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Comparing Professionalisation in Adult
and Continuing Education
Regina Egetenmeyer - 9783631666357
Downloaded from PubFactory at 03/08/2021 09:39:18PM
via free accessRegina Egetenmeyer - 9783631666357
Downloaded from PubFactory at 03/08/2021 09:39:18PM
via free accessVerena Liszt, Mina Toko & Xiaojin Yan
Adult education and its key actors in academic
professionalisation – a comparison between
China, India and the European Union
Abstract
Understandings of adult education and its academic professionalisation vary by country.
In this paper, China, India, and the European Union will be compared regarding the mean-
ing of adult education and the ways in which these understandings have been developed.
The focus is on academic professionalisation, which is also going to be clarified for all
three countries. After discussing each country separately, the comparison will focus on
similarities and differences. This includes the analysis of the key actors in academic profes-
sionalisation at the macro, meso, and micro levels. The results provide an overview of the
three countries and lead to the final conclusion that even though the topics are similar, the
country-specific ways of development offer different opportunities.
Introduction
Each country has a different understanding of adult education: To be able to
compare and discuss the future of adult education, it is necessary to discuss dif-
ferent understandings. This paper presents different countries and their defini-
tions and meanings of adult education. To be able to understand a country and
its education system, the historical development of the education sector, with a
focus on adult education, needs to be considered. The historical development
shows its impact on the education systems as well as on academic profession-
alisation in each country. In this article, we not only discuss the adult education
sector as a whole but also identify the most important actors in adult education
in each country.
Academic professionalisation is, on the one hand, understood as an ongoing
improvement process with high-level indicators for adult education as a whole, for
example, a focus on the implementation of quality assurance systems in the insti-
tutions, as well as the improvement of programme structures. On the other hand,
academic professionalisation can be understood as a biographical approach focus-
ing on the individual development of adult educators or students. Egetenmeyer
und Schüssler (2014) describe academic professionalisation as a development of
structural factors, including university-based degree programmes, which have
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changed through the Bologna reform and are now diverse all over Europe. An
important issue for academic professionalisation at universities is the connection
to the field of work of adult education. The biographical approach is focused on
the individual development of competences. This cannot be identified as a specific
development because it could happen in different ways: for example, first theoreti-
cal and then practical professionalisation, or via continuing education after people
already started working as adult educators, and so on. But it is not just academic
training that matters for individual professionalisation; other programmes and
field experiences, including informal learning processes, need to be considered
as well (cf. Egetenmeyer & Schüssler, 2014, pp. 29, 32ff.).
China
Definition of adult education and its purpose
The ancient idea, and hence the original understanding, of adult education in
China was founded in the Han dynasty. Adult education was created to teach
people how to become a politician or leader. Modern adult education started with
the founding of the People’s Republic of China. In the face of the illiterate popula-
tion, which accounted for more than 80 per cent of the nation’s population, the
government issued a call for ‘developing literacy education and gradually reducing
the illiterates’. (Adult Education, online) The Guidelines for Educational Reform
and Development in China promulgated in 1993 pointed out: ‘Adult education is a
new education system which plays an important role both in the development of
conventional school education toward lifelong education and in the continuous
enhancement of the national quality and in the promotion of economic, social
development.’ (Adult Education, online) The systems of adult education are: adult
primary education (including literacy classes), secondary education, adult edu-
cation, and higher education, providing remote, correspondence, and academic
instruction (Education in China: A Survey, online).
Historical development of academic professionalisation
in adult education
2,500 years ago, China established a tradition of an education system mainly
based on the ideas of Confucius, which has influenced the Chinese people. This
was the first idea for adult education in China. Chinese ancient official educa-
tion was called taixue, which means ‘greatest study or learning’, sometimes called
‘imperial academy’ or ‘imperial university’ (cf. Ban, 1962, p. 56). Unlike classic
European universities, they were influenced by Confucius and Chinese literature
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and designed for high-level civil service, so the ancient adult education was cre-
ated for training politicians (cf. Wang, 2013, p. 7).
As Hayhoe points out: ‘In conscious reaction to the narrow fragmentation and
exclusivist orientation towards expertise of Soviet patterns, Mao directed in 1957
that “our educational policy must enable everyone to develop morally, intellectu-
ally, and physically and become a worker with socialist consciousness and culture”.
Furthermore, “education must serve proletarian politics and be combined with
productive labour.”’ (Hayhoe, 1989, p. 72)
This education system is not suitable for human-oriented education. And the
educational content very easily falls behind the times. The old system no longer
lived up to professional needs. China’s educational system is gradually reform-
ing these years. The academic degree system now features bachelor’s, master’s,
and doctoral degrees, as well as post-doctoral research. As Ouyang points out,
‘a relatively rational higher education system was set up with different subjects,
different aspects, and different levels’ (Ouyang, 2004, p. 143).
Since 1980, China has formulated a series of laws and regulations. Such laws
and regulations to promote the development of education, to protect the rights of
citizens to receive education, and to promote universal education is an important
safeguard. And in recent years, government expenditure on education continues
to increase, establishing a sound mechanism to ensure the priority of education
development. Government is controlling education by kind of playing a support-
ing role (cf. Chen, 2013, p. 105).
India
Definition of adult education and its purpose
India has a special definition of adult education, which has grown from different
social, economic, political, and historical conditions. Although the definition of
adult education has changed as the concept of adult education has undergone
significant changes over time, adult literacy remains the core concern on which
Indian adult education is defined to this day (cf. Shah, 1999, p.4). In India, the term
adult education normally refers to adult literacy promotion activities. The varia-
tions in the definition of adult education in the Indian context can be understood
in three phases: ancient India, British India, and contemporary India.
In ancient Indian society, adult education followed a traditional approach to
literacy. It was a process of learning, which was in the form of religious and other
community activities such as storytelling, religious operas, reading of religious
scripture, village markets, and different forms of traditional performing and arts.
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The process of learning was largely oriented to the needs of the community and
aimed at making an individual a fit member of the community (cf. Syam, 1981, p. 1).
During British rule (eighteenth and nineteenth century), as a colonised nation,
India had a vast illiterate, poor, and marginalised population. Therefore, the main
thrust of adult education during colonial rule revolved around basic literacy. The
purpose of basic literacy was to educate illiterate adults using the core curriculum
of the 3R’s – that is, reading, writing, and arithmetic – to make them aware of their
rights, to eradicate poverty, and to disseminate scientific knowledge. Most signifi-
cantly, adult education was planned and designed as a community development
programme. It was also a chief instrument to motivate the masses to fight against
colonial rule and for the freedom of India (cf. Shah, 1999, p. 3).
Adult education in contemporary India is considered to encompass more than
imparting the 3Rs to illiterate adults and community development. During the
past century, adult education in India absorbed several national and international
theories, practices, and approaches, leading to the emergence of broader concept.
So, in the context of such global influences, adult education in India has adopted a
new nomenclature, purpose, and definition. Nowadays, adult education is defined
as lifelong education to broaden the horizon of the people (cf. Batra, 1980, p. 3). It is
a process of acquiring knowledge, learning from daily living, and developing work-
oriented skills (vocational education) to overcome economic deprivation and to
create awareness of social disparities and political engagement (Adult Education
India, online). Moreover, it has become a discipline of research and study. Thus, it
is possible to think of the distinctiveness of adult education in a pluralist country
like India, where it is defined primarily in relation to basic literacy, as acquiring
desirable knowledge pertaining to civic needs and adopting political and occu-
pational skills to become a productive part of the system (cf. Paintal, 2006, p. 56).
Historical development of academic professionalisation
in adult education
India developed a variety of adult education programmes in the past, with continu-
ous shifts in focus and content. Along with universal elementary education, adult
education always had a place in India’s national discourse and policy deliberations
due to the importance and overriding priority of literacy (cf. NLM, 2008, p. 6). But
there has barely been any serious initiative for academic professionalisation in adult
education. In fact, adult education remained outside the domain of professionalisa-
tion (cf. Shah, 2006, p. 263). However, there are certain milestones that contributed
to the development of academic professionalisation in adult education, which varies
depending on the political circumstances in India.
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During the phase of the Indian National Congress (INC), the Indian Adult
Education Association (IAEA) was established in 1939 to promote adult educa-
tion in India through seminars, conferences, workshops, training programmes,
publications, and the dissemination of relevant information pertaining to the
subject. In 1949, the Central Board of Education suggested a new and compre-
hensive concept of adult education known as Social Education, which included
literary work, cultural and recreational activities, and civic education. The Union
Minister of Education provided supporting services to the programme by making
a budget allocation. India’s ‘Five-Year Plan’ (1951–1956) and the 1968 National
Policy of Education (NPE) made recommendations to emphasise the planning,
implementation, and supervision of adult education programmes. Departments of
adult education were set up in universities, and certificate courses were offered. In
1956, the National Fundamental Education Centre (NFEC) was established with
a grant from UNESCO to produce research and professional literature (cf. Shah,
1999, pp. 343–44).
But soon after the Janata Party (JP) took over the premiership in 1977, the
highest priority in educational planning was assigned to adult education along
with the universalisation of elementary education. In 1978, the first nationwide
adult education initiative, National Adult Education Programme (NAEP), was
launched. The main objective of NAEP was to organise adult education pro-
grammes, with literacy as an indispensable component (cf. Batra, 1980, pp. 8–9).
With the change in government and the return of INC in 1980, the Government
of India (GoI) formulated NPE-1986, which was a turning point as it became a
strategy document to rekindle the literacy movement in India. Consequently, the
GoI launched the National Literacy Mission (NLM) in 1988 for the purpose of
imparting functional literacy to the 80 million illiterate adults by 1995 (cf. Shah,
1999, p. 347). Most of the adult education programmes were made more profes-
sional to some extent after the launch of the NLM by conceiving a standard-
ised training curriculum for the functionaries acting at various levels in terms
of content, duration, certification, and so on. A few universities started offering
regular courses leading to certification, graduation, post-graduation, and doctoral
degrees in adult education. This promoted basic standards for adult education
professionals. Besides, large numbers of adult educators got involved in diverse
activities such as teaching, training research counselling, and programme plan-
ning and management to professionalise adult education with a view to its effec-
tiveness. In 2009, based on a reformed vision to create Literate India, a new adult
education programme named Saakshar Bharat was formulated with four broader
objectives: imparting functional literacy and numeracy to non-literates; acquiring
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equivalency to formal educational system; imparting relevant skill development
programmes; and promoting a learning society by providing opportunities for
continuing education (MHRD-Saakshar Bharat, online).
European Union
Considering the history of the European Union countries, with all their wars
against each other, the goal of the European Union itself is easier to understand.
This is because the European Union was created to achieve the political goal of
peace, but its dynamism and success springs from its involvement in economics
(cf. Lima & Guimarães, 2011, pp. 3–7). The following paragraphs are an attempt
to discuss a corporate understanding of adult education in the European Union.
Definition of adult education and its purpose
In the eighteenth century, adult education emerged; since the twentieth century
(mostly after World War 2), adult education has been growing (cf. Lima & Gui-
marães, 2011, pp. 18–19). But adult education is and will continue to be widely
diverse in nature, involving a rich assortment of actors trying to influence the idea
of professionalisation in their own countries or throughout the European Union.
There are regional differences in Europe, but there is also overlap. The Council
of the European Union states that ‘adult learning is a vital component of the
lifelong-learning continuum, covering the entire range of formal, non-formal,
and informal learning activities, general and vocational, undertaken by adults
after leaving initial education and training’ (Council Resolution 2011/C 372/01,
p. 3). According to the European Association for the Education of Adults (EAEA),
adult education is key for enhancing skills, competences, and social participation
in Europe. It includes general and liberal adult education as well as vocational
education and training; the focus is not only on basic skills but also on personal
development and active citizenship (cf. EAEA-Report, 2013, p. 10). CEDEFOP
papers show a similar definition, where adult education includes general or vo-
cational education provided for adults after initial education and training for
professional and/or personal purposes (cf. CEDEFOP, 2008, p. 25). Overall, the
definitions are different but the meaning is similar.
Historical development of academic professionalisation
in adult education
The European Union and its strategies and corporate developments need to be
mentioned shortly to give an overview of the discussion about adult education in
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the EU context. The 1957 Treaty of Rome mentions ‘assistance for occupational
re-training to ensure productive employment’, which goes in the direction or can
be part of adult education. During the 1970s, the EU discussion on adult education
was started indirectly by the influence on education through programmes like the
European Social Fund and so on. In 1992, the Treaty of Maastricht mentioned
quality assurance as an important focus for cooperation, as well as harmonisation
in education between the member states. In 1996, the European Union concentrat-
ed on lifelong learning as a specific topic. The 1997 Treaty of Amsterdam included
the restructuring of established education programmes. This treaty was supported
by the Luxembourg Summit (1997) and Vienna Summit (1998), which espoused
the goals of employability, entrepreneurship, adaptability, and equal opportunities
(cf. Lima & Guimarães, 2011, pp. 69ff.). In 1999, the Bologna Process started, with
all ministries of education from all member states working together to implement
a European Higher Education Area. The most important regulations are 1) a three-
cycle structure of postsecondary degrees (bachelor–master–PhD), which should
be comparable between all signing states, 2) the European Credit Transfer System
to make different classes, courses, and study programmes comparable all over
Europe, 3) mobility opportunities for students, researchers, and teachers, and 4)
stronger visibility of European Union topics at all European universities to foster
European thinking (cf. Bologna Process, 2013/C 251 E/04, online).
The Lisbon Strategy (2000) stated the objective that the European Union be-
come the world’s most dynamic and competitive economy by 2010 through the
modernisation of the European social model, a decentralised approach concerning
its member states, and transparency in the education sector, for instance through
implementing the European Qualification Framework, which enables all member
states to compare the outcomes of the different formal education systems. Follow-
ing the key ideas of the Lisbon Strategy, the Memorandum on Lifelong Learning
aimed to foster active citizenship and to promote employability. Other supportive
documents are the 2010 European Commission document about Education and
Training, the 2006 document Adult Learning: It is never too late to learn, and the
2007 Action Plan on Adult Learning: It is always a good time to learn. From 2007
to 2013, lifelong learning programmes where implemented in EU member states
(cf. Lima & Guimarães, 2011, pp. 77–110). The Europe 2020 strategy for smart,
sustainable, and inclusive growth acknowledges lifelong learning and skills de-
velopment as key elements (cf. Council Resolution, 2011, pp. 1–2). The European
Agenda for Adult Learning (2012) builds on the Europe 2020 strategy, the Action
Plan on Adult Learning 2008–2010 and the ET2020. The priorities are: 1) to make
lifelong learning and mobility reality, 2) to improve the quality and efficiency of
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education and training, 3) to promote equity, social cohesion, active citizenship
through adult learning, 4) to enhance the creativity and innovation of adults and
their learning environments, and 5) to improve the knowledge base and monitor-
ing of the adult learning sector (EAEA-Priorities, online).
Functioning of key actors in adult education at
the macro, meso, and micro levels
When discussing different understandings of adult education and the historical
development of academic professionalisation in adult education, it is also im-
portant to talk about the key actors. The following table gives a short overview of
key actors in the three countries and shows that the structure and the included
institutions are similar although the function and the power of the institutions
are different.
Table 1: Comparison of Key Actors in China, India, and the European Union
China India European Union
(EU)
MACRO Government Ministry of Human Resource Develop- EU member states/
ment (MHRD), University Commission EU institutions:
Grant (UGC) the apex statutory body of EAEA and CEDE-
higher education in India, Indian Adult FOP
Education Association (IAEA)
MESO Universities/ Universities, non-governmental orga- Universities/
academic nisations (NGOs), Institute of Peoples adult education
colleges Learning Jan Shikshan Sansthan (JSS), institutions
State Resource Centres (SRC’s)
MICRO Students Adult educators/students Adult educators/
students
At first glance, the key actors look similar, but there are important differences
and background information that need to be mentioned, for instance regarding
the ways in which the levels can influence each other. The information about the
influence of the levels can help us understand the development of adult education
and its difficult and long-lasting process of professionalisation.
China
At the macro level, the government plays an important role. China is home to
about one-fifth of the world’s population. To rule such a big country, the gov-
ernment should have very strong controlling powers. Based on this power, the
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government can decide over the education system. All the efforts are aimed at
further improving the modern national education system, developing the system
of lifelong education, and building a modernised socialist education system with
Chinese characteristics (cf. National report, p. 8).
In earlier years, after the founding of communist China, the government had
the power to micro-manage all Chinese universities, which didn’t have any right
to decide themselves. Nowadays, Chinese universities have more development
space, but they are still under the control of the government. From the Chinese
universities’ point of view, the easiest way of managing the different disciplines
is to establish academic professionalisation, which would function like a frame.
The contemporary social division of labour is getting smaller and becoming more
professional. Employment trends have diversified. According to the diversity of
career needs, Chinese universities have established and divided their disciplines
by different occupations. At the micro level, students are the main participants.
Given China’s strong economic development, the number of college students is
increasing rapidly. For example, from 1998 to 2001, the number of master’s stu-
dents in China increased from 150,000 to 290,000, meaning an increase of 93 per
cent. From 2001 to 2003, PhD students increased from 45,000 to 77,000, mean-
ing an increase of 71 per cent (cf. Ouyang, 2004, p. 146). Every individual will
influence the professionalisation of adult education. More and more students are
participating at this level, making rapid advances towards the development of
academic professionalisation.
India
At the macro level, the Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD)
works through the Department of School Education & Literacy (SE&L). The de-
partment of SE&L is responsible for upholding the essence and role of adult edu-
cation as articulated in the 1986 and 1992 National Policies on Education (NPE).
It undertakes various adult education schemes, programmes, and initiatives, and
promotes the same along with universal elementary education. Secondly, the Uni-
versity Grant Commission (UGC), a statutory body of the Government of India
and the only grant-giving agency in the country, supports the institutionalisation
of adult education programmes, such as the establishment of university depart-
ments and the development of accredited courses at certificate and degree level
(MHRD-UGC, online). However, the progress of academic professionalisation in
adult education varies depending on the policy adopted by UGC (cf. Shah, 2013,
p. 6). On the other hand, IAEA, a pioneering national-level voluntary organisation,
promotes adult education as a field of practice and discipline of study.
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At the meso level, the universities, institutes of peoples learning such as JSS,
SRCs, and NGOs are the key actors to promote academic professionalisation in
adult education. The universities are pioneers in the process of professionalisa-
tion. Certain universities in India made efforts to strengthen adult education as
a professional field of practice before the UGC intervention, such as the Depart-
ment of Adult Continuing Education and Extension (DACEE) at Delhi University.
Besides, there are 20 more universities in India that have departments of adult
education, including SNDT Women’s University, NEHU, and so forth. Likewise,
the SRCs are mandated to provide academic and technical resource support to
the ongoing adult and continuing education programme through the develop-
ment and production of material and training modules (MHRD-Resource Centre
of State, online). Vocational training for non-literates, neo-literates, and school
dropouts is provided by JSS. Non-governmental organisations (NGOs), which
are neither part of the government nor conventional for-profit businesses, are
funded by governments to work in the field of adult education (MHRD-Voluntary
Agencies, online).
The micro level includes adult educators, students, individual institutions, and
social workers. Efforts are made at the individual level to promote the profes-
sionalisation of adult education. Likewise, adult educators play a crucial role in
the development of professional courses and several other initiatives in designing
a quality adult education programme, but not much attention is paid to enhanc-
ing the professional qualification of adult educators. There is no separate profes-
sional training programme for adult educators. There is a need to set up basic
qualification and employment conditions to validate adult educators (cf. Shah,
2010, pp. 4–6).
European Union
At the macro level, the European Union and its institutions are able to influence
the meso and micro levels. There are many regulations and guidelines governing
the relations between the European Union and its member states. One guiding
principle is called subsidiarity, which ensures that decisions are made close to the
citizens. That means that the European Union takes action when it is more effective
than a national government (Europa – Subsidiarity, online). As an example of the
work done by the EU institutions, the EAEA and the CEDEFOP are mentioned.
The mission of the European Association for the Education of Adults (EAEA) is to
promote the integration of the individual in society through professional and civic
development (EAEA-Mission, online). The mission of CEDEFOP is to develop VET
policies and contribute to their implementation (cf. CEDEFOP, n.d.).
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At the micro level, there are, on the one hand, the universities focusing on adult
education and the adult education institutions. Both of these key actors play a
major role in the academic professionalisation in adult education, because they
educate or train the adult educators and enable institutions of further develop-
ment. Universities are able to decide on their own because of their autonomy. The
universities are able to define their institutional profile, decide whom they are
going to employ, make direct connections to sponsors, and so on (cf. Europe –
University Autonomy, online). The economy, the labour market, and the gov-
ernment also have an influence on the academic sector. When concentrating on
academic professionalisation in adult education, it is important to mention the
different adult education institutions, which are also interested in profession-
alisation. Austria is a good example, featuring an institution responsible for the
professionalisation of these adult education institutions. Quality management of
adult education institutions is a special focus here. A certificate including an as-
sessment has been implemented (Ö-Cert = ‘Austrian Certificate’), which functions
like a quality certificate (Ö-Cert 2014, online). Professionalisation programmes
for individual adult educators were redesigned as well. The Academy of Continu-
ing Education, (Weiterbildungsakademie) was established in corporation with the
University of Klagenfurt to professionalise prospective and current adult educa-
tors via a certificate programme and give them the opportunity to join a master’s
programme afterwards (Prokopp & Luomi-Messerer, 2010).
Conclusion
There are many different meanings to adult education in China, India, and the
European Union. However, in all of these countries, the academic professionali-
sation of adult education is taking global significance despite changing concepts
and the introduction of various policies and programmes.
Considering the different definitions of adult education a comparison is pos-
sible (see table 2).
Table 2: Comparison of Definitions of Adult Education
European ‘Adult learning is a vital component of the lifelong-learning continuum, covering
Union the entire range of formal, non-formal, and informal learning activities, general
and vocational, undertaken by adults after leaving initial education and training.’
(Council Resolution 2011/C 372/01, p. 3)
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China ‘Adult education is a new education system which plays an important role both in
the development of conventional school education toward lifelong education and
in the continuous enhancement of the national quality and in the promotion of
economic, social development.’ (China Embassy, online)
India Adult education today is considered to encompass more than imparting the 3R’s
(reading, writing, and arithmetic) to illiterate adults and community develop-
ment. Nowadays, adult education is defined as lifelong education to broaden the
horizon of the people (cf. Batra, 1980, p. 3).
The comparison of the definitions makes similarities in wordings visible; for
example, lifelong learning is mentioned in all three definitions. Altogether the
countries focus on lifelong learning as a new attitude of living. A difference can
be noticed in the way the terms adult education or adult learning are used. In
EU countries the term adult learning seems to be synonymous with the term
adult education. In China, the main focus of adult education is on professional
development for everyone, whereas adult education is seen in the same way of
understanding education as a whole. In India, the emphasis is on growth and de-
velopment in all of adult education, not only in the area of literacy. The countries
of the European Union concentrate on personal development besides professional
development and informal learning as a new challenge.
Although China, India, and the European Union are facing different chal-
lenges, all of them focus on the development of the adult education sector, which
seems to be underestimated in all countries. In India and China, it can be inferred
that the concept, purpose, definition, policy, and practices of adult education as
an academic profession vary, depending on the prevailing political system and
the country’s socioeconomic development. In India, earlier adult education was
designed for societal and community development. It has only been in recent
times that adult education is associated with individual growth and viewed as a
discipline to be studied. Learning used to take place through religious and com-
munity institutions in India and China. And the aforementioned institutions had
a stronger influence in China and India than in the European Union.
The multi-level analysis of key actors shows that in spite of centralised gov-
ernmental regulations, India has a decentralised level of policy and institutions
that govern and influence the development of adult education as an academic
profession. Government regulations in China are much stronger than in the EU
countries. The governmental structure seems to be much more centralised in
China, whereas in EU countries, the organisation of academic professionalisation
is decentralised because of the autonomy enjoyed by European universities. In
some EU countries, especially in Germany, regulations for further development,
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including professionalisation as a process, were also created by adult education
institutions themselves. Maybe the Bologna-Process can also be seen as an influ-
ence from policy makers and as a centralising factor. Finally, it can be stated that
the structure of the levels and their key actors seem to be similar, although the
power of the key actors in each country varies.
Comparing countries and their ideas helps each country to become more crea-
tive when developing their own adult education systems. Development is compa-
rable but not transferable. The discussion shows different ways of dealing with the
challenges. Further opportunities are seen in cross-country collaborations to learn
from each other and understand different developmental ways of living. However,
professionalising adult education in India, for example, continues to be challeng-
ing because adult education still remains as programme to eradicate illiteracy,
unlike in European countries, where adult education is recognised as a profession.
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via free accessRegina Egetenmeyer - 9783631666357
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via free accessVanna Boffo, Kathrin Kaleja, Khulud Sharif-Ali
& Joana Fernandes
The curriculum of study programmes for adult
educators – the study cases of Italy, Germany
and Portugal1
Abstract
In this comparative case study, the authors take two different types of perspectives into
account: one perspective centres on the competences associated with adult education train-
ers; the second perspective focuses on an approach to the trainers’ curriculum in adult
education, regarding their differences and similarities. The body of European research
on competences is large. After more than ten years of studies and projects, we have some
common frameworks and precise directions. In particular, the path lead by Knowles (1997)
in the 1970s marked an important aspect: the adult educator is not a teacher but a guide
and facilitator, both in a formal learning context and in an informal or non-formal situa-
tion. From a curriculum point of view, we can identify a German and an Italian effort in
building up a common core curriculum in adult education, which includes contents and
ECTS perspectives. In Portugal, the trainer’s profile and curriculum have evolved a lot: he/
she is no longer just someone who has the pedagogical ability to communicate a certain
type of knowledge and evaluate learning outcomes but an inspiring and creative guide.
The comparison further shows a similar perspective regarding the competences of an adult
educator in the countries considered.
Introduction
The role of adult educators depend on the state and the countries from a politi-
cal and a cultural point of view. The great importance of lifelong learning for the
growth of each European country shows us the central importance of profes-
sionalising the adult educator.
1 The article represents the work of all authors, although Introduction, Conclusion and
Part 1 are by Vanna Boffo, Part 2 is by Kathrin Kaleja, Part 3 is by Khulud Sharif-Ali,
Part 4 is by Joana Fernandes.
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In this sense, the types of jobs are different according to national classifica-
tions of occupation, where we have it. There are countries that have this and
others that don’t. In Germany, it depends very much on the flexible needs of the
economy and the adult/lifelong learning contexts. In Italy and other countries,
classifications include: trainer, programme planner, curriculum designer, career
counsellor, manager, marketing/media/PR specialist, project manager, researcher,
administrator in social firms, and the like. The role of professionals is an important
part of the social economy. On one side, we have many different jobs, but on the
other side, the activities are less different. The fields of activities, as agreed in the
European study on the competency profile of adult educators (Buiskool, Broek,
van Lakerveld, Zarifis, & Osborne, 2010, p. 35), can be differentiated as follows:
‘Monitoring and evaluation, Counselling and guidance activities, Programme
development activities, ICT support activities, Network activities, Administrative
support activities, Marketing and Public Relations, Management of quality, Hu-
man resource management, Financial management, Need assessment, Preparation
of courses, Facilitation of learning’.
The term competence is defined as: part of skills, part of knowledge, and part
of responsibility. It is possible to divide competences into a lot of categories, for
instance, generic and specific (Buiskool et al., 2010, p. 11). For example, it is pos-
sible to divide competence into personal and professional competence. It depends
on the point of view of research. For a teacher or for a trainer, we can say there
are three fields of competences: 1) relational and communicative competences,
2) didactical competences, and 3) disciplinary competences. In Europe these types
of competence are studied and applied in the curricula of university study pro-
grammes. The article will observe the situation in three countries: Italy, Germany,
and Portugal.
The Case Study of Italy
In Italy, the study programme of the adult education course is divided into two
different levels: the first one is a bachelor’s course named ‘Sciences of Education
and Formation’, three years long; the second one is the master’s course in ‘Sciences
of Adult Education and Continuing Training’, two years long. This master’s course
was implemented in 2001, when the new policy on the length of degree pro-
grammes in higher education completely changed the face of the Italian university
(Ministry for Universities and Scientific and Technological Research, 1999).
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Table 1: Study Programmes in Adult Education (Source: Author’s Own)
Type of Curriculum/ Methods General informa- Standard
Degree didactical contents tion
Three-year Pedagogy and ed- Seminars, Entrance require- High level
bachelor’s ucational method- Laboratories, ments:
ology; Workshops, secondary school Evaluation
Bachelor of philosophy, psychol- Lessons, (with admission quality
science in ogy, sociology, and practical, experi- test), system
education anthropology; ences/internship, duration: 3 years
and forma- history, geography, final thesis training CFU for
tion economics and law; key competences:
education and inte- 180 CFU
gration of disabled practical experi-
people ences: 300 hours
Two-year Pedagogy and ed- Seminars, Entrance require- Very high
degrees ucational method- Laboratories, ments: level
Master of ology; Workshops, Three-year bach-
science in psychology, sociol- Lessons, elor’s, Evaluation
adult edu- ogy, and philosophy; practical experi- duration: 2 years, quality
cation and law, economics, and ences/internship, training CFU for system
continuing politics final thesis key competences:
training 120 CFU
or practical experi-
two-year ences: 100 hours
degrees in
pedagogical
sciences
A general description of the profile could be: The definition of professionals only
includes those profiles for whom adult learning constitutes the primary or most
significant source of income. Adult learning includes activities aimed at recover-
ing educational skills also within professionalisation pathways. The main areas of
adult learning are as follows:
• Adult basic education (EQF 1 and 2): In this field, most services are carried
out by state schools, while some are promoted by local councils or voluntary
associations (especially those which support immigrants).
• Secondary education (EQF 3): Although the majority of initiatives in this field
are promoted by state schools, private institutes are also present.
• Postsecondary education (EQF 4): In this field, one-year higher education
courses combine with technical educational institutes offering two-year
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courses, both basically aimed at the training of skilled workers. Most initia-
tives in this field take place in the private sector.
Professionals working in all of the above areas are the equivalent of teachers
in each of the corresponding school levels. In postsecondary education, profes-
sional technicians and trainers are also common. For this type of professionals,
the labour market requires both a bachelor’s and a master’s degree, but a specific
certificate in adult education is not necessary. In the case of formal education, the
teachers are the same for children and young adolescents. There aren’t any specific
preparations, although, in the past year, we expected a change from a legislative
point of view (Decree of the President of Republic, n. 263/2012). Because of the
new rules, there will be an innovative organisation from the didactical point of
view for awarding certificates of primary or secondary school to adults. In this
way, it will be possible to increase the level of teaching and learning in the formal
adult education system.
Another important variation is the national system for recognising prior
learning at the level of the competences of an adult worker (Legislative Decree
n. 13/2013). We expect that these legislative modifications will have many effects
on the labour market for the adult educator job profile. Also in this case, policy
changes will have an effect on adult education because it will be possible to reach
a new level of reflection on learning and teaching.
The competences of a trainer are diverse; partly dependent on the labour mar-
ket and partly fixed by the curriculum of the course of study. A trainer could be
a tutor, a teacher of organised learning units, or an adult educator in a specific
context in firms or in a private school team. The competences are: communication
skills, learning skills, making judgements, and applying transdisciplinary knowledge
(Knowles, 1973). If we focus our attention on competences as the outcomes at
the end of the master’s level, we can set the competences of a professional at 6–7
EQF. In this case, we can speak about a profile as teacher or manager or project
manager. In Italy, there are lots of professionals in adult education, and the most
important distinction is between formal and non-formal education. In the first
sector, the principal figure is the teacher; in the second field, the main figures are
in-company training managers, human resource managers, experts, and consult-
ants. In every situation, the profile of an adult educator or teacher of adult people
is that of a facilitator, a trainer who is very close to the students. Malcolm Knowles
(1973, 1997), Carl Rogers (1980), and Donald Schön (1987) wrote in a specific way
about the type of teacher in the learning situation with adult learners. At the roots
of each of these scholar’s thoughts was the lesson of Dewey’s pedagogy (1938).
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Which types of competences are at the base of the adult educator profile in
Italy? As the report of Research voor Beleid (Buiskool et al., 2010) stressed, there
are generic competences and specific competences. The following description of
competences is a good analysis of the competences that are described in guidelines
of university-level courses of study. or better building up the professionalization
of the educational job with the adult it is necessary to research themThe generic
competences are considered fundamental to any job in the education sector in a
rapidly changing world:
• Personal competence in systematic reflection on one’s own practice, learning,
and personal development: being a fully autonomous lifelong learner.
• Interpersonal competence in communicating and collaborating with adult
learners, colleagues and stakeholders: being a communicator, team player,
and networker.
• Competence in being aware of and taking responsibility for the institutional
setting in which adult learning takes place at all levels (institute, sector, the
profession as such, and society): being responsible for the further develop-
ment of adult learning.
• Competence in making use of one’s own subject-related expertise and the avail-
able learning resources: being an expert.
• Competence in making use of different learning methods, styles, and tech-
niques, including new media, and being aware of new possibilities and e-skills
and assessing them critically: being able to deploy different learning meth-
ods, styles, and techniques in working with adults.
• Competence in empowering adult learners to learn and support themselves
in their development into, or as, fully autonomous lifelong learners: being a
motivator.
• Competence in dealing with group dynamics and heterogeneity in the back-
ground, learning needs, motivation, and prior experience of adult learners:
being able to deal with heterogeneity and groups (Buiskool et al., 2010, p. 12)
Specific competences are dependent on the type of job and the role of the employer;
in that sense, it would be necessary to distinguish between the specific competences
linked directly to a professional as teacher, trainer, or educator on the one hand, and
the competences linked to a manager or project manager on the other. In the first
case, the specific competences of a specialist of the learning process are:
• Competence in assessment of prior experience, learning needs, demands, mo-
tivations, and wishes of adult learners: being capable of assessment of adult
learners’ learning needs.
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• Competence in selecting appropriate learning styles, didactical methods, and
content for the adult learning process: being capable of designing the learning
process.
• Competence in facilitating the learning process for adult learners: being a
facilitator of knowledge (practical and/or theoretical) and a stimulator of
adult learners’ own development.
• Competence to continuously monitor and evaluate the adult learning process
in order to improve it: being an evaluator of the learning process.
• Competence in advising on career, life, further development and, if necessary,
the use of professional help: being an advisor/counsellor.
• Competence in designing and constructing study programmes: being a pro-
gramme developer (Buiskool et al., 2010, p. 13).
For managers or project managers, competences in the financial field or in human
resources will be very important. In these last professional profiles, the following
competences are required:
• Competence in managing financial resources and assessing the social and
economic benefits of the provision: being financially responsible.
• Competence in managing human resources in an adult learning institute: being
a (people) manager.
• Competence in managing and leading the adult learning institute in general
and managing the quality of the provision of the adult learning institute: being
a general manager.
• Competence in marketing and public relations: being able to reach the target
groups, and promote the institute.
• Competence in dealing with administrative issues and informing adult learners
and adult learning professionals: being supportive in administrative issues.
• Competence in facilitating ICT-based learning environments and supporting
both adult learning professionals and adult learners in using these learning
environments: being an ICT-facilitator (Buiskool et al., 2010, p. 13).
These types of competences are at the base of the profile of graduates of bachelor’s
and master’s programmes in adult education in Italy. We may say the general
competences are built at the bachelor’s level and the specific competences, with a
specialisation towards the ‘expert of the learning processes’ or towards the ‘expert
in human resources managing/project Manager’, are built at the master’s level.
The lists of competences reflect, over the course of academic study in Italy, the
Dublin descriptors (Bologna Follow-Up Group, 2005), because these last ones serve
as the basis on which the learning outcomes of the Italian first- and second-cycle
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