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Exploring saiga horn consumption in Singapore
M E R Y L T H E N G , J E N N Y A . G L I K M A N and E . J . M I L N E R - G U L L A N D
Abstract The Critically Endangered saiga antelope Saiga wildlife, causing rapid declines in the affected populations
tatarica faces an uncertain future, with populations dwin- (Mittermeier et al., ; Zhang et al., ; Bennett, ;
dling from epidemics in its range countries, and ongoing Ferreira et al., ). Understanding consumer behaviour
demand for its horns in the traditional Chinese medicine and motivations is a vital component in tackling this threat,
trade. Singapore is a major hub for the global trade in as it provides a foundation for the development of effective
saiga horn and an important consumer country, with long-term campaigns that reduce wildlife consumption
saiga horn products widely available in the domestic market. (Wasser & Jiao, ; Burgess, ).
Despite this, little is known about the consumers that drive Singapore has a history of wildlife consumption for me-
domestic demand. Before interventions are carried out, it is dicinal use (Martin, ; Barnard, ). Although there
important to understand who the consumers are, and their have been investigations into wildlife products for sale in
motivations. We conducted an investigation into consump- the traditional Chinese medicine market (Govind & Ho,
tion prevalence and consumer demographics, knowledge ; Ng & Burgess, ; Meibom et al., ), little
and motivations. We surveyed Chinese Singaporeans, work has been done to understand the local consumers
through a combination of face-to-face interviews and self- that drive the trade.
administered questionnaires. Recent consumption inci- Traditional Chinese medicine is regarded as being a part
dence (in the previous months) was relatively high, at of Singapore’s heritage and Chinese culture (Ministry of
%. Younger respondents (– years) had the highest Health, ), and as a form of complementary and alterna-
prevalence of recent consumption (%), often as a result tive medicine alongside Singapore’s Western-based health-
of influence from an older family member or friend. care system. Chinese medicine shops located within housing
Bottled saiga horn cooling water was the most popular prod- estates, and modern franchises in shopping malls, provide
uct among recent users (%), followed by horn shavings traditional medicinal products over the counter throughout
(%) and tablets (%). Awareness of conservation issues the country. The number of traditional Chinese medicinal
and regulations was uniformly low. Awareness raising may products from threatened animals available in Singapore
have an effect in reducing consumer demand in Singapore. appears to have decreased since the s as a result of re-
However, given the exploratory nature of this study, it is best duced domestic demand, trade bans on species listed on
used to guide and inform future research underlying behav- Appendix I of CITES (), higher penalties and increased
ioural change interventions in a relatively understudied but enforcement (e.g. in relation to rhinoceros and bear pro-
important consumer group, Chinese Singaporeans. ducts; Martin, ; Foley et al., ; AVA & Singapore
Customs, ; Theng & Krishnasamy, in press). One of
Keywords Horn, Saiga tatarica, Singapore, TCM, traditional
the few products that remains widely available is saiga
Chinese medicine, wildlife trade
horn (Theng & Krishnasamy, in press), known locally as
Supplementary material for this article is available at ling yang jiao, which is believed to be effective in reducing
https://doi.org/./S fevers, detoxification, assuaging epilepsy, and benefiting
the liver (Zang, ).
The horn used in ling yang jiao comes from the saiga
antelope Saiga tatarica, a nomadic herding species of the
Introduction steppes and semi-desert regions of south-eastern Europe
and Central Asia, of which there are two subspecies. Saiga
T he demand for animal products for medicinal purposes
is one of the major drivers of the illegal wildlife trade
globally, across a range of taxa (Warchol, ; Nijman,
tatarica tatarica occurs in Kalmykia, Russian Federation
(one population), and in Kazakhstan (three populations:
Ural, Ustiurt, Betpak-Dala), and S. tatarica mongolica
). This demand has led to the unsustainable killing of occurs in Mongolia. Once abundant (Sokolov & Zhirnov,
), populations have declined drastically, from . ,,
in the s to an estimated low of , in , largely
MERYL THENG (Corresponding author) TRAFFIC Southeast Asia, Petaling Jaya,
Selangor, Malaysia. E-mail meryltheng@gmail.com as a result of uncontrolled hunting for meat and horns
JENNY A. GLIKMAN Institute for Conservation Research, San Diego Zoo Global,
(Milner-Gulland et al., ; CMS, ). Horns are a key
California, USA target for poachers, as they are highly prized in traditional
E. J. MILNER-GULLAND Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK Chinese medicine (Chan, ). Consequently, males have
Received May . Revision requested September . been hunted intensively, resulting in heavily skewed sex ra-
Accepted October . First published online March . tios and reproductive collapse (Milner-Gulland et al., ).
Oryx, 2018, 52(4), 736–743 © 2018 Fauna & Flora International doi:10.1017/S0030605317001624
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https://doi.org/10.1017/S0030605317001624Saiga horn consumption in Singapore 737
Following conservation action the species started to recover, Methods
but a catastrophic mass die-off from bacterial infection of
. , individuals (. % of the global population) Pre-survey
in Kazakstan in May and an ongoing epidemic in
Mongolia (which may kill up to % of the Saiga A questionnaire was formulated in English and Mandarin
t. mongolica population) have undermined this recovery, (Supplementary Material ). Although vendors of tradi-
putting the Betpak-Dala and Mongolian populations in a tional Chinese medicine mentioned non-local purchasers
critical situation (Bonn, ; SCA, ). Together, the of saiga horn in an earlier market survey (specifically
disease outbreaks and the ongoing poaching, especially of tourists from mainland China; Theng & Krishnasamy,
males for their horns, have resulted in saiga antelopes facing in press), only local Chinese Singaporeans were surveyed.
an uncertain future (SCA, ). Non-Chinese people were excluded from the study to focus
To protect the species, it was listed on Appendix II of on the core demographic of users of traditional Chinese
CITES in . It was categorized as Critically Endangered medicine.
on the IUCN Red List in (Mallon, ). All saiga The questionnaire consisted of three parts. The first
range countries have implemented moratoria on hunting comprised questions about the respondent’s socio-
and trade of the species at various times during – demographic attributes, including consumption and pur-
, which effectively means that no export of saiga horn chase of traditional Chinese medicine. The respondents
is permitted from range countries until the species’ conser- were then categorized as either users (consumed saiga
vation status improves (CMS, ). Legal international horn product in the previous months) or non- or lapsed
trade in saiga horn remained high during –, at users (did not consume saiga horn product in the previous
, kg, the largest importers being China (, kg), months). Users completed Section A, comprising ques-
Singapore (, kg) and Japan (, kg; Meibom et al., tions about their consumption behaviour in relation to
). Singapore played an important role as the main saiga horn products, trends between past and present use,
hub of the saiga horn trade in South-east Asia, importing and motivations for consumption. Non- and lapsed users
mainly from the Russian Federation and Hong Kong completed Section B, containing questions about past use
and re-exporting mainly to China, Malaysia and Hong (. months previously) and motivations for non-
Kong (Meibom et al., ). A study focused on consumption or recent non-consumption of saiga horn pro-
Singapore’s international and domestic saiga horn trade ducts. Both sections included questions about the use of
found that although legal import of horns had declined by alternatives to saiga horn (synthetic, animal- or plant-based
% over the previous decade, Singapore’s stockpile of products) and the reasons for their use instead of saiga horn
horns continues to fuel high-quantity exports to Hong products. The questionnaire was revised following a pilot
Kong, China and Malaysia, and to supply the domestic survey of respondents in the Choa Chu Kang neighbour-
trade in saiga products (Theng & Krishnasamy, in press). hood conducted a month prior to this study.
Because of the domestic stockpile, consumption of saiga Based on several vendors in an earlier market survey
products is legal in Singapore, and products are displayed identifying elderly Chinese Singaporeans as their main local
and bought openly. Of the Chinese medical halls clientele for saiga horn products (Theng & Krishnasamy,
surveyed, % sold some form of saiga horn (whole horns, in press), we biased our sampling towards elderly people
shavings, cooling water, tablets, tea; Theng & Krishnasamy, (. years; % of our sample), with the middle-aged
in press), which was often displayed prominently and (– years) and young (– years) each comprising
spoken about openly by vendors. The ongoing availability % of respondents.
of the product in shops suggests there continues to be
a demand, prompting the need to gain an understand- Survey administration
ing of saiga horn consumption among the Singapore
populace. The questionnaires were completed by Singaporean re-
We attempted to gain an understanding of consumer spondents, and were either self-administered or adminis-
insights and awareness levels by surveying Chinese tered through face-to-face interviews by MT and an
Singaporeans to () gauge the prevalence of consumption assistant (both Chinese Singaporeans). In October and
of saiga horn products, () identify the demographics of November , survey sessions were conducted during
users, non-users and lapsed users of saiga horn products, .–. in nine public housing-dominated neighbour-
() identify consumption and purchase behaviours relating hoods (Bishan, Bukit Merah, Chinatown, Jurong East,
to saiga horn products, () identify the motivations and bar- Jurong West, Serangoon, Tampines, Woodlands, Yishun;
riers to consuming the products, and () gauge their level of Supplementary Fig. ). The locations and times were se-
understanding of the conservation status and harvest of the lected based on the likelihood of people from a variety of
saiga antelope. socio-economic backgrounds being available. Given
Oryx, 2018, 52(4), 736–743 © 2018 Fauna & Flora International doi:10.1017/S0030605317001624
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https://doi.org/10.1017/S0030605317001624738 M. Theng et al.
constraints of time and cost, potential respondents were tar- Users
geted based on their likely willingness to complete a ques-
tionnaire (e.g. someone waiting for a friend rather than The most commonly used saiga horn product was bottled
rushing to work). Respondents were instructed to complete ‘fresh’ saiga water (%), followed by shavings (%),
the questionnaire in their preferred language (English or bottled ‘supermarket’ saiga water (%) and tablets (%;
Mandarin), with interviewers present to clarify questions Plate ). Only one user had used a whole horn, which has
when required. Some respondents requested that questions to be shaved down and boiled before being consumed. In
be read aloud in an interview format. To minimize self- shops, horn shavings are usually sold in small amounts by
selection bias, potential respondents were asked if they weight or ready-packaged with herbs. Fresh saiga water is
were willing to participate in a general survey about trad- made out of horn shavings that have been boiled with
itional Chinese medicine, without describing the topic or in- water and packaged into bottles for sale in traditional
tent. To protect respondents’ anonymity and minimize Chinese medicine shops, for immediate consumption.
survey sensitivity, no personal data that could be used to This is different from supermarket saiga water, which is a
identify individuals were collected. We used the face-to-face widely available brand of cooling water that does not con-
approach because it garners better response rates than on- tain animal products and that consumers often mistake
line, mail or telephone surveys and is usually more represen- for containing ling yang jiao. Tablets usually contain saiga
tative of the population compared to online surveys (Groves horn in trace amounts of , % and are sold as remedies
et al., ; Szolnoki & Hoffmann, ). for cold and fever.
For most users, overall consumption had not changed in
the previous – years (%). Saiga horn products were ob-
Data analyses tained from a variety of sources: franchise/chain stores
(%), privately owned stores (%), family/friends (%)
Responses were accepted for analysis if the first section on and others (%). Regarding the users’ motivations for
demographics was completed. Statistical analysis of the sur- their most recent consumption of saiga horn, more young
vey data was performed using R v. .. (R Development people than middle-aged or older indicated that an elder
Core Team, ). Chi-square tests were used to determine or family member had bought it for them, and that it had
whether there was a significant difference between expected been recommended by a family member or friend (Fig. ),
and observed frequencies of consumption behaviour be- whereas higher numbers of middle-aged and old people
tween the groups. had made the decision themselves to consume saiga horn.
However, the differences were not statistically significant.
Fluctuations in price (by ± %) and not knowing any-
Results
one else who used saiga horn products did not appear to
We obtained responses from Chinese Singaporeans be considerations in consumption decisions among most
( elderly, middle-aged and young; female, users (Fig. ). Most respondents said they would stop con-
male). Overall, % had consumed saiga horn pro- suming saiga horn if these products were banned or if they
ducts recently (in the previous months), with an add- learnt that the harvest threatened the survival of saiga in the
itional % having consumed the product more than wild or was cruel.
months previously (lapsed users). Our data indicate a re-
lationship between age class and saiga horn use Lapsed/non-users
(χ = ., n = , df = , P = .), reflecting a higher
prevalence of recent consumption among younger people Among the respondents who had not consumed saiga
(– years; % prevalence) compared to middle-aged horn in the previous months, % had consumed it
(– years; % prevalence) and elderly people (. previously (i.e. lapsed users) and % had never consumed
years; % prevalence). it (i.e. non-users). Slightly more than half of the lapsed users
General traditional Chinese medicine consumption and had not consumed saiga horn in more than years (%),
purchase behaviours differed between the users and lapsed/ % had consumed it within the previous – years, and
non-users. Recent users of saiga horn product were more % had consumed it in the previous – years. No signifi-
likely to have also consumed and purchased other tradition- cant differences were found between the reasons given by
al Chinese medicinal products recently compared to lapsed/ lapsed and non-users for stopping/not consuming saiga
non-users of saiga horn product (consumption: vs %, horn, except that more non-users selected ‘elder/family
χ = ., n = , P = .; purchase: . vs .%, stopped buying for me’ (Fig. ). The most popular reason
χ = ., n = , P = .). There were no significant dif- given by lapsed and non-users for stopping/not consuming
ferences in gender, education level or income level between saiga horn was not having a use or need for it ( and %,
users and lapsed/non-users. respectively). Among the respondents who stated that
Oryx, 2018, 52(4), 736–743 © 2018 Fauna & Flora International doi:10.1017/S0030605317001624
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https://doi.org/10.1017/S0030605317001624Saiga horn consumption in Singapore 739
PLATE 1 Saiga horn products available in Singapore: (a) whole horns, (b) shavings, (c) tablets, (d) cooling waters, and (e) a brand of
cooling water available from supermarkets, which does not contain saiga horn.
people had stopped buying horn for them, there were sig- respondents were aware that there were regulations on
nificantly fewer old people than young and middle aged saiga horn trade (users: .%; lapsed: %; non-users: %; un-
(χ = ., P = .). categorised: .%). Of these, only two answered correctly
that only licensed products can be sold; did not know,
and answered incorrectly. Similarly, few were aware of
Reasons for using saiga horn or alternatives the status of the saiga in the wild, with % of all respon-
dents saying they did not know, and only % giving the cor-
The main reason for consuming saiga horn was significantly
rect answer (that the saiga occurs in several countries and
different among users, lapsed users and non-users
some populations are declining). A higher proportion of
(χ = ., n = , P = .e−; Fig. ). Among users and
respondents were aware that saiga are killed in the wild
lapsed users saiga horn is still widely believed to be effective
for their horns and meat, but awareness that this is the
as a coolant and for releasing toxins to cure related ailments
case was still low (%). The majority did not know or
such as fevers and sore throats (users: %; lapsed users:
did not want to comment about the harvest method
%). Among those who had not consumed saiga horn,
(%). When asked if they thought saiga horns could
% thought reducing ‘heatiness’ was the main reason
grow back after being cut off, a third of lapsed and non-users
others consumed it, but most indicated that they did not
correctly answered ‘no’ (%), and % of users answered
know or did not want to answer (%).
incorrectly.
There was no significant difference between the groups
in their use of alternatives (χ = ., n = , P = .;
Fig. ). Synthetic alternatives such as paracetamol appeared Discussion
to be the most popular alternative to saiga horn used in the
The main aim of this study was to explore the prevalence of
previous months (users: % users; lapsed/non-users:
saiga horn consumption among the Singaporean Chinese
%), followed by plant-based alternatives such as herbal
population and their motivations for doing so. On a broader
tea (users: %; lapsed/non-users: %), and none of the sta-
level, we wanted to understand general consumption and
ted alternatives (users: %; lapsed/non-users: %). None
purchase behaviours, and the level of knowledge about the
of the saiga horn users indicated use of an animal-based al-
status and conservation of the saiga. This is the first study of
ternative (e.g. horns from other species) and only three
the consumers of a wildlife product in Singapore and pro-
lapsed/non-users indicated their recent use of such an alter-
vides baseline information upon which further behavioural
native. Among the reasons given for the use of alternatives
intervention studies can be founded. As the study was con-
instead of saiga horn, the most cited among the users was
ducted only in neighbourhoods dominated by public hous-
that alternatives were more readily available than saiga
ing, our responses may be limited to low- to middle-class
horn (%). In the lapsed and non-user group the main rea-
citizens. Furthermore, given the small sample size and the
son was that they had not considered using saiga horn (%).
possibility of confusion of saiga with other horn products
(particularly when purchased as shavings), any trends
Awareness should not be taken to be a conclusive representation of
the volume of trade in saiga horn.
Awareness of the regulations regarding saiga horn use, the As expected from the availability of saiga products in the
species’ status and harvest methods was consistently low Singapore market (Theng & Krishnasamy, in press), there
across all user groups and ages. Only % (n = ) of all appears to be relatively high ongoing use of saiga horn
Oryx, 2018, 52(4), 736–743 © 2018 Fauna & Flora International doi:10.1017/S0030605317001624
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https://doi.org/10.1017/S0030605317001624740 M. Theng et al.
FIG. 2 The factors that Chinese Singaporean users of saiga horn
FIG. 1 Reasons for the most recent consumption of saiga horn products (n = ) reported would or would not lead to a change
among Chinese Singaporean users of saiga horn products in their personal consumption of those products.
(n = ), by age group.
FIG. 3 Reasons for stopping or not consuming saiga horn
FIG. 4 The main reasons for consumption of saiga horn
products, according to lapsed users (n = ) and non-users
products, according to users (n = ), lapsed users (n = ) and
(n = ) among a sample of Chinese Singaporeans. Respondents
non-users (n = ) among a sample of Chinese Singaporeans.
were allowed to select up to three reasons.
products in Singapore, and the trade does not appear to be products; however, this did not differentiate between pro-
in decline. Contrary to our assumption that the main local ducts depending on their specific target demographic (Liu
consumers of saiga horn are elderly, based on pre- et al., ). Several studies on the level of use of traditional
vious remarks by Chinese medicine vendors (Theng & Chinese medicine in Taiwan, and one in Australia, found a
Krishnasamy, in press), that age group had the lowest preva- similar trend, that use of traditional Chinese medicine
lence of recent consumption, followed by the middle-aged peaked in younger adults (c. years old) and was lowest
(– years) and the young (– years). The significant among older adults (– years old), although it is not
difference in use could be attributed to the general belief known why (Sherwood, ; Chen et al., ; Daly
that saiga horn is more effective in treating the young and et al., ; Shih et al., ). The same studies in Taiwan
that the cooling effects of the product may be detrimental found that females were more likely than males to use trad-
to the health of the elderly, a point made by several elderly itional Chinese medicine, a finding not reflected in our
respondents during the survey. The elderly may often pur- study. We found that recent users of saiga horn were
chase products for the consumption of their younger kin, as more likely than lapsed/non-users to have consumed and
a higher number of young respondents compared to both purchased other traditional Chinese medicinal products
the older age groups indicated as reasons for their most re- recently.
cent consumption that an elder or family member had pur- Our study suggests that consumption behaviour is not
chased saiga products for them or that a family member or particularly price sensitive. Previous studies have demon-
friend had recommended it. This suggests there may be strated a similar phenomenon, that consumers of traditional
some intergenerational influence on the consumption of Chinese medicine are willing to pay high prices for wild-
saiga horn, which could be leveraged in future behavioural sourced animal products because they believe that these
change campaigns. A similar study of the consumption of products are more potent (Gratwicke et al., ; Dutton
animal products in traditional Chinese medicine in et al., ). Saiga horn products are relatively expensive
Beijing found the reverse, that older people were more likely compared to the products they are grouped with in shops;
than younger people to consume animal-based medicinal for example, of the range of cooling waters routinely on
Oryx, 2018, 52(4), 736–743 © 2018 Fauna & Flora International doi:10.1017/S0030605317001624
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https://doi.org/10.1017/S0030605317001624Saiga horn consumption in Singapore 741
more widely available; however, a quarter of saiga horn
users said they did not use a substitute.
Given the exploratory nature of this study, our observa-
tions and suggestions are neither representative nor conclu-
sive. Future studies could explore promoting the use of
effective synthetic alternatives, which are cheaper and
more readily available than saiga horn, to treat fever, and
consumption of herbal tea to cool the body. There is a
need for a deeper understanding of the thought process in-
volved in deciding between the use of saiga horn or an alter-
native to treat an ailment, as conservation awareness alone
FIG. 5 Proportion of users (n = ), lapsed users (n = ) and may not drive behavioural change and subsequent demand
non-users (n = ) of saiga horn products, among a sample of reduction (Lertzman & Baragona, ). It is important to
Chinese Singaporeans, that consume various alternatives to saiga investigate the attitudes saiga horn users generally have to-
horn.
wards traditional Chinese medicine versus Western medi-
cine; for example, in Hong Kong some consumers of
sale, the majority cost c. SGD , compared to SGD for saiga traditional medicine perceive that Western medicine is
water (authors, pers. obs.). This may be because saiga water sometimes too powerful, with significant side effects, and
is generally considered to be particularly strong and effective prefer traditional medicine because it is believed to cure
as a cooling product (authors, pers. obs.). the root of the problem (Lam, ).
Awareness about regulations, status and harvest methods
relating to the saiga was low. Most respondents knew ling
yang jiao as a traditional Chinese medicinal product and Future research perspectives
understood its effects, but did not know much more than
that. Although this product is widely available and well This study was the first in Singapore to examine consumer
known among the local Chinese community in Singapore, relationships with a traditional Chinese medicinal product
there is a need to explain the harvesting methods used derived from a Critically Endangered species. Although sug-
and the status of the species, which may have an impact gestive findings emerged, the study was exploratory in na-
on consumer behaviour. According to respondents they ture. Sampling was opportunistic and focused on older
would be most likely to stop consuming saiga horn if the consumers, and the sample size was small. Despite the rela-
product was banned, if the practice caused the saiga to be tively high prevalence of saiga horn use, the number of re-
threatened or if harvest practices were cruel (Fig. ), indicat- cent users was small, and therefore any trends derived
ing potential for raising conservation awareness to reduce should not be considered to be a conclusive representation
demand. It has previously been argued that conservation of the population. Future surveys could be randomized to
awareness has an important impact on consumer behaviour improve representativeness. It will also be important to
in the wildlife trade context (Nowell & Xu, ; Wasser & examine whether saiga horn consumption is a sensitive
Jiao, ). It has been effective in decreasing the demand issue, potentially necessitating an indirect questioning
for shark fin in Singapore (WWF Singapore, ) and method (Nuno & St. John, ), and to investigate its
could also be leveraged to reduce the trade in saiga horn. price sensitivity.
A study in Beijing found that as conservation awareness This research is being used to guide and inform more de-
among survey respondents increased, they were more likely tailed research underlying behavioural change interven-
to choose substitutes and less likely to choose wild-sourced tions. This includes understanding the motivations and
animal-based traditional medicinal products (Liu et al., demographics of users of traditional Chinese medicine, to
). It appears that many of our respondents already use design and implement effective behavioural change cam-
alternatives to saiga horn, generally to cool the body and paigns. Too often, campaigns are implemented without a
cure related ailments such as fever. The use of horns from robust foundation in behavioural science (Olmedo et al.,
other species (i.e. water buffalo Bubalus bubalis, sheep ). This survey lays the foundation for a more detailed
Ovis aries and goat Capra hircus) as substitutes does not ap- understanding of the identity and attitudes of the consu-
pear to be popular, possibly because they are perceived as mers of a particularly important medicinal product, saiga
being too weak to cure ailments such as persistent fevers (ac- horn, in a relatively understudied but important consumer
cording to vendors) or are usually sold in the form of shav- group, Chinese Singaporeans. We have shown that saiga
ings rather than the more popular cooling waters (Theng & horn use is relatively prevalent, awareness of the conserva-
Krishnasamy, in press). The synthetic alternative (Western tion issues and relevant legislation is low, and younger peo-
medicine, e.g. paracetamol) is popular mostly because it is ple in particular are using saiga products, especially cooling
Oryx, 2018, 52(4), 736–743 © 2018 Fauna & Flora International doi:10.1017/S0030605317001624
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https://doi.org/10.1017/S0030605317001624742 M. Theng et al.
water. These results suggest that an awareness-raising cam- CMS (C O N V E N T I O N O N M I G R AT O R Y S P E C I E S ) () Third Meeting
paign that focuses on this demographic group and product of the Signatories to the Memorandum of Understanding Concerning
Conservation, Restoration and Sustainable Use of the Saiga Antelope
type may be a useful approach to reducing consumption of
Tashkent, Uzbekistan, – October . UNEP/CMS Secretariat,
saiga horn; such a campaign is now under development by Bonn, Germany.
E. J. Milner-Gulland and Hunter Doughty. It is also vital to CMS (C O N V E N T I O N O N M I G R AT O R Y S P E C I E S ) () Saiga Antelope:
investigate the prevalence and characteristics of the trade in National Reports. Memorandum of Understanding Concerning
saiga products in other countries and online, to tackle the Conservation, Restoration and Sustainable Use of the Saiga
Antelope. Http://www.cms.int/saiga/en/documents/
dearth of information about the trade in this Critically
national-reports/ [accessed October ].
Endangered species. D A LY , M., T A I , C.J., D E N G , C.Y. & C H I E N , L.Y. () Factors associated
with utilization of traditional Chinese medicine by white collar foreign
workers living in Taiwan. BMC Health Services Research, , .
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Joleen Chan for their assistance, and Dr Martin Fisher G OV I N D , V. & H O , S. () The Trade in Bear Gall Bladder and Bear
and two anonymous reviewers for providing invaluable Bile Products in Singapore. Animal Concerns Research and
Education Society, Singapore.
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