Dramatic Arts Integration Practices for Learning and Growth Across PK-12 Development
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The Journal of the Arts and Special Education 1(1), 64-104
@2019 The Division of Visual and Performing Arts Education of the Council of Exceptional Children
Dramatic Arts Integration Practices for Learning
and Growth Across PK-12 Development
Alida Anderson, American University, Washington, DC
Kathleen M. Farrand, Arizona State University
Christine Dobson, University of Kansas
Wendy P. Oakes, Arizona State University
Megan T. Deeg, Arizona State University
Liora Valero, The Lab School of Washington, DC
Abstract. This paper features three demonstrations of practice using dramatic and visual arts
approaches (DIPSI, Academic Club, and Hope Project) with preschool through secondary school
age students with exceptionalities. The first section provides a unifying theoretical background
for the use of these practices. The next section presents each of the three projects, including
their methods and main findings. The last section highlights the depth and breadth of these
approaches, and includes implications for research and practice to address improved access to
arts and special education for students with disabilities.
The purpose of this paper is to summarize preschool teacher and researchers, Farrand,
and synthesize three dramatic arts Oakes, and Deeg (Oakes, Farrand, & Troxel,
integration practices implemented across PK- 2017). The team examined the degree to
12 education settings that included students which the teacher was able to implement
with exceptionalities. These practices go dramatic inquiry with limited outside
beyond approaches found in conventional supports and focused on a professional
classroom settings and feature the use of learning partnership between the teacher
integrated dramatic and visual arts activities and researchers and the social validity of the
to promote learning and growth among dramatic inquiry intervention for the teacher
students. Using Dramatic Inquiry to Increase and students.
Student Engagement and Positive Social
Interactions (DIPSI), the first featured The second demonstration of practice
demonstration of practice, summarizes a presented in this article utilized Academic
special education teacher’s experience using Club (Smith, 2005), a visual- and performing-
dramatic inquiry with her preschool students arts integrated approach that researcher-
in a special education preschool classroom. practitioners Anderson and Valero (2019)
The collaborative team included the adapted to support middle-school students
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with language-based learning disabilities to understanding learner growth, highlighting
learn social studies content and social- strengths-based approaches to addressing
emotional skills. In the Academic Club, learners’ individual needs.
students learned social studies content
related to the Italian Renaissance period Drama-based pedagogies and
through in-role characterization and visual- theories of Vygotsky and Bakhtin. One
arts activities supporting academic drama-based pedagogy that is especially
vocabulary and reading comprehension. well suited for early childhood and
Students’ language and social-emotional elementary age populations is dramatic
skills were assessed using a mixed methods inquiry, an instructional approach in which
approach that included vocabulary, self- students and their teachers co-create real
report, and language sampling measures. and fictional worlds in the classroom
through the social imagination of play.
In the third practice snapshot, the Hope Participants use dramatization to explore
Project, practitioner-researcher Dobson used real-world types of problems and to develop
an arts-based intervention model to possible solutions (Edmiston, 2014).
measure changes in adolescents’ (Grades 6- Participants create these fictional worlds by
10) self-reported levels of hope. This incorporating students’ interests, building
demonstration of practice utilized multi- upon their background knowledge, and
media visual arts and theatre to promote engaging inquiry processes that are like what
connection and belonging among students in happens in the lives of people outside of the
a community setting and to highlight classroom. Similar to dramatic inquiry, in-
sociocultural dimensions of students’ role characterization and drama techniques
learning. such as ‘Mantle-Of-The-Expert,’ have been
used throughout elementary and adolescent
Theoretical Background and Supporting age students with learning and behavioral
Literature challenges to promote engagement and
The three featured demonstrations of access to content learning (Anderson, 2012;
practice are diverse in the populations they Bosch & Anderson, 2015). For example, the
serve and approaches they use, as well as in DIPSI project utilized Mantle-Of-The-Expert
their research methodologies; yet they to create fictional contexts for learning
intersect in their theoretical underpinnings. (Farrand, Oakes, & Deeg, in press); students
A robust literature base on dramatic arts took on roles as experts--a new, more
integration in educational settings supports powerful role than their traditional role as
these practices, as well as research on the students--to collaboratively solve a problem
use of dramatic arts approaches to reach (Heathcote & Bolton, 1995). The Academic
and teach individuals with exceptionalities Club used a similar approach, with middle
(see Anderson & Berry, 2018 for a review). school age students who had learning and
Findings from supporting literature bases attentional challenges taking roles from the
emphasize a developmental approach to Italian Renaissance and embracing their
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individual expertise while playing historical Drama-based pedagogies and
figures such as Galileo and Michelangelo. cognitive-linguistic engagement. The three
demonstrations of practice described in this
The theories of Mikhail Bakhtin and Lev paper are informed by research that has
Vygotsky broadly ground dramatic arts highlighted the value of dramatic arts
practices in social interactionism. In integration practices for increasing
particular, Bakhtin’s (1981) concept of educational opportunities, showing reliable
dialogism relates to how students build upon causal relationships between dramatic arts
the ideas of others through constant activities and verbal skills (Baum, Owen, &
dialogue and negotiation and is similar to Oreck, 1997; Catterall, 2002, 2009; Hetland
the Vygotskian theory of linguistic & Winner, 2000; Podlozny, 2000), especially
interaction as the cornerstone of language-, for students with exceptionalities, as well as
cognitive-, and social-development. These those from low socioeconomic and English
projects feature the use of dialogism, in language learning backgrounds (Anderson &
which students collaborate and brainstorm Loughlin, 2014; Ingram & Seashore, 2003;
possible solutions to problems through their Robinson, 2013). In particular, the Academic
new and unique perspectives (i.e., as self- Club approach draws on research supporting
selected experts or characters in role). They the relationship between dramatic arts
work “as one consciousness, voice, or activities and specific literacy skills, such as
perspective answers another, searching for students’ reading comprehension, oral and
meaning while connecting to prior written language production, and
understanding in the real world and/or in a perspective taking (Anderson, 2012; Hoyt,
real-and-imagined world” (Edmiston, 2014, 1992; Mason & Steedly, 2006; Podlozny,
p. 8). Vygotskian theory also suggests that 2000; Rose, Parks, Androes, & McMahon,
while working to solve problems together, 2001) for students with and without
students are engaged in activities within exceptionalities (for a review, see Anderson,
their zone of proximal development (i.e., Lee, & Brown, 2017). Dramatic arts
optimally challenging activities where integrated learning contexts that utilize
students can do more with the support of specific drama conventions have been linked
others than they can do alone) and draw to improvements in students’ critical and
upon multiple tools (e.g., language, music, creative thinking skills (e.g., ‘studio thinking,’
visual support, movement, gestures) to Hetland, Winner, Veenema, & Sheridan,
make meaning and solve problems 2007), which is another dimension of the
(Vygotsky, 1978). Thus, dramatic arts three featured practices. For example, with
practices provide a method for teachers to dramatic role play, students may select an
expand the tools for meaning making, while historical figure and assume its identity using
providing students with increasingly diverse body, voice, and mind to express and
ways to demonstrate their knowledge participate in episodes, vignettes, or points
(Edmiston, 2014). in time (Heathcote & Bolton, 1995). In this
approach, students take on roles as experts
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who share knowledge, use contextual clues, engagement in arts-integrated learning
and both high frequency and content area contexts to address the comorbid needs of
vocabulary to create scenes (Clyde, 2003; students with exceptionalities (see Anderson
Paul, 2002). Students use gestures and body et al., 2017 for a review).
language to reinforce their understanding of
historical figures’ intentions, thoughts, and Above and beyond a desire to use dramatic
actions. These experiences enable students arts in classrooms and community settings
to communicate concretely their mental to promote and sustain individualized
representations of dramatic elements (e.g., learning outcomes, the three featured
text, character, character’s feelings; demonstrations of practice align pedagogies
Brouillette, 2010). that create opportunities for shared social
and emotional engagement (Lincoln,
Social-emotional engagement and González, & González, 2008). For example,
drama-based pedagogies. The the third featured demonstration of practice,
demonstrations of practice featured in this The Hope Project, incorporated the lived
paper address students’ social-emotional experiences of students as material relevant
engagement and are supported by research for study and exploration in order to foster
that shows how language and literacy fully inclusive spaces for students (Kozleski &
learning are mediated through cognitive and Waitoller, 2010). Hope Project practitioner-
emotional-behavioral engagement researcher Dobson and her students
(Anderson, 2015b; Anderson & Berry, 2014; collaborated to discover stories of societal
Burnaford, 2007; Catterall, 2009; Eisner, inequity and marginalization, while building
1998). These practices are supported by a narratives of empowerment, thereby
model of interrelated linguistic-cognitive and responding to and transforming students’
emotional-behavioral engagement learning landscape.
(Anderson, 2015b), in which students’
learning experiences are transformed by The Hope Project, as well as Academic Club
providing an alternative to conventional and DIPSI, reflect the idea that change is
learning contexts that tend to exacerbate possible if research is informed
their environmental and learning difficulties collaboratively through practice that is
and pose motivational challenges (Anderson, grounded in naturalistic inquiry about
2015; Anderson & Berry, 2015). Although experiences of the participants themselves
previous research (Anderson, 2012; Cornett, (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). For example, the
2007; Gillam, Gillam, & Reece, 2012; see Academic Club approach positioned
Deasy, 2002 for a review) has shown that teachers, students, and researchers as co-
dramatic arts integration practices support creators of the dramatic arts environment, in
students’ linguistic and behavioral which they learned collaboratively and
engagement differentially, few studies to shared expertise through in-role
date have examined the interrelationships characterization and creation. In the DIPSI
between cognitive-linguistic and behavioral project, dramatic inquiry was grounded in
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the real contexts and interests of the 2. What do teachers and students think
students. In the Hope Project, the about the use of dramatic inquiry in the
collaboration between the researcher and classroom?
student participants emphasized student
participation and an approach of Participants and setting. In her
“researching-with” rather than “researching- fourth year as an early childhood special
for” that shaped the project’s participatory educator, the participating teacher, Marie,
action methodology (Fine & Ruglis, 2009; taught 17 students in an inclusive preschool
Freire, 1970). classroom. Marie reached out to the
researchers because she was interested in
Demonstration of Practice Snapshots learning about the research process and
This section provides a detailed summary of learning how she could best support
each demonstration of practice’s methods students’ engagement in class. She was
and findings. First, the DIPSI early childhood interested in trying dramatic inquiry as a class
practice using dramatic inquiry is presented. wide approach for circle time instruction. The
Next, the Academic Club approach using university’s Institutional Review Board, school
dramatic arts with elementary age students district, and principal approved the research
is presented. Last, the Hope Project involving project prior to researchers obtaining consent
theatre with adolescents is presented. from educators and parents. Seven of the
students were girls, and students ranged in
DIPSI: Dramatic Inquiry in the Early age from 3.3 to 5.7 years old (median = 4.6
Childhood Special Education Classroom years). The inclusive classroom included three
The purpose of this demonstration of African American students, seven Caucasian
practice was to examine the use of dramatic students, and seven Hispanic students.
inquiry by a special education preschool Fourteen students were identified by the
teacher in collaboration with a research district preschool multidisciplinary team as
team. The project examined implementation having communication delays such as apraxia,
fidelity and social validity of dramatic inquiry articulation delays, or specific language
for supporting young children’s engagement impairments. To select focus students for this
in learning and increasing social interactions study, Marie reviewed classroom data
and opportunities to respond to instruction. including students’ Individualized Education
Farrand, Oakes, and Deeg asked the Programs (IEPs) for related social and
following research questions: emotional goals and Teaching Strategies Gold
(Heroman, Tabors, & Teaching Strategies,
1. To what degree can the preschool 2010). After reviewing the data, Marie
special education teacher implement identified four boys and one girl who she
dramatic inquiry practices given limited thought would benefit from additional
outside support? support to increase engagement in circle
time, because these five students all
demonstrated difficulty consistently
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participating and sustaining attention in engaged in process drama strategies that
whole group activities. allow students and their teachers to imagine
themselves in different roles as they
This study was implemented in an inclusive, construct knowledge together in real and
afternoon-session, preschool classroom for fictional contexts created in the classroom.
students identified with communication
delays and their peers without disabilities. For this study, the research team
The school utilized a morning and afternoon incorporated the process drama strategy
preschool model in which students attended referred to as the Mantle-Of-The-Expert
classes four half-days a week. There was no (Heathcote & Bolton, 1995) to frame
school on Wednesdays to accommodate IEP students as experts (e.g., entomologists;
meetings, student screenings, and teacher authors) who were commissioned to solve a
planning and professional learning. The specific real-world problem (e.g., local
classroom was located in a rural public farmers needed help to figure out how to
school district in the Southwestern United stop insects from eating their crops; a local
States. The study took place in the afternoon publishing company needed help creating a
class during circle time (~30 mins). Typical book on ocean life) ( See Table 1.) Then,
business-as-usual instruction followed a using specific active and dramatic inquiry
predictable routine and lessons often strategies, teachers and their students
focused around a color and letter of the collaborated in and out of role to explore
week. The routine included selecting jobs, solutions to the problem (See Table 2).
saying the Pledge of Allegiance, naming days
of the week and weather, counting friends, Dramatic inquiry strategies, such as Mantle-
reviewing the question of the day, taking a of-the-Expert, have been shown to benefit
‘wiggle’ break, sound practice, singing the students with disabilities because they can
articulation song, and having story time. collaborate with peers and engage in a
variety of learning modes (e.g. spoken
Intervention. The intervention to language, objects, movement, and music) to
promote active student engagement was an support meaning-making (Edmiston, 2007).
instructional approach called dramatic Thus, dramatic inquiry practices offer a way
inquiry. Dramatic inquiry encourages for teachers to expand the use and variety of
students and their teachers to co-create real tools used for meaning-making, providing
and fictional contexts in which to explore students with diverse ways to engage in
real-world type problems and develop learning and demonstrate knowledge
possible solutions through dramatic play (Edmiston, 2014).
(Edmiston, 2014). This approach stems from
Dorothy Heathcote’s work with process Procedures. Marie taught two
drama (i.e., drama focused on the learning dramatic inquiry units with lessons during
process rather than on developing a regular circle time using the Mantle-Of-The-
theatrical production). Students are Expert approach (Heathcote & Bolton, 1995)
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Table 1. Mantle of the Expert Approach
Mantle of the Entomologist Unit Authors Unit
Expert Elements
Fictional context Teacher and students agree to Teacher and students agree to
pretend that their classroom is an pretend their classroom is an
Entomology Lab. Teacher uses Authors’ Workshop. Teacher uses
classroom materials to set up the classroom materials such as varied
fictional lab such as magnifying writing materials, topical reference
glasses, insects in various settings books, and student-written books
for examination, and testing ideas. to set up the fictional workshop.
Team Entomologists Authors
Frame/expertise Teacher and students have Teacher and students have
expertise as entomologists. expertise as authors.
Commission Farmers need help with learning A publishing company needs
about the insects eating their authors to create a book for young
crops in order to identify how to children on ocean life.
safely get rid of the insects.
Client Local farmers Publishing company
Source. Adapted from Aitken (2013).
and dramatic strategies. Researcher Farrand each lesson, Marie put on a lab coat and
designed the dramatic inquiry activities and children ‘stepped into the lab.’ This action
content using student interests identified by cued students that they were transforming
Marie. The researcher and Marie met before from students to expert entomologists. To
and after each unit to discuss and model begin the unit, the teacher presented the
strategies, lessons, activities, and materials, commission to students. She shared a letter
but Marie did not receive additional outside from a fictitious local farmer who was asking
support (i.e., daily coaching or feedback) for help with insects who were eating his
during the implementation of the dramatic crops. Students engaged in the entomology
inquiry units. Marie used outlines for each unit with daily activities in which they
day of the approximately 8-day units that learned about insects to help the farmer
included suggested activities aligned with (Farrand, 2017). As examples, students
preschool standards and students’ IEP goals. participated in learning through movement
(e.g., How do you think a cricket hops
During the first unit, circle time became an through the farmer’s fields?). The student
entomology laboratory where students took entomologists sang songs with motions to
on the expert role of entomologists. To start explore how insects moved and what they
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ate. At the end of the first unit, parents laboratories as they collaborated alongside
entered the entomology lab and stepped in- their peers to make meaning and to solve
role as farmers to engage actively in learning problems for a fictional client. The dramatic
alongside their children about the ways they inquiry units also provided families with an
could solve their insect problem. opportunity to step-in-role as farmers and
publishers to participate in dramatic play
Throughout the second unit, students alongside their child.
became authors commissioned by a
publishing company to create a book about Design. In this initial study of
marine life for young children and their dramatic inquiry in inclusive preschool
families. Then, students-in-role as authors classrooms, the research team was
along with their teacher-in-role as an author interested in exploring the degree to which
worked together to learn about ocean the teacher was able to implement the
animals and plants while they brainstormed dramatic inquiry strategies and the
ways to create an engaging book for perception of the teacher and students
students and families. Marie invited parents about dramatic inquiry. To address research
to step-in-role at the end of this unit as question one, Marie and a research team
publishers to listen to students-in-role as member completed a treatment integrity
authors read the ocean book that they measure for each lesson. The team used
created. descriptive statistics to compute the daily
and unit mean for the teacher and each
Taking on these expert roles, students participating student. The measure was a
stepped outside of their student roles and component checklist of the major elements
engaged in perspective taking. They of dramatic inquiry scores for presence or
experienced learning through inquiry to absence of each element (discussed below).
solve a problem that was specific to their To address research question two, Marie and
interests (insects and ocean animals) and the target students in her classroom
contextually authentic. They explored completed social validity surveys before the
learning and conveyed their knowledge and entomologist unit and upon completion of
ideas through movement, spoken language, the authors’ unit.
singing, drawing, moving manipulatives,
pointing, and hand motions-–all ways of Measures. A treatment fidelity
showing what they knew was valued. Two checklist was used to assess fidelity of
specific dramatic inquiry strategies that Marie’s dramatic inquiry implementation
promoted the use of multiple modes of (Barton, Meaden-Kaplansky, & Ledford,
response are stepping-in-role and move like 2018). It included major components of the
a character (See Table 2). Dramatic inquiry dramatic inquiry intervention (adapted from
transformed the learning space through the Oakes, Lane, Jenkins, & Booker, 2013). Marie
children’s imagination in their fictional recorded her observations of 16 teacher
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Table 2. Dramatic Inquiry Strategies and Examples from Authors’ Unit
Drama Strategy/ Example Providing Differentiation
Description
Stepping-in-Role: The teacher begins by placing Students who may have difficulty
Teachers and/or a lanyard around her neck saying the word author are invited
students signal with a with a pen and tells students to make the visual cue of putting
sound effect, that when she puts on her on their lanyards and making the
movement, or specific lanyard she is stepping-n-role ‘a’ sound for author. The visual
action that they are as an author. Next, the cue lets all students and adults
about to step-in-role teacher invites students to know that the individual is
and take on a fictional put on their lanyards and say entering the fictional space
role as an expert that is “author” to signal that they created in the classroom to taking
designed based on the are stepping-in-role to on an expert role for inquiry
context for the inquiry. become expert authors. learning.
Move like a character: Teachers and students step in All participants are invited to use
Students and teachers role as fish to swim in the multiple modes, such as
take on a role to fictional ocean space created movement, sound, and sight to
experience and identify in their classroom. They move understand and explore the
how the character, their hands like a fish as they perspective of the character they
animal, or object swim around the classroom. are becoming for this strategy.
moves. Students are able to use different
parts of their body and select the
mode or modes that they want to
use to experience and participate.
Source. Adapted from Oakes, Farrand, and Troxel (2017).
items and 14 student items. Some examples purposefully omitted (7). Researchers
are Teacher positioned students with calculated scores by dropping omitted items,
authority by labeling them as an expert using summing all expected items, dividing by total
the dramatic context of the lesson; Teacher number of expected items, and multiplying
joined in and pretended with students. by 100 for a percentage of expected, not
Teacher adapted the physical space purposefully omitted items.
(removed chairs or furniture, moved
furniture to create small groups or A research team member observed and
structures, used existing space to create a independently scored 100% (n = 15) of
fictional space of text; (See Table 3). Items lessons using the same treatment integrity
were marked as expected and not completed protocol as Marie. Researchers calculated
(0), expected and completed (1), or interobserver agreement (IOA) using a point-
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Table 3. Example Fidelity Checklist Items and Sample Coding By Score
Item to be Observed Completed Item (1) Not Completed Item (0)
Teacher positioned Teacher referred to each Teacher referred to everyone
students with authority by student as ‘author’ preceding collectively as authors when
labeling them as an expert their name (e.g., Author they first stepped in-role, but
using the dramatic context Rosie) throughout the entire then used only their first names
of the lesson. in-role experience to position throughout the lesson.
students as expert authors.
Teacher joined in and Teachers and students, in-role Students, in-role as fish, swam
pretended with students. as fish, swam around the around the classroom, while
classroom. Teacher modeled the teacher watched students
the movement. from the circle time rug.
Teacher adapted the Teacher told the class to swim Teacher told students to swim
physical space (removed around the ocean as fish. She like fish in their spots on the
chairs or furniture, moved encouraged students to go carpet. Although she allowed
furniture to create small beyond the circle-time carpet them to imagine they are fish,
groups or structures, used to imagine they are freely they were restricted to the
existing space to create a swimming in the ocean. typical classroom space for
fictional space of text). circle time.
Source. Fidelity checklist adapted from Oakes et al. (2012). See Oakes et al. (2012) for the
example form.
by-point method. The research team Menzies, Ennis, & Oakes, 2015). To minimize
computed the number of agreements concerns with the accuracy of self-report
divided by the sum of agreements and measures by young children with disabilities,
disagreements multiplied by 100. IOA was Marie administered the survey to each
82.14% (SD = 12.24) and 59.82% (SD = 12.24) participating student individually by reading
for units 1 and 2, respectively, with an each of the seven questions aloud and
overall average of 70.98% (SD = 18.08). Due asking students to color in a smiley face to
to the low agreement, both teacher- and show their level of agreement on a 6-point
researcher-reported fidelity scores are scale (1 = sad face to 6 = happy face). The
reported in the results section to follow. research team interpreted student surveys in
conjunction with students’ comments about
Target students completed social validity the lessons for a better understanding of
surveys after the introduction of the their feelings about the dramatic inquiry
entomology unit (pre) and after the end of intervention. Items included I think I will like
the author unit (post; adapted from Lane, learning through drama. Some items were
73ARTS AND SPECIAL EDUCATION FALL 2019
negatively phrased and so were reverse First, the intervention strategy choices may
coded. Scores ranged from 7 to 42 with have been too great, adding additional
higher scores indicating greater acceptability. complexity to the intervention (Baker,
Marie completed an adapted Intervention Kupersmidt, Voegler-Lee, Arnold, &
Rating Profile – 15 (Lane et al., 2015; Witt & Willoughby, 2010). The complexity of the
Elliott, 1985) pre (after consenting) and post intervention may have led to Marie feeling a
(after conclusion of the second unit). The 15 lack of confidence in her use of the overall
items are rated on a Likert-type scale from 1 intervention and its specific elements.
(strongly disagree) to 6 (strongly disagree). Future studies could explore intervention
Total scores ranged from 15 to 90 with fidelity with fewer dramatic strategy choices
higher score indicating greater acceptability or with the introduction of one strategy at a
of the intervention goals, procedures and time to build the teacher’s fluency.
outcome.
Second, teacher and student interest in
Findings and discussion. The first content could influence treatment fidelity
research question was, to what degree can between the two units. The topic or related
the preschool special education teacher activities for the authors’ unit may not have
implement dramatic inquiry practices with been as interesting to Marie or the students
limited outside support (i.e., initial training as the insect unit. In this practice
and materials but without ongoing demonstration, the research team measured
coaching)? The teacher-completed fidelity pre- and post-intervention social validity
scores ranged from 62.50 to 87.50% (M = across both units; however, future studies
77.50; SD = 9.38) for the insect dramatic could measure social validity for each unit to
inquiry unit (7 lessons) and 18.75 to 68.75% explore the influence of interest on
(M = 46.88; SD = 25.22) for the oceans implementation (Lane et al., 2009).
author unit (8 lessons). Researcher-
completed fidelity data also showed the Third, Marie expressed difficulty with
insect unit was implemented with higher shifting regular routines in order to
fidelity (M = 92.86; SD = 4.31; range = 87.5 to implement dramatic inquiry. For example,
100%) than the oceans author unit (M = Marie began by inviting students to step-in-
81.25; SD = 14.56; range = 50.00 to 93.75%). role and become experts with her to begin
This data showed Marie’s difficulty in fully circle time, and she and completed one or
implementing all elements of the dramatic two activities connected to the theme, such
inquiry activities, with all teacher-reported as walk like a character where students were
scores below the ideal 90% implementation invited to swim like a fish. However, Marie
level to have confidence in any measured retained circle time routines unrelated to the
student outcomes (thus, student outcomes inquiry, such as calendar or choosing jobs.
are not reported for this study). There are While preschool circle time routines may be
several potential reasons for lower than theme-based, an important mechanism for
ideal fidelity. engagement is the connection to the inquiry
74COUNCIL FOR EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN
(Aitken, 2013). For example, students sharing their opinions with more experience
discussed the size of different ocean in the learning activities. Marie shared that
animals; connection to the inquiry would “students came to class excited every day.”
extend this activity to relate animal size She also shared that parents commented,
directly to the inquiry question for the unit. “My child wants to be an entomologist and
Future research could address how an author when he gets older” and “My
additional coaching supports, such as daily child showed me how to step into her role.”
email or co-teaching, might increase Readers should interpret students’ social
implementation fidelity and support validity scores with caution, as young
teachers in rethinking and reteaching children’s self-report scores may not be an
conventional early childhood classroom accurate reflection of their true feelings.
routines to enhance connections to the Consistent with research on self-report
inquiry process. measures broadly, self-report of social
validity may also be influenced by social
The second research question was, what do desirability; that is, the participant wanting
teachers and students think about the use of to report a favorable feeling (e.g., teacher to
dramatic inquiry in the classroom? Marie researchers, students to teacher). Future
rated the dramatic inquiry intervention as research should consider utilizing multiple
acceptable (i.e., mean score of 5, agree, or measures to examine social validity of the
greater) with a score of 87 (96.67%; item M intervention from multiple stakeholders’
= 5.80; SD = 0.40). Although the post- perspectives, including parents’.
intervention score was slightly lower (83;
92.22%; item M = 5.53; SD = 0.50); the score Issues of treatment integrity and social
indicates an overall favorable perception of validity are central to the work of promoting
the intervention (Wolf, 1978). As stated new practices within classroom settings. This
previously, future research could examine study highlights the need for considering
social validity from the teacher after each implementation data prior to making
unit to see if views vary based on the topic decisions about the effect of the
of interest for both teachers and students. intervention on student learning and
This may also inform issues of fidelity, as engagement outcomes. Findings also
social validity is a predictor for fidelity (Lane indicate that traditional professional learning
et al., 2009). (e.g., workshops or presentations, access to
materials) may be insufficient to promote
Students expressed hesitancy about the change in practices, even with highly
intervention initially, as indicated by pre- motivated teachers. Coaching and other
intervention social validity scores (M = ongoing supports may be needed for
26.80; SD = 7.60). Post-intervention social teachers to feel confident in their knowledge
validity scores suggested the intervention about and use of new practices.
exceeded students’ expectations (M = 33.40;
SD = 3.65) or that they felt more confident in
75ARTS AND SPECIAL EDUCATION FALL 2019
Academic Club Approach and Students’ school in the mid-Atlantic region of the U.S.
Linguistic and Social-Emotional Engagement The research team explored two dimensions
Similar to the collaborative research- of engagement: (a) cognitive-linguistic
practitioner team in the DIPSI practice, engagement, in which students understand
Anderson and Valero (2019) examined the and use complex vocabulary; and (b)
influence of a visual and performing arts emotional-behavioral engagement, in which
integrated social studies intervention on students show self-efficacy, interest, and on-
students’ linguistic engagement. In this task behavior during academic tasks.
practice, the influence of the intervention Students with language-based LD have been
was measured by academic language skills considered among those at highest risk for
(i.e., expressive language productivity and school failure due to struggles in acquiring
receptive vocabulary). Students’ social- language and literacy (Bridgeland, Dilulio, &
emotional engagement and arts skills were Morison, 2006; Scott, 2004) and academic
also assessed. Participants were middle- language (Westby, 1994).
school aged students with language-based
learning disabilities (LD). Language-based LD The teacher, Ms. Valero, had 10 years of
refers to primary difficulties with teaching experience as a classroom teacher
understanding and/or using verbal or written and as a visual and performing teaching
language (Swanson, Harris, & Graham, artist. She collaborated with the research
2013). Researcher Anderson and practitioner team to develop all intervention procedures
Valero investigated whether Academic Club and measures over 25 weeks. The research
participation supported students with LD to team included the researcher, Ms. Valero
(a) learn grade-level social studies academic and a master’s level graduate research
vocabulary, (b) improve their expressive assistant, who conducted interviews,
language skills, and (c) improve their transcribed, coded, and analyzed all data
learning attitudes toward arts and social collected in the study. Student participants
studies content learning. This project’s included 25 fifth graders (12 boys, 13 girls)
primary research question was whether between ages 11 and 12 (M = 11.2, SD = 0.5)
participation in Academic Club over an 8- who (a) were identified as having a specific
week period influenced the academic language-based LD; (b) had specific
language (receptive and expressive) of fifth- academic language and/or vocabulary goals
grade students with language-based LD. in their IEPs; (c) had IQ scores of 85 or
above; and (d) exhibited frequent off-task
Participants and setting. The project behaviors such as calling out, interrupting,
focused on the integrated use of visual getting out of seat, and not following
(perspective drawing) and dramatic arts directions. Table 4 summarizes the cognitive
(Mantle-Of-The-Expert, Reader’s Theatre, and linguistic descriptive characteristics of
and Tableau) strategies across four self- participating students.
contained classrooms taught by Ms. Valero
at an urban, self-contained, nonpublic day
76COUNCIL FOR EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN
Table 4. Means and Standard Deviations of full-scale IQ, Verbal Comprehension, Perceptual
Reasoning, Working Memory, Processing Speed, and Visual-Motor Integration Scores of
Participating Students with Language-Based Learning Disabilities.
Female Male
(N=15) (N=10)
Mean SD Range Mean SD Range
Age (in years) 12.13 .51 11.1-12.1 12.23 .66 11.1-12.3
WISC-IV Full Scale IQ 104.54 10.48 89-119 99.44 11.48 86-118
Verbal Comprehension 108.6 9.99 95-121 106.4 17.61 89-128
Perceptual Reasoning 104.27 11.78 84-119 100.7 11.98 82-121
Working Memory 96.8 10.73 74-110 91.6 12.46 74-116
Processing Speed 101.3 12.85 78-126 87.6 10.32 73-103
Visual-Motor Integration 88.5 8.6 66-102 84.22 6.11 75-94
Note: All scores are standard scores with a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15.
Intervention. The Academic Club The Academic Club classroom was
approach is a cornerstone of the curriculum transformed into a themed space by club
at the elementary school where the study members, in which students participated in
took place. Academic Clubs (Smith, 2005) are project-based and simulated explorations of
known to embed highly structured, multi- history, literature, geography, science,
sensory (visual, auditory, tactile, and archaeology, and sociology, through visual
kinesthetic) learning activities within a and performing arts activities. The
simulated historical time and place to teach instructional text of Dante’s Inferno was the
targeted social studies content (e.g., Italian focus of the drama practice demonstration.
Renaissance, Middle Ages, American This unit comprised an 8-week intervention
Revolution). Students enact roles of major period that featured the use of drama
historical figures and learn about the history strategies (Mantle-Of-The-Expert, previously
and events of the period through the described; and Tableau, or pictures frozen in
perspective of their characters/figures. The time and space using bodies, see Figure 1) to
Club cultivates collaboration through understand and enact concepts from social
participant membership and ownership, as studies text of Dante’s Inferno and visual
students and teachers take on significant arts.
historical and cultural roles within time
periods such as the Italian Renaissance (e.g., For example, students created perspective
Galileo Galilei, Leonardo da Vinci). paintings (see Figure 2) and visual guides
(see Figure 3) corresponding with Dante’s
Inferno to understand and recall key
77ARTS AND SPECIAL EDUCATION FALL 2019
Figure 1. Students Creating Tableau to Show Understanding of Vocabulary through Enactment
Figure 2. Progression of Student-Created Perspective Paintings from Photographs to
Watercolor Paintings.
78COUNCIL FOR EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN
Figure 3. Student-Created Visual Guide of Key Concepts and Vocabulary from Dante’s Inferno.
refine their visual guides corresponding with
targeted concepts from the reading and
vocabulary, with teacher feedback. In Weeks
7-8, students created props, scenery,
costumes, and scripts for their character-
based dramatic enactments, completed their
visual guides, and participated in interviews
with the research team.
Design and data analytic procedures.
This mixed-methods design involved
language sampling, vocabulary, and self-
report measures across the intervention
period to understand the relationship
between the arts learning context, cognitive-
linguistic engagement, and emotional-
academic concepts (e.g., technological behavioral engagement for students with
innovations, key themes from Dante’s comorbid learning and behavioral
Inferno). challenges.
The following chart (Table 5) shows the Measures. The research team
intervention sequence using the dramatic interviewed students while in role on social
approaches. studies content as well as on their
experience and feelings about dramatic arts
During Weeks 1-2, Ms. Valero introduced and social studies at the beginning and end
students to Mantle-Of-The-Expert and of the 8-week intervention period. The
tableau to target expressive language interviews lasted between 3-5 minutes (M =
through highly contextualized activities using 4.5, SD = .24) in length in week 1; and
bodies, gestures, expressions, and props to between 4-6 minutes (M = 5.8, SD = .33) in
convey ideas. In Weeks 3-4, students week 8. Students completed a 20-item
developed two-dimensional visual guides to vocabulary assessment at the beginning and
accompany their reading and enacting of end of the intervention period (see Appendix
Dante’s Inferno, along with enacting scenes A). The assessment included grade-level and
in-role from the Renaissance using key social studies vocabulary that corresponded
vocabulary terms. In Weeks 5-6, students with visual guides and dramatic enactments.
developed and performed tableau to depict Students completed self-reports of their
story and action sequences from the social learning attitudes towards social studies and
studies text. They continued to develop and arts at the beginning and end of the
79ARTS AND SPECIAL EDUCATION FALL 2019
Table 5. Sequence of Academic Club Intervention Lessons Integrating Visual and Dramatic Arts
Weeks Arts Activities Contextualized Language Activities Outcomes
1-2 • Mantle-of-the- • Use of bodies, gestures, • Receptive language
Expert expressions, and props to (vocabulary, concepts)
• Tableau convey concepts and ideas.
3-4 • Visual Guide • Reading/enacting Dante’s • Expressive language (use
Inferno of key vocabulary)
• In-role characterization
5-6 • Tableau • Developing/performing tableau • Depiction of story and
using peer editing and feedback action sequences from
text
• Visual Guide • Developing/revising visual • Revision of visual guides
guide with targeted concepts for accuracy and
and vocabulary from teacher understanding of
feedback. concepts
7-8 • Creating props, • Creating script for character- • Interview
scenery, costumes based dramatic enactments. • Completion of visual
guide
• Script for character-
based enactment
intervention period (see Appendix B). Ms. intervals, the research team used a video
Valero assessed students’ visual and digital recorder to capture students’
dramatic arts skills using a criterion-based interviews, examining students’ oral
rubric, based on the neighborhood public- language by transcribing and analyzing
school district’s Common Core Arts samples for the presence of academic
Standards for Grade 5 in visual and language features. To better understand the
performing arts, which was co-developed by potential influence of the intervention
Ms. Valero and the research team. context on each student’s unique language
functioning, language data were evaluated
Data collection. Language and within each student across time, as well as
behavioral data were collected at beginning pooled by students and time (pre-post).
and end of the 8-week intervention period.
All Academic Club lessons were conducted in Procedurally, the research team directed
the participating students’ fixed length 40- students individually to a quiet area directly
minute small group sessions, which included outside the classroom to administer the in-
six classes of 5-9 students). At pre-post role interviews (see Appendix C for interview
80COUNCIL FOR EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN
protocol). If students did not mention any students, defined as the number of total
characters or events in their initial words produced by each student per oral
responses, the researchers provided initial interview and expressed as a rate of use over
prompts. If students stopped talking and duration of total time of interview. Students’
made eye contact with the researcher, the language specificity was measured through
researcher provided a follow-up prompt, “Is semantic diversity, or number of different
there anything else you want to tell me words as a proportion of the total number of
about [name of event/character]?” When words (Greenhalgh & Strong, 2001).
the student stopped talking and made eye Receptive academic vocabulary was
contact again, the researcher stopped the measured by pre-post assessment score
digital recorder and the session concluded. changes. Self-efficacy was measured pre-
Students completed pre-post vocabulary post self-report changes on a 4-point Likert
measures and self-report measures in small scale rating of social validity (1 for “strongly
groups, in which items were read aloud, disagree”, 4 was “strongly agree”).
including practice items.
Findings. Table 6 shows students’
Students’ language samples were mean language changes from pre- to post-
transcribed and coded for linguistic interview sampling context along with
productivity and specificity. At the end of changes to students’ self-report ratings and
data collection, two secondary data coders mean vocabulary scores from beginning to
(two master’s-level graduate students) were end of the Academic Club intervention
trained on scoring procedures for the period.
language variables under consideration and
maintained an overall inter-rater agreement When comparing students’ expressive oral
of at least 90% during each fidelity scoring language from pre- to post-interview
session. Two trained research assistants and samples, students’ mean linguistic
authors completed transcriptions to 95% productivity (total words per utterance, Pre
reliability. The analysis set contained = 5.57 vs. Post = 6.34), total words used (Pre
complete and intelligible utterances, = 214 vs. Post = 452), as well as total time in
excluding dysfluencies. If reliability had minutes (Pre = 4.5 vs. Post = 5.8) increased
dropped below 90%, the two secondary data significantly (p = .00). Academic Club
coders would have met to review their participation appeared to influence
discrepancies before scoring additional students’ academic vocabulary acquisition,
language samples (Kennedy, 2005). as indicated by significant increases on mean
number of academic vocabulary words
Students’ oral language skills were assessed known (Pre = 13.7 vs. Post = 16.9, p = .00).
for linguistic productivity and specificity from Students’ self-reported attitudes toward
beginning to end of the Academic Club social studies learning and self-efficacy
intervention period. Students’ linguistic increased significantly from beginning to end
productivity was measured within and across of the intervention period (Pre = 2.9 vs. Post
81ARTS AND SPECIAL EDUCATION FALL 2019
Table 6. Students’ Mean Language, Learning Attitudes, and Arts Skills from Pre-to Post-
Intervention
Outcome Measures Pre-Mean (SD) Post-Mean (SD) p-value
Receptive language: Academic Vocabulary 13.96 (.22) 17.64 (.13) .000***
(raw score)
Expressive language: Linguistic Productivity 5.57 (.54) 6.34 (.63) .024*
Total words per utterance
Number of total words 214 452 .000***
Learning Attitudes: Social Studies Learning 2.96 (.47) 3.5 (.33) .000***
Learning attitudes: Learning Efficacy 2.9 (.44) 3.4 (.37) .001**
Arts Skills
Visual Arts 1.2 (.5) 3.2 (.7) .014*
Performing Arts 1.1 (.7) 2.9 (.5) .003**
***p=.000 ** pCOUNCIL FOR EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN
marginalized by socio-political issues such as social change is relatively underexplored
ethnicity/race, socioeconomic status, ability, (Perry, 2011). Researcher-practitioner
and gender identity (Fine & Ruglis, 2009). Dobson used Devised Theatre and
Practitioner-based evidence from this photography collection debriefing based on
demonstration supports the significance of Photovoice (Wang & Burris, 1997) to elicit
opportunities for adolescent student collaborative groupwork among participating
expression in efforts to promote students in a one-week intervention period.
socioemotional skills such as resilience,
engagement, and empathy (Debnam, The Hope Project drew on Freire’s
Johnson, Waasdorp, & Bradshaw, 2014). educational philosophy, which emphasizes
the gap between audience and actor, in the
Hope construct. Snyder and same way that researcher Dobson scaffolded
colleagues (1991) define hope as “a positive students toward their own empowerment,
motivational state that is based on an suggesting that “Knowledge emerges only
interactively derived sense of successful through invention and re-invention, through
agency (goal-directed energy) and pathways the restless, impatient, continuing, hopeful
(planning to meet goals)” (p. 8). Hope theory inquiry human beings pursue in the world,
is subdivided into four thought categories: with the world and with each other” (1970,
(1) Goal thoughts, which provide direction p. 72). Theatre has been identified as a
and an endpoint for hopeful thinking; (2) culturally responsive tool drawing on Freire’s
Pathway thoughts, or the routes to achieve critical, hopeful, and liberating educational
goals and perceived ability to produce these pedagogy, which has been adapted to
routes; (3) Agency thoughts, or the theatre-based pedagogy by Boal (Boal, 1979;
motivation to undertake the pathways Freire, 1970). Examining education for
towards goals; and (4) Barrier thoughts, critical consciousness, Freire’s ideas
which block goal attainment and can result emphasize students as partners in their own
in giving up or the use of pathway thoughts empowerment. Devised Theatre, in which
to create new routes. students are working without a script and
creating knowledge together, was an
Hope and theatre. This important element of this pilot project.
demonstration of practice assessed
adolescent students’ reported levels of Participants and setting. The Hope
feelings of hope following participation in an Project included students with and without
arts-based intervention model using theatre disabilities who attended a middle school or
and photography. Theatre practitioners have high school in a midwestern university town,
recognized the value of creative processes to during summer. Reported challenges shared
facilitate healing, growth, empathy, and by parents, caregivers, and participants
hope, among other inter- and intra-personal included ADHD, depression, and anxiety
benefits; however, theatre work in the disorder. The group consisted of 11
context of educational pedagogy aimed at students: 9 girls and 2 boys in grades ranging
83ARTS AND SPECIAL EDUCATION FALL 2019
from 6th to 10th grades. Two identified as public performance or project. Acting games,
African American or mixed-race, one writing prompts, drawing and collaging, writing
identified as LGBTQ, and two students scenes, creating sculptures, devised theatre, and
disclosed mental health concerns. Dobson music were all used with the goal to build a
recruited participants in an all-inclusive culminating project to be shared with families
manner, welcoming all individuals regardless and public. Dobson took notes daily on what
of race/ethnicity, social class, gender, or transpired and how students reacted to prompts
ability. This participant group was not and games. For instance, Dobson used story-
representative of the surrounding building in various exercises by starting with a
midwestern population. Inclusion and prompt and sending the story around the circle,
diversity were cornerstones of this project, each participant adding a sentence or two. The
as students came from different students employed independent writing,
backgrounds, with different levels of responding to Dobson’s requests to share a time
experience in creative process work, and “I cried and cried” or “hope is….” The group
with varying levels of comfort in working worked in small teams to create scenes, crafting
within groups. vignettes about themes such as “saving the
world” or “the best day ever.” The group
Procedures. Dobson used Devised worked together to build on several theatre
Theatre and Photovoice to explore with activities over the week, culminating in a
students their expressions, feelings, and final performance. The students identified
experiences of hope. She investigated elements they deemed important and
whether students’ perceived feelings of created a variety of activities, such as
hope could change as the result of including musical accompaniment during the
participation in the project. final performance.
Devised theatre. Devising a piece of Photovoice. Dobson employed
theatre incorporates the individual talents photography in the project, adapting
and builds upon the collective inspiration of Photovoice (Wang & Burris, 1997), in which
a group of participants in developing a students captured and shared pictures taken
performance or play (Oddey, 2013). The in their community to create stories based
culminating project is created not in a linear on themes that they identified as most
line but one in which we encounter “well- important to them. Students took pictures
trodden paths, blind alleys and sudden of “hope” using mobile phones and personal
surprises” (Graham & Hoggett, 2014). The cameras in the surrounding neighborhood
first step to devising together is playing vicinity. They were instructed to photograph
together, so Dobson invited students to play natural and physical objects and spaces,
games and engage in trust building exercises rather than people. They debriefed the
daily to build trust and group cohesion. Over group on their photographs and developed
the week, students created scenes, monologues from these debriefing sessions.
monologues, and vignettes, culminating in a
84COUNCIL FOR EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN
Figure 4. Sample of Student (Evie) Photograph and Corresponding Monologue about Hope
“The cracks in the sidewalk represent the loss of
hope and resilience. It first represents how a
person may seem tough and unbreakable but may
be more fragile than they appear. The cracks in the
sidewalk could have been caused by a random
event, such as a car crash, or something as simple
as a brick falling and hitting the ground too hard.
This relates to how a wide array of events can
cause a person to give up hope and crack. However,
the grass growing through the cracks represents
how if you are resilient, you can fix your problems,
and push through and continue to thrive”. (Evie).
Figure 5. Sample of Student (Lara) Photograph and Corresponding Monologue about Hope
“This picture is hopeful because it shows the future that
I’m fighting for. OBVIOUSLY. (points to the rainbows she
drew on her arms) In the picture, there’s an American flag
alongside a gay pride flag, and I took it because it shows
that these 2 groups go hand in hand. There are queer
Americans and there are Americans that support queer
rights, and whichever category the owner of the pride flag
falls into doesn’t matter. We don’t know if the two flag
owners were trying to contradict each other, maybe the
American flag belongs to somebody who is against queer
rights, but in putting both the flags up it gives me hope
that people will realize that these groups aren’t as
different as people think.” (Lara)
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