CORONAVIRUS AND PROTEST: HOW COVID-19 HAS CHANGED THE FACE OF AMERICAN ACTIVISM - ELLIOTT BRENNAN | MAY 2020 - AWS
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CORONAVIRUS AND PROTEST:
HOW COVID-19 HAS
CHANGED THE FACE OF
AMERICAN ACTIVISM
ELLIOTT BRENNAN | MAY 2020
The United States Studies Centre at the University of Sydney is a university-based research centre, dedicated to the rigorous analysis of American foreign policy, economics, politics and culture. The Centre is a national resource, that builds Australia’s awareness of the dynamics shaping America — and critically — their implications for Australia. UNITED STATES STUDIES CENTRE Institute Building (H03), City Rd The University of Sydney NSW 2006 Australia +61 2 9351 7249 us-studies@sydney.edu.au USSC.EDU.AU Research conclusions are derived independently and authors represent their own view, not those of the United States Studies Centre. Reports published by the United States Studies Centre are anonymously peer-reviewed by both internal and external experts.
TABLE OF CONTENTS Key points 02 Months of lockdown after years of protest 03 Conservative protests 04 Progressive protests 11 COVID-19 could politically activate young Americans 15 Conclusion 17 Endnotes 18 About the author 22 This report may be cited as: Elliott Brennan, “Coronavirus and protest: How COVID-19 has changed the face of American activism,” United States Studies Centre at the University of Sydney, May 2020.
KEY POINTS
› The COVID-19 pandemic coincides with an › At this point, only small numbers
historic era of protest in the United States. of conservatives are protesting, yet
movements of all stripes are taking the
› The number of individual protests time to digitally re-tool and prepare to
in the United States significantly mobilise when restrictions are lifted.
diminished at the beginning of the
lockdown, increased in mid-April › Prominent US progressive groups have
and accelerated following President shifted their focus to recognise the
Trump’s LIBERATE tweets on April 17. immediate challenges of household relief,
health support for the most vulnerable
› The biggest increase in protests has and gearing the economic recovery in
been mostly in states that went to the direction of a Green New Deal.
Donald Trump in the 2016 election,
but have Democratic governors. › With younger generations of Americans
bearing a heavy social, educational and
› The pandemic and its economic fallout economic burden while facing the lowest
have created new protest movements and health risk during the pandemic, this crisis
stand to embolden already simmering could activate this otherwise famously
progressive and conservative movements. politically lethargic demographic.
› The lockdown policies across the United
States set the conservative priority of
individual liberty against the progressive
priority of the common good, exacerbating
an already entrenched partisan divide in the
United States.
----
Protestors circle Philadelphia City Hall in vehicles to demand reopening of Pennsylvania, 8 May 2020 (Getty)
UNITED STATES STUDIES CENTRE
2 CORONAVIRUS AND PROTEST: HOW COVID-19 HAS CHANGED THE FACE OF AMERICAN ACTIVISM
MONTHS OF LOCKDOWN
AFTER YEARS OF PROTEST
Protest is a defining characteristic of American But now the loudest social movements in the
society. The Boston Tea Party, the subsequent United States are pro-Trump and anti-lockdown.
Revolutionary War and the splintering Civil
Physical protest in the time of a pandemic is a
War all bear the hallmarks of a national spirit
dangerous and broken tool of civil resistance.
of protest. The First Amendment of the United
Experts, including those in the White House,
States Constitution clearly enshrines freedom of
acknowledge that restric-
assembly, expression and the right to petition as
tive measures will need to be
three of the first five freedoms.1 THIS REPORT
maintained in some form for
CONSIDERS HOW
The last half century has been punctuated by months to stop the spread of
SUCH A DEVASTATING
episodes of great American protest. These the coronavirus and to prevent ECONOMIC DOWNTURN
mass acts of expression, assembly and peti- a “second wave” of cases.4 AND FAR REACHING
tion emanate from the civil rights and anti-war USE OF GOVERNMENT
This report places recent POWER COULD EXPAND
movements in the 1960s and 70s, continued
American protest movements THE SCALE, URGENCY,
through anti-nuclear and gay and lesbian rights
in historical perspective. It AND BOLDNESS
campaigns in the 80s and 90s, came back to the
outlines why conservatives OF CONSERVATIVE
fore at the turn of the century with the anti-glo- AND PROGRESSIVE
are particularly aggrieved by
balisation “Battle of Seattle” and surged during MOVEMENTS BOTH
the lockdowns in many states
the Iraq War. In the 12 years since the Global DURING AND AFTER
and examines the conservative THE PANDEMIC.
Financial Crisis (GFC), protests in the United
players agitating for the easing
States again increased with the Tea Party and
of COVID-19 restrictions,
Occupy movements and accelerated in many
including the president. By using state-level data
directions following the election of President
of the protests, this report maps the number and
Donald Trump in 2016.2
trend of protests in the United States in response
In 2019, American movements like March For to the pandemic restrictions.
Our Lives, Black Lives Matter, #MeToo and the
It also considers how such a devastating
Women’s March, as well as the international
economic downturn and far reaching use of
School Strike For Climate, were important play-
government power could expand the scale,
ers in the global sweep of protests, although
urgency, and boldness of conservative and
they fell well short of scale and impact of the
progressive movements both during and after
Hong Kong protests and the government-break-
the pandemic.
ing movements that took place in countries like
Lebanon, Algeria, Bolivia, Iraq and Sudan.3 The United States is now an immensely divided
nation tackling a high-stakes health crisis and
headed towards a high-stakes presidential elec-
tion.
UNITED STATES STUDIES CENTRE
CORONAVIRUS AND PROTEST: HOW COVID-19 HAS CHANGED THE FACE OF AMERICAN ACTIVISM
3
CONSERVATIVE PROTESTS
What motivates conservative How is COVID-19 playing into this?
protesters?
The stay-at-home and lockdown measures
In recent weeks, much attention has been paid enforced by many states do not sit well with
to groups of conservative protesters demanding the primacy of individual liberty. During March
that their states reopen and they be given the and April, all but five US states paused their local
freedom to work. Personal freedom is a well- economies to varying degrees and issued stay-
known value in American society. In a 2019 United at-home-orders.9 The most severe closed all
States Studies Centre (USSC) survey of Ameri- schools and only kept businesses and opera-
cans and Australians, 74 per cent of Australians tions open that were deemed absolutely essen-
nominated it as a favourable aspect compared tial. Given the scepticism of government inter-
with 87 per cent of Americans.5 The perception of vention in the United States, it is no surprise that
the United States as the land of the state’s role in curtailing this liberty and the
the free is a longstanding one ability to move about freely has provoked, among
THESE PROTESTERS a small fraction of conservatives, a compulsion
but is also one that is funda-
AND THEIR OFTEN-
FLAGRANT DISREGARD mentally disjointed with the to exercise their constitutional right to assem-
FOR SOCIAL COVID-19 pandemic. bly. State governor’s residences and state capi-
DISTANCING, AS WELL tols have been subject to groups of protesters
AS A VISIBLE MINORITY The central role of liberty in demanding that the economy be opened. These
PROUDLY CARRYING conservative American thought protesters and their often-flagrant disregard for
HEAVY FIREARMS, extends to a perception of an social distancing, as well as a visible minority
HAVE DOMINATED individual’s role in determin-
PRESS COVERAGE. proudly carrying heavy firearms, have dominated
ing their own success. This press coverage.
is historical,6 but it continues
to this day, albeit in a more politically charged
manner. In the same USSC survey, 80 per cent The number of protests in the
of Americans who voted for Donald Trump in United States has surged, but the
the 2016 election said that “hard work and ability number of protesters hasn’t
determine how well off a person becomes in
It is possible to ascertain the broad impact the
your country”. Only 43 per cent of those who
lockdown has had on protests in the United
voted for Hillary Clinton in 2016 said the same.
States using data from the Global Database of
This 37-point gap between progressive and
Events, Language and Tone Project (GDELT),
conservative-voting Americans provides a snap-
an open-source academic resource providing
shot of the deep partisan divide in the country.7
information on various “events” stretching back
Similar partisan divisions were on display in a to 1979.10 It can be observed in Figure 1 that the
variety of areas but were largest on issues of number of protests in the United States dimin-
government intervention, where conservatives ished significantly in early March 2020, as the
were considerably more sceptical of the govern- pandemic became apparent in the United States.
ment’s involvement in questions of support for Protests began increasing in mid-March as many
the unemployed, a minimum wage set above the states began to impose stay-at-home and lock-
poverty line and universal healthcare.8 down orders and surged in mid-April. These data
only represent the number of protest events and
not the number of protesters, they show the
UNITED STATES STUDIES CENTRE
4 CORONAVIRUS AND PROTEST: HOW COVID-19 HAS CHANGED THE FACE OF AMERICAN ACTIVISMFigure 1. The number of nation-wide protests in mid-April 2020 eclipsed all 2019 protest movements
GDELT data showing the five-day rolling average of national protests between 1 Jan 2019 and 4 May 2020
Protests against the
300 detention of children in
border camps and for
gun control. President Trump
Global Climate tweets "LIBERATE
Strike for Greta Thunberg MICHIGAN",
Future. leads Global "LIBERATE VIRGINIA",
Climate Strike and
in New York. "LIBERATE MINNESOTA"
Number of protests
in response to
200 COVID-19 lockdowns.
100
0
Apr '19 Aug '19 Dec '19 Apr '20
broad trend of protest against authorities. The ident Trump’s tweets on Friday 17 April issuing a
dataset overwhelmingly represents anti-lock- vague call to “LIBERATE” Virginia, Michigan, and
down protests but includes less-frequent protest Minnesota.13 The number of protests peaked at
actions like those taken by activists seeking more than 400 events on Monday 20 April.14
the release of prisoners at risk to COVID-19.11 It
Figure 2 shows that following the peak on 20
does not include counter-protests, like those
April, protest action levelled out before a second
conducted by healthcare workers in Colorado,12
smaller peak between 1 and 2 May. This peak
as it is coded for protests against government
follows a high-profile protest in Lansing, Michi-
(local, state and federal) and not civil groups.
gan on 30 April when militia groups joined with
The five-day rolling average of protests in 600-700 protesters and staged a high-profile
mid-April 2020 shown in Figure 1 is on par with armed occupation of the state Capitol as the
the peak level of national protests following reve- legislature debated extending the stay-at-home
lations about the prison-like conditions children order.15 President Trump weighed in on this action
were kept in at immigration border camps in July as well, tweeting early in the morning of 1 May
2019. Protest action began trending upward in that the protesters in Michigan were “very good
mid-March 2020 when states began imposing people” and that Governor Gretchen Whitmer
stay-at-home orders. The surge in mid-April should negotiate with them.16
encompasses and then accelerates after Pres-
UNITED STATES STUDIES CENTRE
CORONAVIRUS AND PROTEST: HOW COVID-19 HAS CHANGED THE FACE OF AMERICAN ACTIVISM
5Figure 2. Increase in national protests following LIBERATE tweets
GDELT data for the number of national protests between 1 April and 12 May 2020
President Trump tweets
400 "LIBERATE MICHIGAN", Early morning 1 May,
"LIBERATE VIRGINIA", President Trump tweets that
and "LIBERATE MINNESOTA" armed protesters who
in response to COVID-19 occupied the Michigan
lockdowns on 17 April. Capitol are "very good
people" who should
300 be negotiated with.
Number of protests
200
California issues
first of many state-wide
stay-at-home orders.
100
0
12 March 19 March 26 March 02 April 09 April 16 April 23 April 30 April 07 May 14 May
Date
Since President Trump’s first encouraging tweets, Although the number of protests is high, the
the number of daily protests in the United States number of overall protesters presents a differ-
remained at a baseline significantly higher than ent picture. Preliminary data from the Crowd
most of 2019 — the so-called “year of global Counting Consortium seems to indicate that
protest” — with more than 100 actions per day. these protests have been significantly smaller in
The two occasions that President Trump most scale than many of those that took place through-
notoriously weighed in on the protests corre- out 2019.18 For example, there were an estimated
late with the two largest spikes in protest action, 313,000 protesters in July 2019, compared to a
moments when other presidents would likely preliminary estimate of 43,000 throughout April
have acted to quell actions. Governors like Wash- 2020, including repeat protesters. Many individ-
ington state’s Jay Inslee blasted the president’s ual protests during 2019 eclipsed this number
interventions as attempts at “fomenting domestic many times over. Indeed, the wave of Tea Party
rebellion”.17 These data do not demonstrate that protests a decade earlier on 15 April 2009 mobi-
the president’s interventions caused the protest lised more than 300,000 people in more than
action. Rather, it shows that as can often be the 500 distinct protests across the United States.19
case with Donald Trump, he identified an existing
grievance and amplified it.
UNITED STATES STUDIES CENTRE
6 CORONAVIRUS AND PROTEST: HOW COVID-19 HAS CHANGED THE FACE OF AMERICAN ACTIVISMBut none of these actions occurred during a cially considering the health risks, points to a
pandemic like COVID-19. Protesting at this time genuine agitation across the country that corre-
is a dangerous political act. After 1,500 people lates with the imposition of stay-at-home orders
attended a 24 April rally in Madison, Wiscon- and the president’s high-profile interventions.
sin, more than 70 people tested positive for the
virus who indicated to health officials that they
AstroTurf versus grassroots:
had “attended a large event”.20 As these actions
have centred on state capitols, anonymous cell
The reopen movement is being
phone data has shown that protesters have often pushed from the top down
travelled hundreds of miles and even across This widespread phenomenon of protest is
state lines to attend, before returning home.21 important. These national measures mask the
For some of these protesters, home can be more fact that each state is experiencing the pandemic
rural parts of the United States which often lack differently. Looking at the ten states that had the
the necessary health infrastructure to deal with largest per cent increase in protests between
any outbreak, let alone one as aggressive as the March and April 2020 shows the sharpest
novel coronavirus. increase in protest action in Democratic-gov-
The increase in the number of individual protest erned, split or marginal states coming into the
events, however small the gatherings and espe- 2020 presidential election (Table 1).
Table 1. Per cent increase in state protests between March and April 2020
Rank State Increase Governor Electoral COVID-19 Partial
in protests and college 2016 cases reopening
March-April party affiliation and margin (as at 30 plan
2020 (%) April)22 announced
1 Kentucky 115.0 Andy Beshear Trump 4,375 29 April
(Democrat) (29.8%)
2 Wisconsin 97.0 Tony Evers Trump 6,520 11 May
(Democrat) (0.7%)
3 Colorado 73.0 Jared Polis Clinton 14,735 22 April
(Democrat) (4.9%)
4 Maryland 21.3 Larry Hogan Clinton 20,849 14 May
(Republican) (26.4%)
5 Michigan 15.2 Gretchen Whitmer Trump 40,399 6 May
(Democrat) (0.3%)
6 Washington 13.0 Jay Inslee Clinton 13,842 30 April
state (Democrat) (15.7%)
7 Louisiana 11.9 John Bel Edwards Trump 27,660 11 May
(Democrat) (19.7%)
8 Virginia 10.9 Ralph Northam Clinton 14,961 11 May
(Democrat) (5.4%)
9 Georgia 10.8 Brian Kemp Trump 25,572 20 April
(Republican) (5.1%)
10 Ohio 10.2 Mike DeWine Trump 17,303 27 April
(Republican) (8.1%)
Source: GDELT data of protests against government (local, state, and federal) in the United States between March and April 2020
UNITED STATES STUDIES CENTRE
CORONAVIRUS AND PROTEST: HOW COVID-19 HAS CHANGED THE FACE OF AMERICAN ACTIVISM
7Many of these states listed in Table 1 are Demo- But so long as the protests remain largely non-vi-
cratic-governed but have Republican-controlled olent, their organisation by maleficent forces will
or split state congresses. Several, particularly serve to normalise the act of protest for more
Wisconsin and Michigan are crucial swing states mainstream conservatives feeling the same sharp
in the 2020 presidential election. On the broadest sense of limitation and loss.
sweep, these states are either very conserva-
There is a large degree of politics at play. Pres-
tive, moderate or conservative-leaning (though
ident Trump’s clearest interventions in state
excluding Maryland and Washington state) with
politics have been in Virginia, Michigan, and
governors who have clashed with President
Minnesota — all states with a large increase in
Trump over lockdown policy.23
the number of protests in April and all-important
The combination of a Democratic governor and Electoral College states in the November elec-
a broadly moderate or conservative constituency tion. The president has clashed with governors
can make the governors genuinely appear as a by political convenience. He has most vigorously
“tyrant” dressed in colours at odds with a constit- called for the reopening of Democratic-governed
uent’s personal politics. states, but Republican governors have not been
immune. Maryland’s governor Larry Hogan drew
The conservative protests represent genuine and
the ire of the president when he circumvented the
well-founded concerns about the freedom to
federal government to import personal protec-
provide and maintain a standard of living, but
tive equipment from South Korea.27 Georgia’s
many of the early and high-profile gatherings
governor Brian Kemp initially had the support
were organised and funded by truly far-right
of the president for one of the earliest and most
groups.24 These groups plug into the ideolog-
aggressive reopening policies, but President
ical leanings of conservative
Trump later publicly said he “strongly disagreed”
PRESIDENT TRUMP Americans where and when
with the move.28 Ohio’s Republican governor
HAS FORGONE THE it suits them. They are able to
Mike DeWine has repeatedly contradicted the
OPPORTUNITY TO BE A mobilise conspiracy theorists
NATIONAL UNIFIER AND words of the president in his implementation of
ranging from anti-vaxxers to
HAS SUBSEQUENTLY one of the strongest lockdowns in the country. All
anti-deep state online move-
SHROUDED THE FIGHT three have had to contend with protesters, a large
AGAINST THE VIRUS ments like QAnon. Protest
contingent of which are visibly Trump support-
IN A DANGEROUS organisers have requested that
ers. In his ad hoc handling of the politics of this
POLITICAL CLOAKING. disparate private militia groups
crisis, President Trump has pitted states against
“provide security” and uphold
the federal government, governors against each
the constitutional right of assembly they are exer-
other, and protesters against politicians. He has
cising.25 But as they sweep up these extremists,
forgone the opportunity to be a national unifier
they embolden them. For many of these militia
and has subsequently shrouded the fight against
groups, truthers and government sceptics, this
the virus in a dangerous political cloaking.
is the moment of crisis they have been prepar-
ing to exploit. The fact that Michigan cancelled a
sitting of the legislature on 14 May in the face of
an organised armed protest demonstrates the
power they are being afforded to wield.26 It is
a wicked problem. Ceding to armed intimida-
tion validates its utility, clamping down on it risks
violence.
UNITED STATES STUDIES CENTRE
8 CORONAVIRUS AND PROTEST: HOW COVID-19 HAS CHANGED THE FACE OF AMERICAN ACTIVISMThis opens the way for political entrepreneurs to Conservative opinion leaders in the media,
exploit the partisan divide. A group of conserva- too, have begun to lionise the protesters. Rush
tive leaders, including some with links to the Tea Limbaugh told his listeners that “hunkering
Party Movement of 2009, banded together in late down in total fear is not a hallmark of American
April to form the ‘Save Our Country Taskforce’ history, or American culture”.31 Affiliates of the
which is pushing for eased restrictions.29 Senior alt-right conspiracy bastion Info Wars organ-
members of this taskforce have admitted that ised an early protest in Texas and its founder,
they have been providing technical support to Alex Jones, addressed the crowd shouting
protest organisers and have helped to promote “you can’t close America”.32 Fox News host
the anti-lockdown demonstrations.30 Laura Ingraham, who has been meeting with
Trump in the Oval Office during the pandemic,
retweeted a video of protesters on 16 April with
the message “time to get your freedom back”.33
Partisan media and alternate COVID-19 facts
Cable news viewership in the United States has If the general message of conservative media
skyrocketed to all-time highs during the lock- continues to change in favour of opening the
down, particularly in April.34 economy quickly, it will not necessarily mobilise
Americans in the middle or on the left in the same
The partisan nature of cable news in the United
direction, though other factors may. However,
States was already having an impact on how
existing right-wing partisans may continue to
Americans viewed basic information about the
shift their views with the message of discontent
pandemic in early April. For example, accord-
emerging in these channels.
ing to Pew Research, 56 per cent of Fox News
viewers said the effects of the virus had been
greatly exaggerated, while only 12 per cent of
MSNBC viewers said the same.35 While ratings
have surged, these cable channels still largely
preach to the choir. Ninety-three per cent of Fox
News viewers in the poll identified as Republican
or Republican-leaning, while a mirror 93 per cent
of MSNBC viewers identified as Democrat or
Democrat-leaning.36
Online media consumption in the United States
has surged as well, but it has disproportionately
been directed to less-overtly partisan sources.
Traditional bastions of right-wing sentiment
like Fox News have seen only small increases,
and these messages are not reaching a rapidly
expanding base.37 Getty
UNITED STATES STUDIES CENTRE
CORONAVIRUS AND PROTEST: HOW COVID-19 HAS CHANGED THE FACE OF AMERICAN ACTIVISM
9Armed
protesters at the
“Michiganders
Against
Excessive
Quarantine”
rally in Lansing,
Michigan,
15 April 2020
(Getty)
Staggered reopening will This exacerbates the trend for state-led policy
exacerbate the politics responses to the pandemic to be strongly tied
to the partisanship of the state’s governors and
of the pandemic
legislatures and less to rates of infection and
States began announcing plans to reopen at public health considerations.
varying rates in mid-April, with many coming into
Conservative media support for the protests will
effect in mid-May. Republican governors in states
entrench the anger of those already protesting
like Texas, Georgia and Florida expressed deep
and will normalise the act itself for others. Presi-
concern about the economic consequences of
dent Trump has already seen protest movements
perpetual lockdown and have moved quickly and
as moments of political advantage to seize upon
early to substantially reopen their economies,
and amplify and not as opportunities to instil a
despite the advice of experts and increasing rates
sense of national unity. All these factors will play
of infection.38 Democratic governors generally
out as the November presidential election nears,
have been more cautious, but have announced
as infections and deaths rise, and as the disas-
plans for gradual reopening, some of which
trous economic consequences of the pandemic
include county-based approaches.39 This creates
escalate.
a picture of the United States where some states
and counties have “more freedom” than others.
As such, the disparate policy responses across
the country and intractable nature of a pandemic
could serve to further embolden protesters.
UNITED STATES STUDIES CENTRE
10 CORONAVIRUS AND PROTEST: HOW COVID-19 HAS CHANGED THE FACE OF AMERICAN ACTIVISMPROGRESSIVE PROTESTS
What motivates progressive Linking progressive politics and progressive
protesters? movements ignores the significant lag between
the two. Activists are wont to point out that it can
Generally, progressive protesters in the United take decades of struggle for their goals to be
States are motivated by the notion of equality absorbed by progressive politicians. But crises
— like liberty, another key principle present in can expedite this process.
early American history.40 Unlike conservatives,
progressives tend to prioritise the common good
over individual freedoms. The government’s role
COVID-19 has cleared the streets
is thus to safeguard the common good, rather of massive progressive protests
than stay out of the way.41 President Trump’s The COVID-19 pandemic has hit during a signif-
perceived violations of these values and the icant moment in progressive protest. Protests
unapologetic manner in which he governs have in the United States markedly increased in the
clearly motivated forces on the left. wake of the Global Financial Crisis and acceler-
Definitions of what constitutes the common good ated after the 2016 election. President Trump’s
can vary between (and even within) progres- election itself spawned
sive protest movements and civil rights groups several protest movements
UNLIKE CONSERVATIVES,
depending on historical circumstance.42 Employ- and lit the fire under others PROGRESSIVES TEND
ment rights movements, for example, have more longstanding. Accord- TO SEE FREEDOM AS A
tended to extend this notion to the common good ing to GDELT data compiled COMMITMENT TO THE
by the Center for Strategic COMMON GOOD RATHER
of members and utilise strike action as a stick for
and International Studies, THAN THE INDIVIDUAL
collective bargaining agreements. By contrast, GOOD AND THE
civil rights movements in the 20th century like between January 2017 and
GOVERNMENT’S ROLE AS
the National Association for the Advancement of January 2020, almost 11.5 BEING TO SAFEGUARD
Coloured People (NAACP) take a universal view million Americans partici- THAT RATHER THAN
of the common good and advocate the inclusion pated in more than 16,000 STAY OUT OF THE WAY.
of marginalised people, relying on legal fights, protests — a scale of dissent
legislative pushes, marches and protest. likely eclipsing that of the civil rights movement
when adjusted for population growth.44 In fact, in
The influence of these sways on the politics of the the first three months of the Trump administra-
left in the United States can be readily observed tion, American protests — including those against
in USSC’s 2019 polling. A majority of Clinton 2016 the Muslim ban and more broadly associated
voters overwhelmingly supported government with the #Resistance movement — accounted for
intervention to preserve elements of perceived roughly 40 per cent of the global total.45
common good, such as free tertiary education
(56 per cent), a minimum wage that ensures no In 2019, the American left was a visible presence
family with a full-time worker falls below the in the “year of global protest”, though notably
poverty line (82 per cent), a decent standard of not at the scale of dissent following the inau-
living for the unemployed (61 per cent) and fund- guration of President Trump in 2017.46 The
ing for hospital visits for emergencies and opera- Women’s March had its third iteration,47 thou-
tions to lower the costs for patients (74 per cent).43 sands marched with Swedish climate activist
Trump voters, by contrast, registered between Greta Thunberg in New York,48 Americans across
14 and 28 per cent support across all of these the country were outraged by reports of children
measures. in prison-like conditions at immigration border
camps,49 and various groups agitated for the
UNITED STATES STUDIES CENTRE
CORONAVIRUS AND PROTEST: HOW COVID-19 HAS CHANGED THE FACE OF AMERICAN ACTIVISM
11impeachment of President Trump and for the But in moments of economic calamity, many of
release of the full Mueller report.50 Rallies were the goals of progressives of all stripes can quickly
carried out around the country in opposition to a converge. The Great Depression gave rise to the
spate of state-level anti-abortion laws,51 protests FDR’s New Deal and massive strike actions, and
for stricter gun control measures followed a the Global Financial Crisis birthed the disarrayed
deadly series of mass shootings and El Paso resi- but powerful Occupy Movement, the echoes of
dents protested in the thousands against a visit which accelerated the fortunes of politicians like
from Donald Trump following one such shooting Bernie Sanders who have since stamped their
where the perpetrator drew on the rhetoric of the credentials on Democratic politics.53
president in his manifesto.52
Through the progressive lens, local, state and
Many of the progressive groups prominent federal government’s role in a crisis like COVID-
during the first years of the Trump administration 19 is to take the necessary steps to protect the
have had to withdraw from the streets. It is abun- health of the community first, and then protect
dantly clear that protests and marches now fall their economic wellbeing. Recognising this, the
outside the scope of the common good. As such, most prominent progressive groups in the United
these causes have suffered an attention deficit States have shifted their focus to prioritise the
as the media pivots towards COVID-19 cover- immediate challenges of relief and recovery
age and the spectacle of gun-toting conservative presented by COVID-19.
protesters.
How prominent progressive groups have responded to COVID-19
Black Lives Matter March For Our Lives
Black Lives Matter has pivoted to more urgently The closure of schools in many states has ceased
advocating policy shifts to support prison popu- school shootings and neuters the prospect of
lations, homeless populations and the unem- nationwide school walkouts. But the group had
ployed — all groups in which African Americans already begun to move away from walkouts and
are significantly overrepresented and which face marches since its first in 2018. While 2019 was a
increased exposure to the fallout of COVID-19. big year for gun legislation protests in the United
States following several high-profile mass shoot-
The organisation likewise successfully peti-
ings, the March For Our Lives organisation used
tioned the Centers for Disease Control to aggre-
the year to pivot towards lobbying for legisla-
gate racial data about the spread of the virus, to
tive reform and campaigned for increased voter
inform the increased help black communities
registration. Similarly, although the group was
need going forward. These policy areas are not
born out of a physical tragedy and led by those
new to the movement but have taken on a height-
impacted by the Marjory Stoneman Douglass
ened importance during the pandemic.
shooting, it grew most quickly online.
UNITED STATES STUDIES CENTRE
12 CORONAVIRUS AND PROTEST: HOW COVID-19 HAS CHANGED THE FACE OF AMERICAN ACTIVISMA pandemic does little to stop this kind of activ- Historic accusations of sexual assault against the
ism, but it has influenced the immediate goals of presumptive Democratic nominee Joe Biden
the group. Since the beginning of the pandemic, have surfaced in recent months threatening to
March For Our Lives leaders have focused their split many in the movement from political cham-
attention increasingly on the use of firearms in pions in the Democratic Party and Congress.60
domestic violence and suicides. At the beginning
of the pandemic in the United States sales of
Climate change
guns and ammunition soared.54 The group argues
these sales and the lockdown measures increase Climate activists have had significant difficulty
the risk of accidental shootings, armed domestic cutting through. What has planned to be some of
violence and the use of firearms in suicides. The the largest ever in-person marches on Earth Day
group has also broadened its focus beyond guns in April ended up being broadcast as an under-
to encompass youth issues generally and joined whelming webinar.61 Swedish climate activist
with Democratic Senator Elizabeth Warren and Greta Thunberg’s weekly protests have likewise
Democratic Congresswoman Lucy McBath to been moved online with diminished patronage.
launch a digital initiative called “Our Power” in
School Strike for Climate efforts are ineffective
March 2020.
when there is no school. Activists in this space are
intensely concerned that climate change will be
Women’s rights forgotten or deemed unnecessary spending. The
leading climate groups in the United States like
Movements like #MeToo and The Women’s
the Sunrise Movement and the Extinction Rebel-
March have likewise emphasised the increased
lion are arguing that the incredible economic
risk many women face during lockdown. Women
fallout from the pandemic demands that the
are more likely to be frontline and essential work-
economy be rebuilt and geared green. Affiliated
ers,55 more likely to have been made unem-
experts have advocated what is being termed the
ployed,56 and many more women than usual
Green stimulus deal. This variation of the Green
will not be able to avoid partners who present a
New Deal is a detailed set of plans, infrastructure
direct threat to their lives.57 Additionally, several
investments, labour reform, housing initiatives
states deemed abortions “non-essential” medi-
and foreign policy positions.62
cal treatments during the pandemic, essentially
banning them.58 The Biden campaign has invited climate cham-
pions to the table by way of what have been
Motivated by these broad impacts, dozens of the
dubbed ‘unity task forces’. Each has two chairs,
most prominent women’s rights organisations
one put forward by the Bernie Sanders campaign
have banded together to form the “We Demand
and one put forward by the Biden campaign.
More Coalition”. The collective is pushing
New York Congresswoman Alexandria Ocasio-
Congress for increased relief, more considera-
Cortez, a champion of the Green New Deal, is a
tion and protection of women at risk of domestic
co-chair of the climate taskforce, and its panel
violence, stronger state powers, more protec-
includes Varshini Prakash, the co-founder of the
tions for abortion and more expansive voting
Sunrise Movement.
rights.59
UNITED STATES STUDIES CENTRE
CORONAVIRUS AND PROTEST: HOW COVID-19 HAS CHANGED THE FACE OF AMERICAN ACTIVISM
13The unequal impact of the COVID-19 pandemic The left is mobilising, but not alone
has laid bare and activated structural problems
in American society, demonstrating clearly as Where possible, activists are also finding new
Brown University’s Brandon ways to protest despite the restrictions. The
THE POSITIONS OF Ogbunu writes, that “social Crowd Counting Consortium has reported more
SEVERAL MOVEMENTS, distancing is social justice”.63 than 100 novel methods of mobilisation ranging
PARTICULARLY THOSE from acts of solidarity like balcony applause for
WITH A FOCUS ON An historic surge in unem- healthcare workers to acts of resistance like car
HEALTHCARE, EQUAL ployment caused by a and boat rallies.64 But these lack the effectiveness
ACCESS TO VOTING AND pandemic in a nation where of traditional marches that many organisers are
ECONOMIC EQUALITY, healthcare is contingent
ARE GETTING MORE used to. As such both progressive and conserv-
MAINSTREAM AIRPLAY on employment for most ative activists are viewing the pandemic as a time
THROUGH VECTOR will likely send the progres- for aggressive organisation.
POLITICIANS THAN EVER. sive pushes for Medicare
For All and green economic For marches, protests, strikes, lobbying and legal
reform into hyperdrive. As such, while Washing- action, organisation is the crucial aspect. As the
ton weighs the best options to pull itself out of developed world moves online, activists’ groups
this crisis, the positions of several movements, will be throwing their resources into reinforcing
particularly those with a focus on healthcare, their mailing lists, digital strategies and flexibility.
equal access to voting and economic equality,
Traditionally, such online activity might quickly
are getting more mainstream airplay through
flow into echo chambers, but the nature of this
vector politicians than ever.
crisis has pushed people into the digital space.65
For activists of any persuasion, increased digital
literacy across the board will make organising
efforts in the future significantly more efficient
with larger payoffs.
UNITED STATES STUDIES CENTRE
14 CORONAVIRUS AND PROTEST: HOW COVID-19 HAS CHANGED THE FACE OF AMERICAN ACTIVISMCOVID-19 COULD POLITICALLY ACTIVATE
YOUNG AMERICANS
This report has shown that as it stands, there has to have protections in place. In fact, in early April,
been mobilisation on a small scale on the right Americans 49 years of age and younger repre-
across the country. But beyond the pandemic, sented 2.9 per cent of hospitalisations due to
there is likely to be an appetite for larger-scale COVID-19,66 while 52 per cent of working-age
social activism. Particularly since the civil rights Americans younger than 45 reported a loss of
movement, social movements in the United income directly linked to it.67
States have predominantly been comprised
As The Atlantic’s Anne Lowrey points out, many
of the so-called “next generation”, who have
millennials (between the age of 22 and 38) entered
the most stake in what future movements are
the workforce during a ‘once in a 100 year reces-
pushing for. These are formative years for these
sion’ and have been slammed by another just as
demographics, they’re being offered a picture of
they were finding their feet.68 Additionally, these
the future that strikes many as unfair.
are the generations that will be tasked with paying
Millennials and younger generations are bear- off the vast majority of government debt.
ing a heavy social, educational and economic
It is a common assumption that young people
burden while facing the lowest health risk during
naturally lean towards progressive views.
the pandemic. Disproportionate numbers of
GenForward polling from the University of
young people work in the informal economy,
Chicago tracks the views of Americans 18-36
making them more likely to be the first to be
on a bi-monthly basis, and its results consist-
made redundant or have hours cut and less likely
Protesters are seen in New York City’s Battery Park as activist Greta Thunberg leads the Youth Climate Strike,
20 September 2019 (Getty)
UNITED STATES STUDIES CENTRE
CORONAVIRUS AND PROTEST: HOW COVID-19 HAS CHANGED THE FACE OF AMERICAN ACTIVISM
15ently support this claim. The polling released An unequal financial burden, an anti-globalisa-
in February, as the pandemic was taking hold, tion stance and racially motivated arguments
showed that majorities of young people across about the virus’ origin are already finding a strong
racial lines in the United States strongly or some- conservative audience and show the directions
what support a universal basic income, that the that conservative movements might take that
government should guarantee jobs, and that could attract young Americans heavily impacted
the super-wealthy should be taxed more.69 As a by the COVID-19 pandemic. There is historical
whole, American millennials and younger gener- precedent, too, for increased receptiveness to
ations are more receptive to arguments about right-wing movements in the wake of severe
inequality in society and as economic hardship. The growth of the Tea Party
such, the progressive causes movement after the GFC is an obvious example,
FOR MANY IN THESE detailed in the section above but one working paper by the Federal Reserve
YOUNGER GENERATIONS, could be seen to have been Bank of New York on the historical impact of a
THIS IS THE SHORTEST
validated by the pandemic global pandemic has also found a direct corre-
POLICY PIPELINE THEY
HAVE BEEN EXPOSED and their urgency increased. lation in the regional impact that influenza had in
TO. WITH AN INCREASED Germany in 1918, municipal spending as a result
CAPACITY TO “FEEL” THE But the progressive idea
and then regional voting rates for the National
DIRECT AND IMMEDIATE of the common good can
Socialist Workers Party (Nazi Party) in the 1932
IMPACT OF POLICY, fall apart when it is as pain-
and 1933 Reichstag elections.71
MANY WILL START TO ful to uphold as it currently
THINK ABOUT THEIR seems to be. As such, there While they may not be taking to the streets in
LOT IN NEW WAYS. are conservative pathways large numbers, for many in these younger gener-
for developing movements ations, this is the shortest policy pipeline they
as well. The same polling shows that there was have been exposed to. With an increased capac-
already an impending sense of political loss ity to “feel” the direct and immediate impact of
and streak of conservatism among young white policy, many will start to think about their lot in
Americans before COVID-19. Nearly half of this new ways. In concert with the increased focus on
demographic in February 2020 said that discrim- structural notions of the economy like “essen-
ination against white people has become “as big a tial” and “non-essential” workers, stratification in
problem” as discrimination against other races.70 society by age, as well as record levels of news
It is pertinent to remember that the 2017 “Unite consumption, this crisis could politically acti-
the Right” rally in Charlottesville, Virginia was vate an otherwise famously politically lethargic
overwhelming attended by young white men. demographic.
UNITED STATES STUDIES CENTRE
16 CORONAVIRUS AND PROTEST: HOW COVID-19 HAS CHANGED THE FACE OF AMERICAN ACTIVISMCONCLUSION
The COVID-19 pandemic will leave an indeli- Protesting at its heart is a political act. Many
ble mark on the United States. While physical people are now experiencing the immediate
marches may be out of the question for many, impacts of policy at the point at which they feel
the COVID-19 pandemic has already done much most hopeless about their ability to provide for
more to animate protest movements than it has themselves and their families. The president has
to kill them. done nothing to assuage those who are agitated
and to posit the health necessity of the actions.
President Trump has amplified the volatility of
By failing to offer this political cover, President
conservative protests on several occasions. He
Trump has laid the blame of any consequences at
has directed them at his political enemies and
the doorsteps of state governor’s mansions. With
has leveraged them to defer responsibility for the
vested interests and high-profile media personal-
grievances of Americans during this crisis.
ities lionising the bravery of these protesters, the
For progressives, these economic consequences actions could continue despite eased restrictions
and their unequal distribution demonstrates in the future.
the need for extensive, economy-wide reform.
The implications of such activation on either side
The president’s actions and the very presence
of the political spectrum could have grave conse-
of protesters during a pandemic quickens the
quences for the already fractured state of the
view that he is endangering the most vulnerable
American union headed towards a high-stakes
people in society. While they do not see it fit
presidential election.
to protest on the street, progressive groups are
aggressively organising and innovating during
this pandemic.
UNITED STATES STUDIES CENTRE
CORONAVIRUS AND PROTEST: HOW COVID-19 HAS CHANGED THE FACE OF AMERICAN ACTIVISM
17ENDNOTES
1. In companion with freedoms concerning facing-risk-of-coronavirus-in-state-prisons.html
religion and freedom of the press. 12. David Williams, “Health workers face anti-lockdown
2. Samuel J. Brannen, Christian S. Haig, Katherine protesters in dramatic photos, CNN.com, 21 April 2020.
Schmidt, “The Age of Mass Protest: Understanding Accessed online: https://edition.cnn.com/2020/04/20/
an Escalating Trend,” Centre for Strategic and us/coronavirus-colorado-health-care-trnd/index.html
International Studies, March 2020. Accessed 13. Michael D. Shear, Sarah Mervosh, “Trump Encourages
online: https://csis-prod.s3.amazonaws.com/ Protest Against Governors Who Have Imposed Virus
s3fs-public/publication/200303_MassProtests_ Restrictions,” The New York Times, 17 April 2020.
V2.pdf?uL3KRAKjoHfmcnFENNWTXdUbf0Fk0Qke Accessed online: https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/17/
3. Keith Johnson, “2019: A Year of Global us/politics/trump-coronavirus-governors.html
Protest,” Foreign Policy, 23 December 2019. 14. “Donald Trump urges supporters to ‘liberate’ states,
Accessed online: https://foreignpolicy. encouraging protest against coronavirus restrictions,”
com/2019/12/23/2019-a-year-of-global-protest/ Australian Broadcasting Commission, 18 April
4. Olivia Laughland, “Birx declines to criticise Trump 2020. Accessed online: https://www.abc.net.au/
and warns distancing will last months,” The news/2020-04-18/usa-protests-for-coronavirus-
Guardian, 27 April 2020. Accessed online: https:// reopening-after-donald-trump-tweet/12160930
www.theguardian.com/world/2020/apr/26/ 15. Steve Almasy, Rebekah Riess, “Protesters pour
coronavirus-birx-trump-disinfectant-remarks into Michigan Capitol calling for an end of state
5. Simon Jackman, Shaun Ratcliff, Jared Mondschein, of emergency,” CNN.com, 1 May 2020. Accessed
Zoe Meers, Elliott Brennan, “Public opinion in the age online: https://edition.cnn.com/2020/04/30/us/
of Trump: The United States and Australia compared,” michigan-stay-at-home-protest/index.html
The United States Studies Centre, December 2019. 16. Donald Trump (@realDonaldTrump), Tweet at 1
Accessed online: https://www.ussc.edu.au/analysis/public- May 2020. Accessed online: https://twitter.com/
opinion-in-the-united-states-and-australia-compared realDonaldTrump/status/1256202305680158720?s=20
6. Alexis de Tocqueville. Democracy in America, 17. Morgan Chalfant, “Inslee accuses Trump of
Sanders & Oatley, London, 1835-1840. ‘fomenting domestic rebellion,’ The Hill, 17 April
7. Ibid. 2020. Accessed online: https://thehill.com/
8. Ibid. homenews/administration/493404-inslee-accuses-
trump-of-fomenting-domestic-rebellion
9. North and South Dakota, Nebraska, Iowa and Arkansas
did not issue orders: Sarah Mervosh, Denise Lu, Vanessa 18. The Crowd Counting Consortium is a crowd-sourced
Swales, “See Which States and Cities Have Told Residents database of dissent in the United States. It uses manual
to Stay at Home,” The New York Times, last updated 20 counts and estimation based on photos of events as well
April 2020. Accessed online: https://www.nytimes.com/ as news and social media reports. With a large margin
interactive/2020/us/coronavirus-stay-at-home-order.html of error, it is most useful in cases like these to show large
disparities between counts; accessed online: https://sites.
10. The GDELT Project’s database uses machine learning to
google.com/view/crowdcountingconsortium/home
scrape and compile instances of protest with verifiable
mentions in the media. Scraping media reports in such 19. Nate Silver, “Tea Party Non-Partisan Attendance
a way means that the dataset is liable to missing smaller- Estimates: Now 300,000+,” FiveThirtyEight.com, 16
scale actions that do not garner media attention. By April 2009. Accessed online: https://fivethirtyeight.
nature, the data is approximate and by no means a com/features/tea-party-nonpartisan-attendance/
completely accurate account of every instance of protest. 20. Jessica Vanegeren, “72 COVID positive after attending
But it provides a worthwhile picture of temporal and large event,” Up North News, 13 May 2020. Accessed
geographic protest trends. For an example of the dataset online: https://upnorthnewswi.com/2020/05/08/more-
used on a global scale, see Samuel Brannon and Christian than-70-covid-positive-after-attending-large-event/
Haig’s already-referenced and excellent “The Age of 21. Jason Wilson, “US lockdown protests may have
Mass Protest” report: https://csis-prod.s3.amazonaws. spread virus widely, cellphone data suggests,” The
com/s3fs-public/publication/200303_MassProtests_ Guardian, 18 May 2020. Accessed online: https://www.
V2.pdf?uL3KRAKjoHfmcnFENNWTXdUbf0Fk0Qke theguardian.com/us-news/2020/may/18/lockdown-
11. For example: Malachi Barrett, “Protesters urge Whitmer protests-spread-coronavirus-cellphone-data
to release Michigan inmates facing risk of coronavirus in 22. The COVID Tracking Project. Accessed
state prisons,” MLive Michigan, 16 April 2020. Accessed online: https://covidtracking.com/data
online: https://www.mlive.com/public-interest/2020/04/
23. Washington state was the site of the first major outbreak
protesters-urge-whitmer-to-release-michigan-inmates-
in the United States and subsequently had one of the
UNITED STATES STUDIES CENTRE
18 CORONAVIRUS AND PROTEST: HOW COVID-19 HAS CHANGED THE FACE OF AMERICAN ACTIVISMfirst and most severe stay at home orders; Maryland Sun, “34 days of pandemic: inside Trump’s desperate
had an earlier and more comprehensive lockdown attempts to reopen America,” The Washington Post, 3
in place than other Republican-governed states. May 2020. Accessed online: https://www.washingtonpost.
24. Isaac Stanley-Becker, Tony Romm, “The anti-quarantine com/politics/34-days-of-pandemic-inside-trumps-
protests seem spontaneous. But behind the scenes, desperate-attempts-to-reopen-america/2020/05/02/
a powerful network is helping,” The Washington e99911f4-8b54-11ea-9dfd-990f9dcc71fc_story.html
Post, 22 April 2020. Accessed online: https://www. 34. “Cable news soars to record ratings during coronavirus
washingtonpost.com/politics/inside-the-conservative- pandemic,” Axios, 29 April 2020. Accessed online:
networks-backing-anti-quarantine-protests/2020/04/22/ https://www.axios.com/cable-news-ratings-coronavirus-
da75c81e-83fe-11ea-a3eb-e9fc93160703_story.html 89a3722a-752b-4646-9db4-c58f0ce97c3d.html
25. Jane Coaston, “The private militias providing ‘security’ 35. Mark Jurkowitz, Amy Mitchell, “Cable TV and
for anti-lockdown protests,” Vox.com, 11 May 2020. COVID-19: How Americans perceive the outbreak and
Accessed online: https://www.vox.com/2020/5/11/21249166/ view media coverage differ by main news source,”
militias-protests-coronavirus-michigan-security Pew Research, 1 April 2020. Accessed online: https://
26. Carol Thompson, “Capitol building will be closed during www.journalism.org/2020/04/01/cable-tv-and-covid-
Lansing protest because legislature won’t meet,” Lansing 19-how-americans-perceive-the-outbreak-and-view-
State Journal, 13 May 2020. Accessed online: https://www. media-coverage-differ-by-main-news-source/
lansingstatejournal.com/story/news/2020/05/13/michigan- 36. Ibid.
capitol-closed-during-coronavirus-protest/5183573002/ 37. Ella Koeze, Nathaniel Popper, “The virus changed the way
27. Sophia Barnes and Associated Press, “Maryland governor we internet,” The New York Times, 7 April 2020. Accessed
says state will re-open in a gradual way,” NBC Washington, online: https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/04/07/
6 May 2020. Accessed online: https://www.nbcwashington. technology/coronavirus-internet-use.html
com/news/local/maryland-gov-says-state-will-reopen- 38. Jack Healy, Manny Fernandez, Peter Baker, “Reopening
in-safe-gradual-way-despite-protests/2291303/ Plans Across U.S. Are Creating Confusing Patchwork,”
28. Kristen Holmes, Kaitlan Collins, Eric Bradner, “Trump The New York Times, 27 April 2020. Accessed
says he ‘strongly’ disagreed with move to reopen online: https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/27/us/
Georgia — contradicting source who said he agreed coronavirus-governors-states-reopening.html
with it,” CNN.com, 23 April 2020. Accessed online: 39. Michael E. Miller, Gregory S. Schneider, Fenit Nirappil,
https://edition.cnn.com/2020/04/22/politics/trump- “Northam confirms Northern Virginia likely to be excluded
pence-georgia-governor-brian-kemp/index.html from initial reopening,” The Washington Post, 12 May
29. Fredreka Schouten, “White House-allied conservatives 2020. Accessed online: https://www.washingtonpost.com/
band together to support economic reopening,” CNN. local/northam-confirms-northern-virginia-likely-to-be-
com, 27 April 2020. Accessed online: https://edition. excluded-from-initial-reopening/2020/05/11/2aa6255a-
cnn.com/2020/04/27/politics/conservative-trump- 9399-11ea-91d7-cf4423d47683_story.html
allies-economy-reopening-lobbying/index.html 40. Particularly evident in the Declaration of
30. Ibid. Independence, the preamble to the United
31. Rush Limbaugh Show 17 April 2020 transcript and States Constitution and eventually in the 14th
tape, posted at: Media Matters Staff, “Cheering Amendment to the United States Constitution.
protests against social distancing, Rush Limbaugh 41. John Halpern, Marta Cook. “Social Movements and
likens risks from opening the economy to risks of Progressivism,” report for the Center for American
fighting in world wars,” MediaMatters.com, 17 April Progress, April 2010. Accessed online: https://
2020. Accessed online: https://www.mediamatters. cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/
org/coronavirus-covid-19/cheering-protests-against- issues/2010/04/pdf/progressive_social_movements.pdf
social-distancing-rush-limbaugh-likens-risks-opening 42. See for example the splintering of the Women’s March: Liz
32. Lois Beckett, “Protesters decry stay-at-home orders Robbins, “How New York City Ended Up With 2 Competing
in Maryland, Texas and Ohio capitals,” The Guardian, Women’s Marches,” The New York Times, 16 January 2019.
19 April 2020. Accessed online: https://www. Accessed online: https://www.nytimes.com/2019/01/16/
theguardian.com/world/2020/apr/18/stay-at-home- nyregion/womens-march-rally-nyc.html
order-protest-lockdown-maryland-texas-ohio 43. Jackman et al, “Public opinion in the age of Trump”.
33. Laura Ingram (@IngramAngle), Tweet, 16 April 2020. 44. Global Database of Events, Language and Tone
Accessed online: https://twitter.com/IngrahamAngle/ (GDELT) data in Brannen et al “The Age of Mass
status/1250462822577975296?s=20 ; Philip Rucker, Josh Protest”: https://csis-prod.s3.amazonaws.com/
Dawsey, Yasmeen Abutaleb, Robert Costa, Lena H. s3fs-public/publication/200303_MassProtests_
UNITED STATES STUDIES CENTRE
CORONAVIRUS AND PROTEST: HOW COVID-19 HAS CHANGED THE FACE OF AMERICAN ACTIVISM
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