and Mar No
11Falkland Islands Species Action Plan for Cetaceans, 2008 – 2018
5. Threats
The Falkland Islands Biodiversity Strategy identifies 15 threatening processes and a matrix was used to
identify the biodiversity priorities (Table 3; FIG 2008).
Table 3 . A risk assessment of the 15 threatening processes in the Falkland Islands. The dark boxes are
high biodiversity priorities, the grey boxes are medium priorities and the clear boxes are low
biodiversity priorities.
! ! '
" # $
% &
( $ , ! ! - . /
) * + 0 ! !
2
3 $ " & $
1
/ % +
Although only some of these processes threaten cetaceans, the ranking of those remains the same. It is
felt that the Falkland Islands community is relatively well informed about dolphins and whales and
there are no marine invasive species in Falkland waters that are known effect cetaceans.
2. Uncertainty or lack of information
The species assessments provided show how little is known about the biology, life history, distribution,
abundance, diet and habitat requirements of most of the cetaceans in the Falkland Islands. The concern
is that a decision may be stalled, be poor or inappropriate due to the lack of information. In the
Falkland Islands Biodiversity Strategy, the coastal and marine species and ecosystems are recognised
as one of eight critical knowledge gaps, and it is an Implement 1st action.
3. Unsustainable accidental bycatch
Fisheries observers aboard vessels in Falkland Islands waters have not reported incidental bycatch of
cetaceans, although one sperm whale has been reported entangled in a longline. The sperm whale was
on the surface and freed when a fisherman cut the line and it was able to swim away with a few metres
of line wound around the tail join (FIFD, unpublished data). Along continental South America, both
species of dolphin are vulnerable to entanglement in beach set gill nets and in mid-water night trawls in
shallow water (Crespo et al. 1997; Iniguez et al. 2003). However, neither fishery occurs in the
Falkland Islands due to a ban on all fishing within 3 nm of coastlines.
12Falkland Islands Species Action Plan for Cetaceans, 2008 – 2018
5. Pollution
a. Plastics
Most countries and probably all the flag states of the main fleets that fish in the Falkland Island are
signatories to the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL)
73/78 regulations, which prohibits the disposal of plastics at sea at any time. Whilst the Falkland
Islands Government requires vessels to meet MARPOL regulations, this is not reinforced with all
fishing vessels by setting any standards about how waste is managed at sea, e.g. licensing only vessels
with incinerators etc.
Despite this, there is an amount of marine debris on shores around the Falkland Islands, particularly
discarded fishing equipment and household waste that appears also to have come from fishing vessels
(Otley and Ingham 2003). There are many other sources of marine debris, including local sources such
windblown waste from the tip in Stanley and coastal waste disposal in camp, as well as debris
travelling from elsewhere in the ocean currents.
Dolphins may become entangled in the discarded fishing nets and line, although some dolphins with
scars potentially caused by entanglement have been seen in the Falkland Islands (K. Chater, personal
communication). Plastics can also be ingested by cetaceans, which is likely to be fatal.
b. Oil
During oil spills, the Falkland Islands National Oil Contingency Plan of 1998 is implemented (FIG
1988). There is a kit of equipment available for use, including booms and dispersants, but often the
nature of the coastline and sea conditions prohibit their use. Only the more persistent oils such as
engine oil and intermediate/heavy fuel oils have the potential to impact seriously on marine and
terrestrial ecosystems; unless in large quantities, light gas oil (i.e. marine diesel) normally readily
evaporates and windrows.
Within Falkland Island waters, there has been a number of small acute light fuel (i.e. marine gas oil)
spills from unknown vessels and those experiencing mechanical problems, having run aground or
deliberately pumping out oily water from bilges. However, no long lasting effects on the inshore or
offshore environment have been documented.
Observations elsewhere show that marine mammals do not necessarily avoid slicks until they become
more weathered and take on a thicker, mousse-like consistency and any oil on their coat, inhaled or
ingested could have significant effects (K. MacLeod, personal communication). It has been suggested
that the most serious effect is from the fumes that evaporate from the surface and thus inhaled.
13Falkland Islands Species Action Plan for Cetaceans, 2008 – 2018
c. Chemicals
The bio-accumulation of heavy metals and manufactured chemicals in cetaceans has not been
investigated in the Falkland Islands. However, it is well known that pollutants including
organochlorines do bio-accumulate and are passed from mother to calf during lactation.
d. Noise
Some species of cetaceans, particularly beaked whales, are sensitive to anthropogenic noise pollution
such as sonar and air guns used during seismic surveying (Barlow and Gisiner 2006). However,
conducting research in this field and developing mitigation measures are difficult. Specially tasked
seabird and marine mammal observers have been present on some seismic surveys in the Falkland
Islands, including one period between December 2006 and May 2007 where 254 airgun sessions were
made over a linear distance nearly 1,000 km (RSP Energy 2007). A total of 1442 marine mammals
representing at least 13 species were recorded during the seismic surveys and no negative responses by
marine mammals to seismic activity during the survey were noted. During the ramp up period, there
were 12 instances where a marine mammal species was sighted within the 500 m mitigation zone
during a pre-shoot watch and of these, it was necessary to delay the soft start procedure nine times.
7. Visitors/tourism
Despite the potential, there is little commercial or recreational “whale watching” in the Falkland
Islands, due to the low number of visitors until the last 5 – 10 years, an excess of wind and a lack of
suitable available boats. However, these days there are regular eco-tourism boat trips out from Mare
Harbour by the British Military, including in East Cove where up to 50 Commerson’s dolphins come
towards the rigid raider and bow ride for 10 – 15 minutes.
Worldwide, there has been considerable advance in whale watching research in recent years with more
studies showing that whale watching can have behavioural impacts, which translate into biologically
significant effects for marine mammal populations (Scarpaci et al. 2007). Therefore, should more
whale watching develop in the Falkland Islands, the need for more close monitoring and the
establishment of a code of conduct should be considered.
8. Unsustainable deliberate extraction - Whaling
Licensed whaling took place in the Falkland Islands for a short period during 1912 – 1914, with 148 sei
whales, 99 fin whales, 15 humpback whales, three blue whales and one southern right whale caught
(White et al. 2002). Fire damage to the buildings at the New Island whaling station and better catches
at South Georgia led to the Norwegian company moving their operations further south. However,
illegal whaling vessels were sighted and harpooned whales were found washed up on beaches right up
until the 1970s (Falkland Island residents, personal communications).
In the foreseeable future, it is not likely that the current international ban on commercial whaling would
ever be lifted by the International Whaling Commission (IWC). There is some scientific whaling of
14Falkland Islands Species Action Plan for Cetaceans, 2008 – 2018
minke whales in Antarctic waters, which is licensed by Japan, but this occurs in the Pacific/Indian
sectors of the Southern Ocean and is unlikely to involve the stock of minke whales that migrate through
the waters of the Falkland Islands.
9. Climate change
Climate change is also likely to affect marine mammals because there are likely ramifications on the
availability of suitable habitat for calving, foraging and migrating and on the pattern of prey
distribution and availability (Simmonds and Issac 2007). The effects of climate change are dependent
on species adaptability, but scientists suggest that the effects are currently unknown for the sei whale,
sperm whale, all beaked whale species, killer whale, long-finned pilot whale and Peale’s dolphin and
are suggested to be negative for Commerson’s dolphin (Learmouth et al. 2006).
10. Natural disasters – wildlife disease
Marine mammals worldwide suffer from infectious diseases and harmful algal blooms and (Gulland
and Hall 2007). No wildlife diseases or toxic poisoning have been observed for marine mammals in
the Falkland Islands, although no specific health evaluations have been made.
12. Transport
Although ship strikes are a significant threat to some cetacean populations around the world, it is not
reported to be a problem in the Falkland Islands. The most likely site where a large numbers of whales
may encounter ships is around Berkley Sound but sei whales appear to keep their distance from all
vessels (personal observations).
15. Removal of food
The diet of all cetaceans in Falkland Islands waters, except for pilot whales, is not well known and this
knowledge gap should be urgently filled.
6. Current management
The Marine Mammals Ordinance 1992 protects all marine mammals (including whales, porpoises,
dolphins, otters, seals, fur seals, sea lions and elephant seals), and makes it an offence to take, wound or
kill any marine mammal in the Falkland Islands or in Falkland Islands waters with intent to do so, or to
poison any marine mammal. Falkland Islands waters in this ordinance correspond to the boundaries of
the Falkland Islands Outer Conservation Zone (FOCZ).
It is an offence to use on land or at sea any explosive in such a manner as, in all the circumstances of
the case, is likely to cause harm to any marine mammal. There are also restrictions on the use of nets,
trawl lines and hooks specified by regulations. The ordinance also controls the import and export of
any marine mammal or any part of a marine mammal living or dead.
15Falkland Islands Species Action Plan for Cetaceans, 2008 – 2018
The Fisheries (Conservation and Management) Ordinance 2005 includes the following objective:
Ensuring that the exploitation of fisheries resources and the carrying on of any related activities are
conducted in a manner consistent with the need to have regard to the impact of fishing activities on non
target species and the long term sustainability of the marine environment.
The current seismic survey regulations in the Falkland Islands under the Offshore Minerals Ordinance
1994 request that marine mammal surveys are conducted prior to the start of seismic survey transects
and that there should be a slow build up of power in order to alert (and scare away) marine mammals
before the maximum strength of noise is generated.
The Falkland Islands Countryside Code is not a regulatory document but it states that people must
remain more than 6 m from all wildlife. All residents and visitors are made aware of the Countryside
Code.
7. Action Tasks
The action tasks were identified based on international action plans and national priorities in the
Falkland Islands. The ‘World Action Plan for Cetaceans’ (Reeves et al. 2003) lists three key actions to
conserve whales and dolphins:
1. Ensuring catches or other uses of cetaceans are sustainable
2. Habitat protection and restoration
3. Enhancing the capacity and governance framework for cetacean conservation.
There are additionally specific actions for the South America region (Reeves et al. 2003) but only
Action 33 – Investigate stock identity of endemic species in South America – is of relevance to the
Falkland Islands for Peale’s dolphin, Commerson’s dolphin and dusky dolphin.
Hucke-Gaete (2000) also identified a number of actions required to conserve small cetaceans in
southern South America, including biological studies of distribution and abundance, stock identity,
natural history studies and in each region, to make a local reassessment of marine mammal species
conservation status and to establish a local conservation programme.
Due to the lack of information about the biology, life history, distribution, abundance, diet and habitat
requirements of most of the cetaceans in the Falkland Islands, most actions address this threat rather
than the other seven threats which have been tentatively identified.
16Falkland Islands Species Action Plan for Cetaceans, 2008 – 2018
The action tasks are presented around seven themes:
A. Determine population abundance, trends and recovery
B. Identify important calving, feeding, and migratory areas
C. Prevent commercial whaling and/or the expansion of scientific whaling
D. Protect habitat important to the survival of the species
E. Monitor and manage the potential impacts of prey depletion due to over harvesting
F. Monitor climate and oceanographic change
G. Effort and funding issues
The action tasks are also rated in the order in which they require implementation based on whether they
address high, medium or low biodiversity priorities, are international commitments or are precursory
activities for other action tasks (Table 4). Implement 1st actions should be allocated more staff time
and funds over Implement 2nd and Implement 3rd actions. Implement 1st action tasks are highlighted
in bolded text.
Table 4. Rating system for implementation priorities
Implement Addresses high Need to International Timing
biodiversity priority occur first commitment
1st √ √ √ Work should be carried out and
completed within the first 5 years
2nd √ √ We should aim to initiate them within
5 years and complete within 10 years
3rd √ Need to be done as the opportunity
arises or in conjunction with other
work (at anytime) or if additional
resources are provided
17A. Determine population abundance, trends and recovery Threat – Lack of information
Wildlife disease
Action Task Lead Implement Costs
1 Design and implement a long-term census programme for coastal dolphins in key area(s), EPD, FC, SMSG 1st £10-30,000
using passive acoustic monitoring, visual surveys and photographic studies. External funding
2 Continue the collection of records and photographs of cetaceans in deep waters within observer FC, FIFD, MR 2nd 2 week salary for data storage
programmes, including those of the Fisheries, Mineral Resources and Falkland Conservation.
Records should be stored by Falklands Conservation and shared with other regional catalogues as
requested.
3 Continue the photographic study of killer whales at Sea Lion Island. FC 2nd 1 month salary, 2 weeks on Sea Lion
Island, 1 FIGAS flight, (1 international
flight?) = £3,500
4 Engage in all South Atlantic and Southern Ocean marine mammal survey processes to determine EPD to UK 3rd Not known
meaningful regional population estimates. External funding
5 Investigate basic biology, including age, fecundity, reproductive rate, including through use of FC 2nd Not known
stranded individuals. External funding
6 Gather information on population structures and limits – e.g. through the use of genetic analysis of FC 2nd £1,000 over 5 years
stranded individuals and museum specimens.
7 Where necessary, implement stranding plan, including standards for biological sampling of FC 1st EPD for transport costs, FIFD for
cetaceans. See Appendix 2 for more details. sampling materials and storage
8 Collate stranding records FC 1st 1 week for data storage
18B. Identify important calving, feeding, and migratory areas Threat – Lack of information
Action Task Lead Implement Costs
9 Engage in all South Atlantic and Southern Ocean marine mammal survey processes to gather information on EPD to UK 3rd Not known
movements, migrations and feeding grounds – e.g. through the use of satellite tracking, acoustic monitoring and other
survey methods.
10 Engage in all South Atlantic and Southern Ocean marine mammal survey processes to determine the values and EPD to UK 3rd Not known
characteristics of important migratory pathways and aggregation areas (calving, resting and feeding) particularly in
areas where human use is likely to impact upon the species.
C. Prevent commercial whaling and/or the expansion of scientific whaling Threat – Unsustainable deliberate extraction
Action Task Lead Implement Costs
11 UK should maintain its position on promoting high levels of protection for the species in all relevant international EPD to UK 1st No cost
agreements including the IWC, CITES, CMS, fisheries-related agreements and Antarctic Treaty Consultative
Meetings.
19D. Protect habitat important to the survival of the species Threat – Visitors/tourism
Pollution
Unsustainable bycatch
Action Task Lead Implement Costs
12 Nominate important locations for protection. EPD 3rd None
13 Ensure that the Falkland Islands Countryside Code is upheld. EPD, FITB, 1st None
landowners
14 Assess and manage acoustic disturbance – including the application of appropriate licence conditions under MR 1st None
the Offshore Minerals Ordinance.
15 Manage the potential impacts of tourism – e.g. to consider the need for watching regulations. EPD, FITB 2nd None
16 Assess and manage physical disturbance and development activities such as ship-strike, aquaculture, oil EPD, FIFD, MR 1st None
pollution and exploration and extraction industries, including the application of environmental impact
assessment where appropriate.
17 Identify types and origin of marine debris that contribute to cetacean mortality and seek reductions in their use and EPD, FIFD 2nd £2,000
disposal at sea.
18 Organise beach cleans of marine debris. FC 2nd None
19 Monitor issue of cetacean interactions with fisheries, particularly with longlines, including appropriate FIFD, FIFCA 2nd None
documentation and assessment.
20 Implement education programs to inform marine users (e.g. whale watchers, fishermen, and shipping crews using EPD 2nd £500, use of
important habitat) about best practice behaviours and regulations when interacting with whales. ESB funds
20E. Monitor and manage the potential impacts of prey depletion due to over harvesting Threat – Food removal
Action Task Lead Implement Costs
21 Improve knowledge of the feeding ecology of the species, and the ecology of prey species in order to determine if EPD, FIFD 2nd Not known
or when prey depletion becomes a threat, including sampling of stranded animals. External funding
22 UK should support the ecosystem approach for regional fisheries organisations and high seas management. EPD to UK 2nd None
F. Monitor climate and oceanographic change Threat – Climate change
Action Task Lead Implement Costs
23 Engage in all South Atlantic and Southern Ocean marine mammal research programmes which are investigating the EPD to UK 2nd Not known
effects of climate and oceanographic change on species populations to determine if species survival and recovery External funding
are being or are likely to be affected.
G. Effort and funding issues
Action Task Lead Implement Costs
24 Encourage researchers to focus on high priority projects through promotion and offering financial and EPD 1st None
operational support.
25 Ensure all research programmes operate under research licences if required. EPD 1st None
21Falkland Islands Species Action Plan for Cetaceans, 2008 – 2018
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25Falkland Islands Species Action Plan for Cetaceans, 2008 – 2018
9. Appendix 1 – Selection Criteria for Species and Habitat Action Plans
From – Chapter 3 ‘Environmental policies’ in Otley H, Munro G, Clausen A and Ingham B. 2008.
Falkland Islands State of the Environment Report 2008. Falkland Islands Government and Falklands
Conservation, Stanley.
Species and Habitat Action Plans
The following criteria will be used to select which species and habitats require action plans. These are
not mutually exclusive and a species may only have to be covered by one to qualify for consideration.
Given that some species and habitats in the Falkland Islands lack any robust population data, the extent
of a decline may need to be made by educated guesswork, especially where a historical decline is
suspected. The nature of the action plan will be determined by the need and potential for action to
promote favourable conservation status.
International Convention criteria (A)
A(i) Classified as Critically Endangered, Endangered, or Vulnerable;
A(ii) Annex I or Annex II species under Bonn Convention (Convention on Migratory Species) or
listed in the Agreement on the Conservation of Albatross and Petrel (ACAP);
A(iii) An Appendix I species under CITES (where other factors combine to enhance the level of
threat).
Conservation Status criteria (B and C)
B(i) A major decline of more than 50% in the last 25 years;
B(ii) A substantial historical decline (>75%) even when species population size has stabilised;
B(iii) Species inextricably linked with habitats that have declined by a substantial amount either
recently or historically;
C(i) Extremely rare or localised species under an identifiable threat;
C(ii) Species that are extinct in the wild or where there are reasonable grounds to believe that it is
extinct in the wild;
C(iii) Charismatic/endemic species that are under identifiable threat.
Selection Criteria for Habitats (D and E)
D(i) A major decline of more than 50% in the last 25 years;
D(ii) A substantial historical decline (>75%) even when habitat extent has stabilised;
E(i) Extremely rare or localised habitats under an identifiable threat;
E(ii) Habitats that are extinct in the wild or where there are reasonable grounds to believe that it is
extinct in the wild;
E(iii) Charismatic/endemic habitats that are under identifiable threat.
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