Department of English - IS MUNI

Masaryk University
              Faculty of Arts

         Department of English
        and American Studies

Upper Secondary School Teacher Training in
     English Language and Literature

                Bc. Sabina Sedláková

Utilization of YouTube for autonomous
   learning purposes among Czech
      secondary school students
           Master’s Diploma Thesis

       Supervisor: Mgr. Jitka Sedláčková, Ph.D.

                       2021

I declare that I have worked on this thesis independently,
using only the primary and secondary sources listed in the bibliography.

                                  ……………………………………………..
                                                          Author’s signature

Acknowledgments

          I would like to thank my supervisor, Mgr. Jitka Sedláčková, Ph.D., for her valuable
advice and the time she devoted to this thesis. I would also like to thank the secondary school
         teachers who helped me with the execution of my research and the respondents who
                                                                      participated in the survey.

Table of Contents
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 9
1 Autonomous learning ............................................................................................................ 12
            1.1 Why fostering learner autonomy ........................................................................... 14
            1.2 Teacher roles in learner autonomy ........................................................................ 16
            1.3 Autonomous learner .............................................................................................. 17
            1.4 Approaches to fostering learner autonomy............................................................ 18
                        1.4.1 Resource-based approaches................................................................... 19
                        1.4.1. Out-of-class learning ............................................................................ 19
                        1.4.3 Computer-assisted language learning (CALL)...................................... 20
2 YouTube in autonomous learning ......................................................................................... 22
            2.1 YouTube for EFL learning purposes ..................................................................... 23
            2.2 Perception of the platform among EFL students ................................................... 26
3 YouTube.com ........................................................................................................................ 27
            3.1 Types of YouTube content .................................................................................... 28
            3.2 The appeal of YouTubers and the YouTube community ...................................... 28
            3.3 Negative aspects of YouTube use and controversies ............................................ 29
4 Methodology ......................................................................................................................... 33
            4.1 Research instrument .............................................................................................. 33
            4.2 Research questions ................................................................................................ 34
            4.3 Data analysis ......................................................................................................... 35
            4.4 Participants ............................................................................................................ 36
            4.5 Piloting .................................................................................................................. 36
5 Results ................................................................................................................................... 38
            5.1 Viewers of English content on YouTube .............................................................. 38
                        5.1.1 Differences in English YouTube usage between VS students and GS
                        students ........................................................................................................... 39
                                     5.1.1.1 Frequency of watching .......................................................... 40
                                     5.1.1.2 Time spent on English YouTube weekly .............................. 41
                                     5.1.1.3 Ratio of English videos to Czech videos ............................... 43
                                     5.1.1.4 Reasons for watching YouTube content in English .............. 45
                                     5.1.1.5 Awareness of the platform’s potential for language skills
                                     improvement ..................................................................................... 46
                                     5.1.1.6 Most frequent types of videos ............................................... 47
                                     5.1.1.7 Students’ strategies regarding YouTube and comprehension 49
                        5.1.2 Differences in students’ perceptions of the platform’s usefulness in
                        relation to developing language skills ............................................................ 52
                                     5.1.3.1 Perceived improvement due to YouTube among students .... 53

5.1.3.2 Use of YouTube videos in the classroom .............................. 55
                                    5.1.3.3 YouTube as a good tool for developing language skills ....... 57
                                    5.1.3.4 Students’ opinions on YouTube’s contribution to language
                                    skills development ............................................................................. 58
                                                 5.1.3.4.1 Developing the four skills, expanding vocabulary 59
                                                 5.1.3.4.2 Native speakers and real-life English .................... 60
                                                 5.1.3.4.3 Concepts related to autonomous learning ............. 62
            5.2 Non-viewers of English content on YouTube ....................................................... 64
                        5.2.1 Reasons for not watching YouTube in English ..................................... 64
                        5.2.2 Comprehension problems in English videos ......................................... 69
                        5.2.3 Perceptions, opinions, and awareness of the platform’s potential......... 70
            5.3 Non-viewers of YouTube ...................................................................................... 75
6 Discussion ............................................................................................................................. 77
            6.1 VS and GS students’ YouTube use and perceptions ............................................. 77
            6.2 Students’ views on YouTube’s benefits for language skills improvement ........... 79
7 Pedagogical implications ....................................................................................................... 84
8 Limitations of the research and suggestions for further study............................................... 86
Conclusion................................................................................................................................ 88
Reference list ............................................................................................................................ 89
Appendix .................................................................................................................................. 97
Anotace................................................................................................................................... 100

List of Tables and Figures
Table 1: Ratio of participants at VS and GS according to age ................................................ 36
Figure 1: How often do you watch YouTube videos in English? (VS)................................... 40
Figure 2: How often do you watch YouTube videos in English? (GS)................................... 40
Figure 3: How much time in a week do you spend watching YouTube videos in English?
(VS) .......................................................................................................................................... 42
Figure 4: How much time in a week do you spend watching YouTube videos in English?
(GS) .......................................................................................................................................... 42
Figure 5: In what ratio are the videos you watch in English to the videos you watch in Czech?
(VS) .......................................................................................................................................... 43
Figure 6: In what ratio are the videos you watch in English to the videos you watch in Czech?
(GS) .......................................................................................................................................... 44
Figure 7: What is your reason for watching YouTube videos in English? (GS) ..................... 45
Figure 8: What is your reason for watching YouTube videos in English? (VS) ..................... 46
Table 2: Most frequently watched types of videos. ................................................................. 48
Figure 9: If an unfamiliar word appears in the video and it makes me not understand the
whole meaning of the video, I do the following: (VS) ............................................................. 50
Figure 10: If an unfamiliar word appears in the video and it makes me not understand the
whole meaning of the video, I do the following: (GS) ............................................................. 50
Figure 11: If an unfamiliar word appears in the video, but I still understand the whole
meaning of the video, I do the following: (VS)........................................................................ 51
Figure 12: If an unfamiliar word appears in the video, but I still understand the whole
meaning of the video, I do the following: (GS)........................................................................ 52
Figure 13: Do you think your English has improved thanks to watching YouTube videos in
English? (VS) ........................................................................................................................... 53
Figure 14: Do you think your English has improved thanks to watching YouTube videos in
English? (GS) ........................................................................................................................... 54
Figure 15: Would you enjoy the use of YouTube videos in English lessons at school? (VS) 56
Figure 16: Would you enjoy the use of YouTube videos in English lessons at school? (GS) 56
Figure 17: Do you think watching YouTube videos in English is a good tool for developing
language skills? (VS)................................................................................................................ 57
Figure 18: Do you think watching YouTube videos in English is a good tool for developing
language skills? (GS)................................................................................................................ 58
Figure 19: I do not watch videos in English because I do not understand them. (VS) ........... 65
Figure 20: I do not watch videos in English because I do not understand them. (GS) ........... 65

Figure 21: I do not watch YouTube videos in English because I am not interested in them.
(VS) .......................................................................................................................................... 66
Figure 22: I do not watch YouTube videos in English because I am not interested in them.
(GS) .......................................................................................................................................... 67
Figure 23: I am mainly interested in Czech content on YouTube. (VS) ................................ 67
Figure 24: I am mainly interested in Czech content on YouTube. (GS) ................................. 68
Figure 25: What is the main problem for you when watching videos in English? (VS) ......... 69
Figure 26: What is the main problem for you when watching videos in English? (GS) ......... 70
Figure 27: Would you appreciate it if someone showed you how to start using YouTube
videos in English to develop language skills? (VS) ................................................................. 72
Figure 28: Would you appreciate it if someone showed you how to start using YouTube
videos in English to develop language skills? (GS) ................................................................. 72
Figure 29: Would you enjoy the use of YouTube videos in English lessons at school? (VS) 73
Figure 30: Would you enjoy the use of YouTube videos in English lessons at school? (GS) 74

Introduction
       The online video-sharing platform YouTube.com has become a phenomenon of today’s

time. The website is no longer just a place for short funny videos. Nowadays, thousands of

people upload video content made exclusively for the platform and create livelihood solely from

the revenues generated by the videos’ view count and advertisement. These creators, called

YouTubers, are a symbol of today’s generation of young people (especially generation Z). Their

popularity among this age group is reflected in how many young people nowadays would like

to pursue being a YouTube star a career (Leskin, 2017).

       Although YouTubers from all over the world create content for the website in hundreds

of different languages, English is the dominant language in which a lot of the content can be

found. Thus, in order to explore the site thoroughly and enjoy the content it offers to the

maximum, knowledge of English can be highly advantageous. This fact has led to the

exploration of the website’s potential in relation to English language learning and teaching. It

was found that the website’s content can have many applications for use in an English

classroom, as well as outside of it for learners’ independent use – autonomous learning.

       Autonomous learning is a concept in language learning and teaching which emphasizes

the learner’s responsibility in the process of language learning. In autonomous learning, as

opposed to a conventional educational setting, the learner’s role in the learning process is much

more proactive, and dependency on the teacher is severely reduced. By allowing the learner to

take charge of his learning by yielding decisions regarding the learning process (such as

choosing what to study, when to study it, and in what way) to him, the learner’s intrinsic

motivation is reinforced. This, in turn, increases the potential of his learning to be more

successful. Autonomous learning is a coveted attribute for the learner to have, should his

learning process be more successful and effective. However, just as any other skill, learner

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autonomy needs to be fostered and encouraged. Therefore, although the role of the teacher in

learner autonomy should be minimized, encouraging and promoting autonomy should be a part

of the regular educational process.

       With the normalization of technology, the internet, and media in young people’s lives,

cultivating learner autonomy through these outlets has become accessible to many people

worldwide. The platform YouTube.com with its plethora of videos that can be immediately

used as study materials, can be regarded as an effective source for autonomous language

learning. The popularity of the platform among young people and children creates considerable

potential for cultivating learner autonomy among these avid YouTube users.

       Although YouTube.com is undoubtedly an enormously popular platform for young

people all over the world, due to the growing number of Czech YouTubers, knowledge of

English is no longer a prerequisite for enjoying the platform’s content, which means that many

young people could be exposed to Czech YouTube content only. Therefore, this thesis aims to

map the behavior of secondary school students on the platform in relation to the English

language, explore their strategies when navigating the platform in English, and their

impressions of the website regarding language skills development. The second aim of the thesis

is to compare the students of two different types of secondary schools (a vocational school and

a grammar school) between each other to establish if any differences occur. The reason for

selecting two different types of schools was based on the assumption that there might be

differences in students’ behavior on YouTube in relation to academic achievement, which

generally tends to be higher at grammar schools.

       The research for the thesis involved administering structured questionnaires about the

usage of YouTube and perceptions of the platform to students of the two secondary schools in

Brno. Before constructing and administering the questionnaire, four research questions were

defined: How do secondary school students use the platform YouTube.com? What are the
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differences between the students of the two types of school regarding their YouTube use?

What are secondary school students’ perceptions and opinions regarding YouTube use

for language skills improvement? What are the differences between the students of the

two schools regarding their perceptions and views on YouTube use for language

improvement?

       The thesis is divided into eight chapters. The first chapter deals with the concept of

autonomous learning and introduces several approaches to fostering autonomy relevant to the

thesis. The second chapter introduces the platform YouTube.com in the context of autonomous

learning and EFL learning and teaching in general. The third chapter explores the platform itself

– its history, its appeal among young people, and the website’s possible negative effects. The

methodology of the research is described in chapter 4. The findings of the research are presented

in chapter 5 and discussed in chapter 6. Pedagogical implications arising from the results are

discussed in chapter 7, and limitations of the research are outlined in chapter 8.

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1 Autonomous learning
       Autonomous learning and learner autonomy are nowadays one of the key concepts in

language teaching and learning. Although autonomous learning is one of the types of learning

and can be applied to any learning in general, it is the field of foreign language teaching that

frequently operates with the argument that autonomy is necessary for the process of language

learning to be successful (Janíková, 2007, p. 3). As language proficiency became one of the

main requirements of applicants on the job market, quality language education is necessary in

the modern world. Tighter international cooperation, international travel, and the necessity to

communicate with people of many different nationalities all require languages to be learned not

just in the classroom but also throughout an individual’s whole life. Changes in the world,

modern society, and workplace require the process of learning and teaching and approaches to

them to change as well. For today’s society, it is becoming more and more important that

individuals are able to learn by themselves, take responsibility and care of their learning, and

in general, that they know how to learn. (Janíková, 2007, p. 7).

       The concept of learner autonomy has been known for a long time; however, only during

the recent decades has the term been given more emphasis and theoretical underpinning. The

idea of learner autonomy was first described in the early 1970s at the Centre de Recherches et

d’Applications Pédagogiques en Langues (CRAPEL) at the University of Nancy in France.

Henri Holec, the former director of CRAPEL, is considered to be the leading figure in the

development of the concept (Smith, 2008, pp. 395–396). The term itself had been known way

before the establishment of CRAPEL; however, only during the 1960s – the decade of

numerous social changes – did the term become part of the discourse among education theorists,

mainly as a response to the need of providing adults with lifelong learning, securing them with

better quality of life and better opportunities. (Benson, 2007, pp. 21–22).

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Holec introduced the first definition of autonomous learning in his 1981 seminal work,

published within the Council of Europe’s Modern Languages Project (Benson, 2007, p. 22).

When first introduced, the term was primarily used in relation to adult education and self-access

learning systems. However, throughout the years, the concept started to appear in national

education curricula across Western Europe and North America, where it was presented as one

of the most important goals (Little, 2007, p. 14). “The idea is to make students life-long learners,

ready to face the challenges of modern life and to continue learning beyond formal education”

(Ramos, 2016, p. 184).

       There are many definitions of learner autonomy, and no definite consensus in the

academic circles has been reached so far on what the concept should entail. Holec (1981, p. 3)

defines autonomous learning as the “ability to take charge of one’s own learning.” In his

definition, he further explains that this ability “is not inborn but must be acquired either by

‘natural’ means or (as most often happens) by formal learning, i.e., in a systemic, deliberate

way” (1981, p. 3). This definition suggests that for a language learner to be autonomous, it is

necessary not only to learn the foreign language but also to learn how to learn. “Thus

autonomous learning extends beyond a school context: it is a life-long process of constantly

developing awareness” (Najeeb, 2013, p. 1239).

       Taking charge of one’s own learning can in different contexts mean different things.

Therefore, Holec (1981) elaborates on this definition and explains what it means and what

aspects it entails for a learner to be in control of his own learning:

       To take charge of one’s own learning is to have, and to hold, the responsibility for all

       the decisions concerning all aspects of this learning, i.e.: determining the objectives;

       defining the contents and progressions; selecting methods and techniques to be used;

       monitoring the procedure of acquisition properly speaking (rhythm, time, place, etc.);

       evaluating what has been acquired. (p. 3)
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From this definition, it becomes evident that autonomy in language learning is not

concerned only with the actual process of acquiring a language. To be genuinely autonomous,

the learner should also be able to manage the learning process independently, be aware of the

methods of language learning and the overall goals and objectives regarding his learning.

Autonomy, therefore, cannot simply be described as learning alone. It entails all the steps and

aspects of the learning process and requires the learner to manage and evaluate it effectively.

       In language education, there is another term used in the context of (or interchangeably

with) learner autonomy – learner independence. Again, there are numerous definitions of what

learner independence entails and how it is distinguished from learner autonomy. For example,

Dickinson (1994, p. 39) views autonomy mainly in terms of physical surroundings – a self-

access center is the best example of such an environment – and independence is described as a

situation where the learner takes control and initiative in his learning.

       No definite distinction between learner autonomy and learner independence has been

made; therefore, the terms are in many contexts used interchangeably as synonyms. It was even

suggested that no such consensus was made due to the nature and complexity of the field.

Instead of a single unifying definition, there are simply multiple views on learner autonomy

(Najeeb, 2013, p. 1240). In this diploma thesis, the term autonomous learning will be preferred

over independent learning.

       1.1 Why fostering learner autonomy

       In foreign language education, fostering learner autonomy is defined as one of the key

goals of the educational process. However, it is important to realize why learner autonomy is

such a coveted attribution of a successful learner. It is often argued that learning becomes more

effective and efficient by promoting learner autonomy (Little & Dam, 1998, p. 2). Autonomous

learners do not have to rely on the teacher to act as their personal tutor, but instead, they take

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on a proactive role themselves. The term autonomy inherently carries a shift from a teacher-

centered approach to language learning to a student-centered approach.

       At the heart of autonomous learning is the student’s perception of their own role as a

learner. “Autonomous, dynamic students have the potential to learn far more than passive,

reactive learners. Self-reliant students can address their own individual needs and make ongoing

progress” (Hardy-Gould, 2013).

       Many arguments that favor learner autonomy for increasing the effectiveness and

efficiency of the learning process highlight this proactive student role. The student is no longer

a recipient of the pre-selected knowledge but an active agent who can contribute to his learning

process and regulate it according to his needs. An autonomous learner is “not one to whom

things merely happen; he is the one who, by his own volition, causes things to happen”

(Thanasoulas, 2000). It is this proactive and self-regulating role which according to learner

autonomy theories, increases the effectiveness of the learning process.

       Autonomous learning and how being autonomous helps the learners reach their learning

goals with more effectivity and efficiency is tightly linked to intrinsic motivation. Intrinsic

motivation, in comparison with extrinsic motivation, comes from within. An individual does

something not because the others expect it from him and offer a reward for such behavior, but

because the individual himself wants to and feels satisfaction arising from such conduct.

Intrinsic motivation is a critical factor determining whether a learner will be successful in

gaining autonomy over their learning – “autonomous learners draw on their intrinsic motivation

when they accept responsibility for their own learning and commit themselves to develop the

skills of reflective self-management in learning; and success in learning strengthens their

intrinsic motivation” (Little & Dam, 1998, p. 2). Autonomous learning and learner motivation

are therefore inherently connected. The learner needs intrinsic motivation to be able to take

control over his own learning and to start employing strategies that will help him succeed – and
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because being autonomous in learning is deemed highly effective for reaching one’s goals,

when the learner does succeed, it will boost his intrinsic motivation and in turn foster autonomy

in the learning process.

       1.2 Teacher roles in learner autonomy

       As the definitions and characteristics of what learner autonomy entails show, it is

evident that the nature of this educational goal is highly student-centered, as opposed to a more

teacher-centered approach commonly executed in a formal education environment. Some

definitions of autonomy emphasize that teachers’ presence and guidance have no place in

autonomous learning (Janíková, 2007, p. 38). However, others claim that it is possible (and

even desirable) to cultivate learner autonomy through the environment of classic formal

education setting – in the language classroom, with the teacher’s guidance.

       Nevertheless, to foster autonomous learning in the formal education context, re-

evaluation and restatement of teacher roles in the classroom need to be addressed (Alonazi,

2017, p. 185). In learner autonomy, the teacher’s role does no longer fit within the traditional

view of the teacher being the central point of the learning process, spoon-feeding the students

with his knowledge. In the traditional view of teacher roles,

       teachers hold the dominant status of teaching and there is no doubt that the teacher is a

       complete authority and learners appear to follow passively what is taught in a traditional

       language teaching. This will naturally lead to poor teacher-student interactive relation

       and unsatisfactory effect of language teaching. (Yan, 2012, p. 559)

       Therefore, the concept of learner autonomy emphasizes re-evaluation of these

traditional views and a shift towards a less teacher-dominant approach when trying to promote

learner autonomy in the classroom setting.

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Based on her research and literature reviews, Saleema M. Alonazi introduces four roles

that the teacher should take on in order to promote learner autonomy – the teacher should

become a facilitator, counselor, a resource, and a manager and organizer (2017, pp. 185–188).

       The role of the teacher as a facilitator puts emphasis on the teacher providing help and

support in planning and carrying out students’ work. In this role, the teacher can be viewed as

a helper, whose role is to make learning easier to take place (Chiu, 2005). Teachers’ role when

promoting autonomy should also be that of a counselor – this means that a teacher should

provide advice and feedback to his students. By talking to the students about their struggles and

achievements, the teacher can help the students come up with solutions to their problems. This

will boost their learning results and maximize efficiency of the learning process (Kongchan,

2002). The role of the teacher as a resource expects the teacher to be able to provide his students

with his knowledge and expertise – “he makes his knowledge and expertise available to students

in situations whenever it is necessary” (Alonazi, 2017, p. 187). The fourth role the teacher

should take on is that of a manager and an organizer. This role suggests that teachers are the

ones who plan and organize activities in the classroom. These activities provide the students

with learning opportunities, and the teacher organizes these activities in a way that learning

opportunities are fully exploited. In order to promote autonomous learning, these activities

should be chosen and executed in a way that stimulates learning and prompts students to take

the initiative in their own learning. The role of the teacher as a manager and organizer is,

according to Yan (2012, p. 560), considered the most crucial role for stimulating autonomous

learning effectively.

       1.3 Autonomous learner

       Similar to the many definitions and views on learner autonomy, there are different

perspectives on who an autonomous learner is and what he can do. For a learner to be

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autonomous, he or she should manifest a number of attributes – one of the most accepted

descriptions of an autonomous learner is that of Omaggio (1978, as cited in Wenden, 1991),

who lists seven main attributes of an autonomous learner:

       Autonomous learners have insights into their learning styles and strategies; take an

       active approach to the learning task at hand; are willing to take risks, i.e., to

       communicate in the target language at all costs; are good guessers; attend to form as

       well as to content, that is, place importance on accuracy as well as appropriateness;

       develop the target language into a separate reference system and are willing to revise

       and reject hypotheses and rules that do not apply; and have a tolerant and outgoing

       approach to the target language. (pp. 41–42)

       Peters’ (1997, p. 76, cited in Janíková, 2007, p. 41) definition of an autonomous learner

highlights that in order to be autonomous, the learner must adopt functions of a teacher and

perform them himself – that is, for example, to identify his learning needs, to formulate goals,

choose appropriate materials and effective learning strategies, and organize, monitor, control,

and evaluate the learning process.

       As the complexity of the definitions mentioned above shows, reaching a high level of

autonomy in an individual is undoubtedly not an easy task. Still, autonomy in language learning

is seen as one of the main goals of the learning process and fostering learner autonomy should

be at the center of this process. Therefore, in the next chapter and following sub-chapters, a few

approaches to developing learner autonomy will be discussed.

       1.4 Approaches to fostering learner autonomy

       Although learner autonomy can be interpreted in several different ways, in practice,

learner autonomy is most often thought of as a desirable attribute of a learner. That poses a

question of how autonomy can be encouraged and developed in language learners. Benson

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(2013, p. 125) classifies six different approaches to fostering autonomy: resource-based

approaches, technology-based approaches, learner-based approaches, classroom-based

approaches, and curriculum-based approaches. For the purposes of this thesis, only resource-

based and technology-based approaches will be briefly elaborated on in the following

subchapters, as the other five approaches (although significant to the concept of learner

autonomy) do not correspond in any prominent manner to the subject of this thesis. Resource-

based approaches and technology-based approaches serve as a category into which utilization

of YouTube for the purposes of autonomous learning falls, hence the omission of the other four

approaches.

       1.4.1 Resource-based approaches
       For this type of approach to developing learner autonomy, the resources – materials –

which the learner uses and interacts with in his learning process, are the focal point of interest.

The essential characteristic of any resource-based approach is that the learner interacts with the

material independently. The resource at question could be any language learning material that

offers opportunities to develop skills associated with autonomy through learner interaction.

This interaction is based on experimentation and discovery (Benson, 2013, p. 127). Approaches

such as self-access, tandem learning, distance learning, self-instruction, and out-of-class

learning belong under the umbrella of resource-based approaches (Benson, 2013, pp. 127–130).

As my diploma thesis deals with the utilization of YouTube as a resource for fostering learner

autonomy, which falls under out-of-class learning, this approach will be further elaborated on

in the next sub-chapter.

       1.4.1. Out-of-class learning
       Out-of-class learning is a term associated with the resource-based approach to

developing learner autonomy. Research on out-of-class learning highlights mainly its

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importance for successful language development and today’s world’s need for allowing learners

to explore language beyond the formal education setting (Benson et al., 2003, pp. 23–40). Much

of the research on out-of-class learning proposes that successful language learners today are not

so dependent on learning in the classroom but evince high levels of interaction with various

resources independently, outside of the educational environment (Richards, 2009, p. 10). In his

plenary speech, Richards (2009, p. 9) brings attention to English learners in northern European

countries like Sweden and Finland and English learners in countries like Spain, Italy, or Korea.

He further addresses that northern European learners’ English proficiency is far greater than

their counterparts’ from other countries in the study. This phenomenon is attributed to the

northern European learners’ frequent exposure to undubbed English TV shows and movies.

This practice fits well into the out-of-class learning definition – the learners independently used

authentic English resources not directly for learning purposes but for their own enjoyment,

which resulted in high English proficiency.

       In general, learners who engage in out-of-class learning behavior show higher levels of

English proficiency (Nunan & Richards, 2015). Therefore, out-of-class learning can be thought

of as an effective strategy for developing learner autonomy and increasing proficiency in

English.

       1.4.3 Computer-assisted language learning (CALL)
       With the onset and introduction of technology into people’s daily lives, the potential of

using technology in language learning started to become the subject of discussion in the field.

The term computer-assisted language learning (or CALL) was first coined in the 1970s and

referred only to computer software that was supposed to facilitate language learning (Benson,

2013, p. 146). Over the years, however, the term became more general, and now, according to

some, it simply refers to “using computers to support language teaching and learning in some

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way” (Egbert, 2005, p. 3). The growing interest in CALL can be ascribed to new technology

innovations like laptops, smartphones, tablets, and mainly the World Wide Web, which made

its features accessible to millions of people all over the world (Thomas et al., 2013, p. 3).

Therefore, computer-assisted language learning encompasses all types of technology-related

sources and means used for language learning – this includes CD-ROMs with interactive

multimedia, web-based dictionaries, open electronic sources, games or game-like learning

software, blogs, or communication in the target language (Chapelle, 2009).

       According to the language learners using technology to facilitate and support their

learning, the key advantages of this approach lie mainly in: “managing time and learning more

efficiently; having learning resources available when needed; supporting reading and writing

and blending learning and entertainment” (Benson, 2013, pp. 149–150). All of these aspects

can be related to the concept of learner autonomy, as management of one’s time, independent

use of various resources, and enjoyment of the process are among the key aspects for developing

autonomy in language learning.

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2 YouTube in autonomous learning
       In line with the definitions explained above, using YouTube.com for the purposes of

language learning and improving language skills outside of the formal education environment

can be associated with out-of-class learning and computer-assisted language learning. The

website YouTube.com is an online video-sharing platform that is now popular worldwide. The

primary purpose for spending time on the website is usually for one’s enjoyment and

entertainment. At the same time, YouTube can be seen as a large source of authentic language

materials. Therefore, the use of the platform fits well within the definition of resource-based

approaches (namely out-of-class learning) to developing learner autonomy, which highlights

independent use of the resource outside of the formal learning environment and learner’s

enjoyment from the interaction with the resource in question. The usage of YouTube also fits

within the computer-assisted language learning concept. Since YouTube.com is an internet

website where multimedia content can be uploaded, viewed, and shared, technology is required

when a learner wants to access and use the platform. Therefore, the utilization of the website

for autonomous learning purposes can be described as one of the possible platforms used in the

computer-assisted language learning approach.

       Due to its relatively short lifespan, the web-based video-sharing platform YouTube.com

is not explicitly mentioned in many theoretical works regarding learner autonomy, computer-

assisted learning, or EFL teaching and learning in general. For example, Benson (2013, pp.

148–151) mentions several possibilities for using technology and World Wide Web, including

the phenomenon of blogging, but does not address any other interactive platforms for user-

generated content. Similarly, Marandi (2013) in her extensive chapter on computer-assisted

language learning, does not mention YouTube or any other similar interactive video-based

platform as a possible tool for CALL. The reason for this may be that a lot of established

theoretical literature on CALL and learner autonomy was published in the 1990s and early

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2000s, just before the launch of YouTube.com in 2005. However, this does not mean that the

use of YouTube for the purposes of autonomous learning has gone unnoticed. Many periodicals

on EFL teaching and learning featured articles and studies on the autonomous use of YouTube

among students, the use of YouTube in the classroom, or its general benefits in EFL learning

and teaching. These benefits of using YouTube for EFL learning purposes and for the purposes

of promoting autonomy will be reviewed in the next sub-chapter.

       2.1 YouTube for EFL learning purposes

       There are several reasons why the utilization of YouTube is beneficial in EFL teaching

and learning – both inside and outside the classroom. Firstly, a student who wishes to utilize

YouTube for learning purposes can access millions of free videos in the target language in just

a few clicks – one can immerse oneself into the language from the comfort of his own house,

which otherwise could have been done only by studying or living abroad in the country where

the target language is spoken (Johnson & Swain, 1997). Such heightened exposure to the target

language has been said to positively affect one’s learning process (Mangubhai, 2005). Students

engaging with English content on YouTube daily (or as frequently as possible) are therefore

subconsciously and autonomously enhancing their language abilities – without the help of a

teacher and without even leaving their house. The main benefits and characteristics of the

utilization of YouTube as an EFL learning tool are therefore twofold: the platform is in its

nature highly student-centered (as opposed to a regular classroom setting, which tends to be a

lot more teacher-centered) and serves as a vast, seemingly endless collection of authentic

language material (Watkins & Wilkins, 2011, pp. 113–114).

       Another essential characteristic of learning on YouTube is the learner’s ability to choose

and watch what he finds entertaining and what suits his learning needs. Learners on YouTube

are entirely independent; their choice of what to watch and when to watch it is their own. This

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independence and ability to choose the material to facilitate one’s own learning is vital for

autonomous learning because it enhances students’ interest in the subject matter (Tullis &

Benjamin, 2011).

       As YouTube is a pop-culture phenomenon of today’s time, especially among teenagers

who can spend hours searching for entertaining videos, Kelsen explores the link between

popular culture, learner independence, and motivation:

       YouTube, as mentioned, is a readily available source of authentic pop culture material.

       Encouraging students to interact in an educational capacity with popular culture through

       English language. YouTube clips may act as a motivating factor for students wishing to

       further develop their language skills as they endeavour to gain a deeper understanding

       of content they willingly access online. Moreover, it is also available for students to

       engage in outside of class in some form of student-centered learning. (2009)

       Therefore, watching YouTube clips in English can severely enhance learner motivation

and autonomous learning outside of the classroom, as the content learners interact with deals

with topics popular in the current time. Students who interact with such material for the sole

purpose of exploring the subject it deals with are therefore automatically exposed to the

language outside of their English classroom, immersing themselves into the language, and

exposing themselves to learning opportunities – all based on their own decision.

       Learners who engage with YouTube content in English regularly will also benefit from

the exposure to different varieties and dialects of English and non-native speakers of English.

In the regular classroom setting, students are often exposed to only one variation of language

in a very embellished, non-authentic environment. When faced with the reality of the way

English is spoken in the real world, students can be shocked (Watkins & Wilkins, 2011, p. 117).

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YouTube is a great platform where students can experience what English might sound like in

the real world.

       Furthermore, research on the content of the platform and nature of YouTube videos

shows that many of them have great educational potential, and the way the platform interacts

with its users (through recommendations or suggested search engine results) fosters autonomy

in decision making and obtaining control over one’s own learning (Lee et al., 2015). This

research also mentions YouTube’s potential to supplement formal education, as it allows better

access to knowledge for a wide range of users (Lee et al., 2015) from all over the world.

       YouTube videos in English can be used for developing the four skills. There are many

possible applications for developing all four skills, but especially for listening and speaking. As

students browse through YouTube, looking for entertaining videos or for information they find

interesting, they are immersing themselves in the language, developing their comprehension

and production of the language. When used in the classroom, YouTube videos can be used for

practicing listening and speaking skills by using a variety of follow-up activities given by the

teacher (Watkins & Wilkins, 2011). Several studies on YouTube’s role in EFL teaching

concluded that the use of the platform indeed improved students’ oral, auditory, and writing

skills (Warschauer & Grimes, 2007; Mayora, 2009).

       According to Kelsen’s research (2009) conducted in Taiwan with 69 EFL university

students, YouTube can enhance learner motivation when used in the classroom. However, when

used in the classroom for the purposes of motivating students to use the website for out-of-class

learning to promote learner autonomy, Kelsen is somewhat skeptical and admits that the

relationship between these two variables is not so clear.

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2.2 Perception of the platform among EFL students

       Research on using YouTube for autonomous learning purposes shows evidence that

students perceive the platform’s usage for learning purposes in a very positive way. There are

several reasons why students react positively to YouTube. Available research shows that

students enjoy learning on YouTube because of the easy access to the website, the ability to

control their learning process regarding the choice of learning materials that suit their individual

needs, and the freedom to control one’s own time since the platform is available any time of

the day (Shariff & Shah, 2019). Choosing one’s own materials which suit an individual’s

learning goals and learning style further enhances their motivation to learn (Tariq et al., 2020).

       Another research found that students who were enrolled in a university listening class

found the use of YouTube in their class very interesting and useful for developing listening

skills. Specifically, the students related this usefulness to not only hearing the speaker but also

seeing him and his mouth movement. Having a moving picture accompanying the video,

learning from native speakers, receiving interesting information from the content of the video,

and having the resource for further exploration at home, were other reasons for students’

positive perception (Silviyanti, 2014, p. 48).

       Results of surveys on students’ utilization of YouTube have also shown their comfort

when interacting with the platform. Most students do not find using YouTube.com difficult –

in fact, they often mention the platform’s accessibility and user-friendly interface as one of the

main benefits (Shariff & Shah, 2019).

       Although students generally tend to view YouTube as a resource that can help them

deepen their language competence and that is interactive, more flexible, and more interesting

than learning English in the regular classroom setting, on the other hand, students preparing for

important language exams did not find YouTube effective (Wang & Chen, 2019, p. 333).

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3 YouTube.com
       YouTube.com is an online video-sharing platform founded in 2005. The motivation

behind creating such a website was to make the process of video uploading and video sharing

available for any internet user. Users can therefore upload, share, and view their videos without

any technical knowledge. The platform utilizes a very simple interface which makes uploading

intuitive and straightforward. To upload or watch videos on this platform, the user only needs

a stable internet connection and a web browser (Burgess & Green, 2009, pp. 1–2).

       To upload a video on YouTube, the user must have an account created. Each account

on YouTube is called a channel; hence every new user has an opportunity to upload videos onto

their own channel immediately after logging in. After YouTube was bought by Google in

November 2006 and stopped running as an independent website, the platform has started

operating as one of Google’s subsidiaries. Users can now easily log into YouTube using their

Google account. This means that every person with a Google account has a potential platform

to upload content to.

       The intention behind creating YouTube.com was initially for the individual users to

upload and share their private videos. YouTube’s website description in 2005 invited users to

record a video with their phone or camera and upload it on the site, suggesting the site’s purpose

as a platform for independent and personal purposes. Therefore, early YouTube content mainly

consisted of short home videos (Burges & Green, 2009, pp. 3–4). After a short comedy sketch

clip from a TV show was uploaded to YouTube, it became evident that the platform has another

potential – to be used as a sharing platform for traditional media creators and companies. In

general, YouTube content can now be divided into two large sections depending on the nature

of its creator – content created by independent YouTubers (usually one person or a small group

of individuals) and content created and uploaded by big, well-established corporations (such as

NBC News, Buzzfeed or Vogue) (Stokel-Walker, 2020).
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3.1 Types of YouTube content

       Throughout the more than 15 years of its existence, the content that has been uploaded

to the platform also underwent a significant transition. While short private home videos were

the main type of videos uploaded on the platform in its early days, the content became much

more differentiated in the following years. Over the years, Youtube has completely

revolutionized online video entertainment and gave rise to many new genres of videos (The

most popular types of YouTube videos, 2019). It is now almost impossible to find a niche in

the online video sharing industry that has not been exploited yet.

       While there is a vast plethora of different types and genres of videos on the website, it

is possible to pin down which genres currently resonate with the viewers. As of 2020, one of

the lists of popular YouTube videos enumerates genres like product review videos, how-to

videos, vlogs, gaming videos, comedy skits, haul videos, pranks, unboxing videos, or

educational videos among the most popular ones (Anderson, 2020). Arguably, some types of

YouTube videos will be better for English learning purposes and English immersion. Vlogs (a

portmanteau of words video and blog), for example, are thought of as one of the best types of

videos to improve one’s speaking skills. In order to develop one’s conversational skills, vlogs

can provide much better opportunities for this than, for example, watching TV shows or the

news, due to the authenticity of English used in them, which highly corresponds to English used

in ordinary life (To Fluency, 2015).

       3.2 The appeal of YouTubers and the YouTube community

       Although uploading and watching funny videos on an online video sharing website is

certainly enough of a reason why so many people (especially young people) pay so much

attention to this platform and spend hours browsing through videos, there is one other aspect

that plays a significant role in why YouTube is so popular. With its nature and many features

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allowing users to comment, express likes or dislikes, be subscribed to their favorite content

creators’ channels, and be notified whenever their favorite YouTube persona uploads a new

video, YouTube has created a vast online community of people.

       Online communities can be based on a group of people having similar interests and

engaging with people in these groups online creates a psychological sense of belonging into a

community (Strangelove, 2010, pp. 103–106). YouTube is virtually not only a video-sharing

platform, but it is also a social medium, enabling its users to interact with each other and with

the video creators.

       It is, however, not only interaction with other users but also interaction with the content

of a YouTuber, which creates this sense of belonging, intimacy, and feeling like one knows the

person behind the screen. A popular video format many YouTubers put out is a vlog where they

go about their daily lives while filming themselves in the process. With this very personal

format and topics they share from their lives, people, especially teenagers, feel more connected

with them than, for example, with classic mainstream celebrities (Dredge, 2016). Being

relatable, authentic, and seemingly just like everybody else is a recipe for their popularity and

a reason why their content and personalities resonate with so many young people nowadays.

       3.3 Negative aspects of YouTube use and controversies

       While YouTube can offer many positive aspects to its viewers (related or not to fostering

autonomy and learning in general), there are many drawbacks and negative aspects to the

platform. Numerous controversies brought attention to the website in a negative way.

       YouTube is free and therefore accessible to anyone. Anybody can watch videos but also

record them and post them on the website for free. This can be a very positive aspect since it

can bring attention to voices, opinions, and matters that are marginalized and typically not

discussed in the media or public discourse but are important and deserving of attention (Cross,

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2018). On the other hand, this accessibility can mean that highly problematic content can make

its way on the platform quite easily. Although YouTube does have restrictions regarding nudity,

sexual content, violence, self-harm, and vulgar language, it is mostly an automated algorithm

that evaluates if the video breaches YouTube community guidelines or not (Community

Guidelines, n.d.). With this practice, it is still possible for the inappropriate content to be

uploaded on the page and linger there, gathering views until the video is evaluated as

problematic or reported by users themselves and taken down. “After years of vowing to police

inappropriate content, YouTube continues to deliver violent imagery, drug references, sexually

suggestive sequences and foul, racially charged language in clips that reach children at a

troubling pace” (Timberg, 2019). There were countless controversial cases regarding this sort

of problematic or insensitive content – one of the most notorious cases involved a famous

YouTuber with a large subscriber count, Logan Paul, who uploaded on his channel his visit to

a Japanese forest which has a reputation as a site where many suicides were committed. In the

video, the Youtuber with his friend discovered a dead body, filmed it, and commented on it but

still chose to upload the video to the internet. The highly unethical video stirred an enormous

backlash demanding Paul to be taken off the platform (Leskin, 2019). Although YouTube

officially claims that the platform is not intended for children and videos with compromising

content are age-restricted, this still does not mean that non-restricted videos will be suitable for

children (Timberg, 2019).

       Another aspect of YouTube that can be seen by some as problematic and has been

brought to public attention in recent years is the increasing promotion of products by YouTubers

on their channels. Many YouTubers receive their income not from the platform itself but also

from promoting products by brands who use these collaborations with YouTubers as

advertisements and then pay the respective content creator for promoting their product. This

aspect can become problematic in several ways. It is more and more difficult to distinguish

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