Christian Student Perceptions of Body Tattoos: A Qualitative Analysis
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Journal of Psychology and Christianity Copyright 2008 Christian Association for Psychological Studies
2008, Vol. 27, No. 3, 195-204 ISSN 0733-4273
Christian Student Perceptions of
Body Tattoos: A Qualitative Analysis
Michael W. Firmin Luke M. Tse Janna Foster Tammy Angelini
Cedarville University
We used qualitative research methodology in appraising 24 evangelical Christian college students’ per-
ceptions (15 female and 9 male), voluntarily recruited, of their tattoo choices. After coding the transcribed
interviews, four predominant themes emerged. First, students believed that the Bible did not forbid their
tattooing practices. Second, special religious significances were ascribed to the tattoos’ meanings by most
of the participants. Third, few students described making rash decisions when becoming tattooed, but
rather, thought through their decisions rather carefully. And finally, friends generally were encouraging of
the participants’ decisions to tattoo while family members were more discouraging. In sum, participants in
our study did not portray rebellion or deviance in the choice to tattoo, but rather, viewed the decisions as
spiritual expressions.
Tattooing has had a long and, albeit, contro- sociopaths, some tattoo seekers in recent
versial history. The practice of this art form has decades have shown differences from their pre-
been documented in nearly every culture and decessors. Tattooing has become more promi-
used to communicate a number of messages, nent in society and tattoos sometimes are
including group identity, religious commitment, accepted as a form of fashion statement. Tattoos
and individuality (Armstrong, Owen, Roberts, & sometimes are seen among fashion models,
Koch, 2002). During the Greco-Roman era, movie stars, and popular sports figures (Brown,
Greeks and Romans used tattoos to punish or Perlmutter, & McDermott, 2000). Several studies
identify people as property (Schildkrout, 2004). have noted that while only a small estimated
Authors of antiquity, according to Schildkrout, percentage of the population sport tattoos on
condemned the practice, claiming it to be bar- their bodies, its popularity is increasing. Up to
baric. Ancient literature was sometimes 9% of the general population indicated that they
inscribed onto the skin of saints so as to pre- have permanent tattoos. For adolescents, that
serve the Christian message and to serve as percentage could be as high as 16% (Roberts &
reminders of God’s work for generations since Ryan, 2002). Tattoo designs vary in complexity.
the indelible messages would be seen by chil- Millner and Eichold (2001) purported that “a tat-
dren and grandchildren. In the early days of too is never just what the appearance is. . . . Tat-
Christian church history, many pilgrims traveling toos are indicators or little vents to [the owner’s]
to the Holy land also adopted the practice of psyche” (p. 429).
Visible tattoos are more likely to make an
tattooing as a sign of religious observance. Nev-
impression, whether good or bad, than tattoos
ertheless, most scholars of the Quran and the
that individuals choose to cover (Armstrong,
Bible have interpreted the sacred texts as pro-
Roberts, Owen, & Koch, 2004). Drews, Allison,
hibiting tattooing (Forbes, 2001). Among Chris-
and Probst (2000) found that men tended to
tians, Scriptural passages such as “Do not cut
have tattoos on their arms and shoulders, while
your bodies for the dead or put tattoo marks on
women were likely to obtain tattoos on their
yourselves. I am the LORD” (Leviticus 19:28,
backs. Tattoo designs typically ranged from the
New International Version) have been cited as
size of a quarter to the size of a small dinner
direct prohibitions from God.
plate. Common designs among the college-aged
For the past century, Western societies have
sample included flowers, celestial objects, butter-
increasingly adopted the practice of tattooing.
flies, mottos, and reptiles.
DeMello (1993) indicated, that while most West- In an effort to better understand the influences
ern social leaders have continued to associate of image, identity, family, and friends on tattoo-
the practice with the rebellious, criminals, and ing practices, Armstrong et al. (2002) gathered
Correspondence regarding this article should be sent data from 520 college students, adolescents,
to Luke M. Tse, Ph.D., Associate Professor of Psychol- career women, and military recruits. They report-
ogy, Cedarville University, 251 N. Main St., Cedarville, ed that less religious participants were more like-
OH 45314. tsel@cedarville.edu ly to have tattoos. Generally, both tattooed and
195196 CHRISTIAN STUDENT PERCEPTIONS OF BODY TATTOOS
non-tattooed individuals held a relatively posi- toos were more likely to describe themselves as
tive view of those who were tattooed, claiming adventurous, creative, artistic, individualistic, as
they were enjoyable, interesting, and unique. well as risky when compared to those who
Reactions from friends tended to be positive, chose not to tattoo themselves (Roberti, Storch,
while reactions from family members tended to & Bravata, 2003).
be either negative or non-responsive. The more As alluded to above, tattoos are contributing
tattoos individuals had, the more likely they factors to self- and peer-acceptance. Evidently
were to know others who also had tattoos. Con- they often are obtained in conjunction with the
sistent with other findings, the authors deter- desire for peer recognition. Some individuals who
mined that tattooing has become an increasingly have tattooed themselves did so on impulse and,
popular art form and, as opposed to earlier soci- subsequently, want to have their tattoos removed
etal perceptions, it generally has become less (Lynne & Anderson, 2002). Tattoo removal proce-
associated with deviant individuals. dures such as excision, dermabrasion, or laser can
Where associations with deviant behaviors are be painful, tedious, and costly. Some scarring or
concerned, studies among individuals with tat- skin color variations will likely occur (Contempo-
toos have yielded mixed results. For example, rary Health Communications, 2007).
Forbes (2001) suggested that tattoos might not As cultural acceptance of tattooing has
always connotate signs of rebellion or impromp- increased, some evangelical Christians also have
tu actions in drunken states. Additionally, Coe, participated in this growing trend. According to
Harmon, Verner, and Tonn (1993) examined tat- Heinrichs (1999), tattooing has become a mount-
tooing among males at a Southern military col- ing issue among the Christian evangelical subcul-
lege. Common designs included patriotic themes, ture. Many Christians have sought to use tattoos
cartoon characters, and dragons. The tattoos
as a context to proclaim their faith. Heinrichs
were small with few colors, and one was self-
also noted that over 100 tattoo parlors in Ameri-
inscribed. Interestingly, all the study’s partici-
ca have joined an organization known as the
pants had tattoos that were not visible without
Christian Tattoo Association (CTA). The CTA
removing clothing. Spontaneous tattooing was
website (www.xtat.org) includes, among other
infrequent and most were initiated in groups,
postings, articles which either support or chal-
making the process socially-oriented and pre-
lenge the practice of tattooing. It also provides a
meditated. The majority of the tattooed partici-
forum for discussions relating to the topic of the
pants acknowledged that their families either did
Bible and tattoos. In fact, the internet has provid-
not know about their tattoo or were not support-
ive of it. The study concluded that tattoos gener- ed a common locale for many to post their opin-
ally were not marks of defiance, but rather, ions and convictions on such practices through
primarily were characterized by collaborative individual webpages (e.g., Watkins, 2007) and
elements—particularly among peers. Coe et al. numerous online chatrooms.
concluded that a lack of seeming defiance in this The present study further explores this con-
population was due less to personal character struct of tattoos as Christian expressions. Little
qualities than to the effects of a military-style data exist regarding this specific subject, partic-
demand for individual discipline. ularly empirical information. Consequently, we
In their analysis of national surveys involving employed qualitative research methodology.
6,072 adolescents, Roberts and Ryan (2002) dis- While a number of investigative strategies were
covered that a significant correlation existed plausible, qualitative research often is the
among adolescents who have permanent tattoos method of choice when exploring terrain where
and such high-risk behaviors as sexual inter- relatively few studies previously have been con-
course, substance use, violent behaviors, and ducted (Maxwell, 2005). A cogent need at the
school problems. Similarly, other authors also present stage of development in this domain
have reported that tattooed participants in their seems to be some depth of understanding, best
sample displayed more risky and promiscuous gar nered via phenomenological research
tendencies than the non-tattooed persons. But means. Consequently, we identified a pool of
such individuals did not perceive themselves research participants who assisted us in better
necessarily as being defiant but, rather, as having understanding this construct of religious mean-
an imaginative flair (Drews, Allison, & Probst, ings in the context of evangelicals who tattoo
2000). Particularly, those who chose to have tat- themselves.FIRMIN, TSE, FOSTER, AND ANGELINI 197
Method their tattoo. They did, however, provide either a
Participants picture or drawing of it.
Participants for this study consisted of 24 stu- The constant-comparison method of analysis
dents from a comprehensive university (based was used for analyzing data. Following the tradi-
on classifications created by the Carnegie Foun- tional model of Glaser (1992), we avoided theo-
dation for the Advancement of Teaching in 2000 retical interpretation models when describing
and as used by the U.S. News & World Report) our findings. Rather, following Flick (2002) we
located in the Midwest. The institution is a mem- approached the data inductively—using disci-
ber of the Coalition of Christian Colleges & Uni- plined restraint in attempting to keep our own
versities (CCCU), an organization of institutions biases at bay. This is a qualitative protocol
with distinctive evangelical mission statements, whereby authors bracket (Raffanti, 2007a) their
doctrinal statements, and practices. Each person own biases and existing theoretical structures
identified themselves as having obtained one or when analyzing data—providing as much of an
more tattoos. Individuals selected for the study inductive approach to data reporting as possible.
were gleaned from a group of 64 students who Collaborative meetings among members of the
responded to a campus-wide email solicitation research team helped to provide comparative
for participation. Selected participants met criteri- checks, enhancing internal validity of the find-
on: their tattoos did not include a Scripture verse ings (Berg, 2001). Some initial themes were later
or possess explicit Christian themes (e.g., cross discarded due to lack of sufficient, supportive
or dove). The rationale for this was two-fold. data. Other themes were collapsed and com-
First, homogeneity of sample generally is pre- bined, where appropriate, in order to enhance
ferred to heterogeneity in qualitative samples, the organization of findings. In the end, our
when possible (Firmin, 2006a). Consequently, results provided what we considered to be an
mixing the two here did not seem to be most apt grounded theory (Raffanti, 2007b).
apt. Second, a separate study of religious sym-
bols in tattooing practices was intended that Results
would provide focus to the specific construct. Four themes emerged from the data collected.
The participants were European-Americans These included Biblical understandings of tattoo-
whose ages ranged from 18 to 32, including ing, personal significance of the designs, the
freshmen through seniors. Fifteen of the subjects extensive and meticulous planning process, and
were female and nine were male. Obviously, substantial influences from family and friends.
names used in the present article for reading The themes are discussed below with illustrative
clarity are pseudonyms. The research team con- support, supplying voice to various Christian stu-
sisted of two university professors and two dents in our sample.
undergraduate students. All researchers partici-
pated across all phases of the study. Biblical Understandings
It was evident that the participants had varying
Procedure ideas as to what the Bible teaches about tattooing.
Following Firmin’s (2006) protocol for con- However, given the fact that individuals for this
ducting interviews in waves, all students partici- study have obtained tattoos for themselves, they
pated in two sets of interviews for this study. generally do not believe that the Bible speaks
The first wave consisted of semi-structured, against such practices. For example, Jeff said:
detailed interviews administered to all 24 partici-
pants. Following analyses of data, a second I don’t know if the Bible speaks
wave was conducted to probe in-depth informa- directly to tattoos, because you won’t
tion from 17 of the participants. Prior to the first find the word tattoo in the Hebrew
wave, each participant also completed a demo- or Greek translation. It does talk
graphic questionnaire. Both interview waves about marking your body and that
were tape recorded and later transcribed for type of thing in the Old Testament.
analysis. Questions during interviews gathered Obviously since I got it, I don’t nec-
information concerning choices of design, per- essarily think that applies to tattoos.
sonal reasoning, influences, and future inten- Similarly, Jackson stated: “I don’t personally
tions. Due to the varieties of tattoo locations on believe [the Bible] says anything wrong about
the bodies, participants were not asked to reveal [tattoos] or else I wouldn’t have them.” In short,198 CHRISTIAN STUDENT PERCEPTIONS OF BODY TATTOOS
our participants not only believed that tattooing commented: “It’s one thing if you’re going to get
was appropriate, but they also expressed confi- a demon tattooed on your body, but for some-
dence that the Bible provided no regulations thing harmless like Greek letters, it’s like a
against tattoos. They portrayed themselves as indi- reminder; I don’t think there’s anything wrong
viduals with Christian integrity. The tattoos they with that.” Overall, statements and expressions
made on their bodies, from their vantage points, regarding the designs of tattoos communicated
were not inconsistent with God’s instructions. personal relevance and significance. Kelley’s
A few participants were somewhat more pre- view summarized this thinking:
cise in how they communicated their Biblical
I think that if you’re just tattooing
understandings. They expressed a dispensational
your body for sexual reasons . . .
understanding of Scripture as their basis for justi-
those things are not spoken well of
fying tattoos for New Testament Christians. For
in Bible. If it’s something . . . like a
example, Beth believes: “[The Bible says] that
promise that you want to make to
you shouldn’t do it. I can’t give you the exact
God, to yourself, or to other people
verse but it is something about not tattooing
then I think that it’s okay. It is some-
your body or I think there is something about
piercing in there too.” However, individuals, like thing that is showing that you really
Beth, further explained that they believe tattoos do care about what you’re saying
were forbidden within the context of the Old and that I think that God would
Testament. They believe that such passages are honor that.
no longer applicable to New Testament Chris-
Design Significance
tians. Bob illustrated:
Expressions of religious commitments through
The only thing I really ever found in tattoos were a consistent theme in participants’
the Bible is in the Old Testament. It interviews. Regarding his lighthouse design, Paul
says, “do not mark on yourself.” But I described: “When I looked at myself in the
think it was more of a ritualistic morning in the mirror, it would remind me that I
thing, aimed towards idolatry and try- was to be a lighthouse—a light to the world.”
ing to actually carry out a ceremony When asked about her Chinese symbol tattoo,
to worship other gods. So I don’t Wendy similarly articulated: “I try to think of it as
really think the Bible says anything in spiritual intimacy—just a little reminder. I see it
particular about modern-day tattoos. all the time because it’s me, but it just wasn’t for
Likewise, Erin emphasized that her decision to everybody else to see.” To students in our sam-
get a tattoo did not violate Biblical teachings, ple, the spiritual meanings attached to tattoos
believing that they were in the Old Testament overshadowed other variables in their thinking.
laws which have no present-day applications: Kristen illustrated this as she spoke metaphori-
Well I know there’s that verse that is cally concerning her rose tattoo:
like keep your temple pure. And I Talking about giving the rose of your
know there are verses about tattoos life to God . . . would remind me con-
but I was always under the impres- stantly of the decision I had made
sion that those passages were the old that I was giving my entire life to
law. Like, the same kind of thing God. . . . My life with Christ is eternal.
where you are supposed to cover I got the idea from a speaker at the
your head and all that stuff. I just camp I work at. He talks a lot about
didn’t think it really applied anymore, making sure that we’re giving all of
well I kind of know it does not apply ourselves to God, in purity, and just
anymore. I wouldn’t have really gone in our everyday lives, not just giving
against it. him part of it. With a rose you can
In addition to Scriptural teaching, participants peel back petals and it still looks like
believe that choices in designs are significant. a rose, but we want to make sure
Generally, they believe that tattoos are permissi- that we’re giving him all of the
ble by God if they promote a positive or even a petals, and we’re not burning up the
neutral message. For example, one participant ones that are in our past.FIRMIN, TSE, FOSTER, AND ANGELINI 199
The spiritual significance of students’ tattoos bled tone, Kelley explained her choice to perma-
sometimes was seen as a springboard for min- nently engrave a meaningful word:
istry enhancement. The selected symbols some- My boyfriend decided. . . . Through a
times serve as reminders of this spiritual focus. long series of events, we ended up
Peter illustrated: having sex, and because we did not
I was really inspired by Japanese cul- want to do that again, we decided
ture . . . so I searched it on the inter- we would make a pact with each
net for different words. There are other. . . . It’s like a theme in our lives
these Japanese calligraphies called at the time, we decided on the word
“sonkei;” they mean do your best and broken, and then we got tattoos just
respect, and it just reminded me . . . I to remember that a broken and con-
always want to do my best in every- trite heart, the Lord will not despise.
thing I do, and I always want respect. . . . Just a recognition of who we are
. . . I’m going in the ministry now and in that we are broken, we are sinful,
I need to take the next step of we’re not perfect, and we make mis-
putting my best step forward. . . . I’m takes all the time.
not working for any man, I’m work- For others who used tattoos as remembrances,
ing for God. In the book of Colos- the meanings were memorials to others. Nancy
sians it says, “Don’t work for men of explained: “It’s a purple rose laying on it’s
the earth—work for God.” My work side. . . . The style isn’t very big, maybe a couple
is not going to be noticed by men so of inches. My cousin died a couple of years ago
I wanted a constant reminder, “Peter, and my family got tattoos in her memory.” In
do your best, respect those around short, memory was an important construct to
you, and do your best.” many students in our sample as it related to tat-
Jackson also illustrated this principle by selecting tooing decisions.
a word with spiritual significance, rather than a
Deliberate Considerations
symbol: “The second tattoo I have is in Greek
Whether individuals chose to tattoo as person-
and it says ‘Theraputis.’ My name . . . is of Greek
al expressions or as symbolic reminders, most
origin, which means ‘Healer.’ That is what ‘Ther-
did not choose their tattoos in rash manners.
aputis’ means—healer.” Similarly, Matt found
Instead, much time was spent in the decision-
conviction and assurance in the reminder provid-
making stage. Most undertook extensive and
ed by his tattoo. He noted: “The first [tattoo] is
meticulous processes as they contemplated
‘our strength is made in weakness,’ so basically it
desirable, significant tattoos. Some participants
is a reminder that when I am at my weakest
spent as many as four years forming ideas and
point I know that Christ is there to give me the
linking meanings with designs before they had
strength.”
them permanently etched onto their skins. Few
For some students, spiritual significance is por-
went into tattoo parlors without distinct ideas of
trayed in the perceived connection the symbol(s)
what they wanted for a design and the rationales
provide. Jeff, for example, described his Greek
behind their decisions.
lettering tattoo: Most participants indicated a common contem-
It’s the three Greek letters of the fra- plative sentiment as expressed, simply, by
ternity or Christian organization that I Eileen: “It was something I had intended on
am in here on campus. It was simple doing for awhile.” Ron concurred, indicating a
and plain and something easy. I long-standing desire:
think our Christian organization is I have wanted a tattoo since I was
something that we believe that our seventeen and had actually drawn
best friends for life are going to come out the tattoo when I was seventeen.
from there and it was kind of more After four years of staring at it and
of just like a keepsake of ‘remember thinking about it, I knew I wanted it.
the good ol’ days’ type thing. I think of it as a personal decision
Additionally, spiritual significance is possessed that I was willing to make and want-
through the remembrance it provides. In a hum- ed to make.200 CHRISTIAN STUDENT PERCEPTIONS OF BODY TATTOOS
Similarly, Danielle expressed: “I knew I wanted (which was kind of weird for a tattoo
to get it done. It was fun though, like to go in place). That was how I decided
the store and you know I was nervous but it where I would get it.
wasn’t enough to go ‘no, I don’t want to get this
Cindy was attracted to her locale based on the
done.’ I had no second thoughts.” Likewise,
attention to details shown by the operators:
Kirby stated: “I had already thought through it all
the way, and I was really excited about it.” It was not dirty or anything but when
Christian participants in our sample described I saw a person reach over the
themselves as taking the tattoo decision very counter, the guy totally flipped out
seriously. As such, they tended to investigate and made sure the person would not
various options, making deliberate, rather than do that again. They have a little bor-
impulsive choices. Almost as a way of giving der that you cannot walk over if you
advice, Dan remarked: are not the one that is getting the tat-
too or piercing. I knew it was a good
Basically, you have to know what
place to go.
you want. You have to look at a lot
of pictures as far as fonts and texts. Dan described cleanliness and licensure to be
As far as the graphics, you need to the factors giving him the greatest confidence in
have some sort of idea; a lot of peo- the parlor he selected:
ple just go to get a tattoo. For me, I Both places I went were really clean
had some sort of idea going in and and had a good reputation as far as
then it was multiple visits to the tat- their cleaning machine, as well as,
too parlor so that I could have what I they had their certificates and all that
wanted. stuff. I was confident I was not in
Certainly, the intentional process was related to harm’s way too much because of the
the permanence of the design. Relaying this con- process they go through with new
cern, Peter elaborated: needles and whatnot.
I got saved when I was nineteen. I John likewise found cleanliness to be a prime
started making qualities that I wanted selection criterion:
to stick with and one of those things
There were three tattoo parlors that I
was if I made a decision, I didn’t
inquired about. I asked to see their
want to have any second regrets. I
equipment. I asked to see what kind
had really thought about this for a
of health protection they used and
year, so it was a decision that I made.
how clean the equipment was that
I knew it was permanent.
was used. How could I verify that it
In addition to the lengthy decision process, was clean? I did research; I went to
many of the participants acknowledged that the library and read what [character-
much care was given when selecting the tattoo ized] good practices and what did not.
parlor. Denise related: “I really was careful about
where I went and that it was a real reputable Influences from Friends and Family
place.” Wisely investigating her tattoo parlor with Individuals involved in this study reported that
deliberation, Danielle expressed: “It seemed like they have received both encouragements and
it was very professional. When I walked in their discouragements from friends and family mem-
store, it was very clean, all the things they used bers. Despite pre-meditated ideas of designs,
were very clean, and they were very nice peo- participants generally reported that friends often
ple.” Bob also checked his options, having were helpful in the choice-making process. A
health issues as his motivation: few of the participants even decided on a tattoo
Some people talked about some along with friends or selective family members.
Hepatitis B or Hepatitis C issues and Kristen was encouraged to pursue tattooing by
obviously AIDS; but I checked to a family member: “My sister and I just kind of
make sure that this place was sani- had a bonding moment and went and got tattoos
tary, used clean needles, and together.” Nancy also was encouraged by family
scrubbed up before they did it members,FIRMIN, TSE, FOSTER, AND ANGELINI 201
My cousins in my family and my lot of kids here at school because,
brother because when my cousin what I got all the time was, ‘How’s
was in the hospital, she died of a that going to influence your job.’ I
brain tumor. She was only 22. And so never really understood the whole
when we were in the hospital, we argument because it’s on my arm, if
would talk to her. . . . She was in a I’m like a businessman, I’ll be wear-
coma for like the last week. . . . We ing a suit, so it’s not like I’ll ever see
were like “Chrissy, we’re going to get it. I’m a graphic design major so I
tattoos in your memory and they’re really don’t think it’s socially unac-
going to be awesome and we’re ceptable for a graphic designer to
always going to remember you.” So have tattoos, actually most of the
we talked to her because we ones I know do have them already.
believed that she could hear us and
everything so . . . and then finally Discussion
when she died, like a few days later,
my cousins got them and I was like As noted, students in our sample generally
“Oh that’s such an awesome way to believed their decisions to tattoo themselves did
remember her, I want to do that too.” not violate Biblical principles. That is, they
believed that Old Testament references to tattoo-
Others, like Jeff, were influenced by friends: “Six ing either were culturally non-applicable or dis-
out of twenty friends all got them around the pensationally irrelevant. By “dispensational,” we
same time and so I think it was just a [domino] refer to the classic hermeneutical model, out-
effect, we all just decided to go get them.” lined by Ryrie (1965), on which most premil-
Discouragements came mainly from immediate lenial theology is based. This model asserts that
family members. Debbie, for example, recalled: the New Testament church is not a spiritual con-
“I don’t think mom and dad ever like specifically tinuation of Old Testament Israel; therefore, the
said ‘you will not get a tattoo.’ They weren’t Old Testament teaching from the law does not
happy about it when I did.” Beth’s parents apply to New Testament Christians. Dispensa-
squarely were against the idea of her getting a tional theology is taught in the Bible classes
tattoo: “My dad always said if we were living where the students from our sample attended,
under his roof, and got a tattoo that he would although the university Bible professors would
cut it off our body—not that he would not necessarily endorse how the students inter-
really—but obviously they didn’t want us to get preted or dismissed Old Testament passages—
one while we were living at home.” Erin’s par- e.g., Leviticus 19:28—in the apparent manner
ents also illustrate the difficult time most parents that they did. To the students, personal attribu-
experienced in accepting their child’s tattoo: tions of unique meanings or spiritual significance
My dad still won’t look at mine. He to the tattoos overshadowed any Biblical instruc-
always said it was a joke. I told him I tions on tattoo practices.
was going to get one, but they kept From another perspective, the participants did
thinking I was joking. So when I did not refer to any Biblical affirmations as rationale
get it he was like ‘why did you do to support their decisions. That is, in their deliber-
that,’ but before hand he would just ations, since the Bible did not prohibit the prac-
laugh it off not really discourage me. tice explicitly, they were free to engage in the
My mom always says ‘you ruined behavior. None of the students in the study refer-
your body,’ but it is in a place you enced Scriptural passages that would encourage
can’t see. But since, she complied or permit believers to engage in tattooing prac-
and said that it is cute for a tattoo. tices. We noted that students, overall, did not
seem to engage in a thorough study of Scripture
Although most discouragements came from on this matter prior to making their decisions. At
immediate family members, participants also best, they knew vaguely about a couple of Scrip-
reported having friends who also gave negative tural references and that seemed to be the extent
feedback. For example, Rachel reported facing of their Biblical considerations. At worst, they
difficulties from her peers: were either ignorant of any Scriptural references
I was actually just discouraged by a or their knowledge was based upon hearsay.202 CHRISTIAN STUDENT PERCEPTIONS OF BODY TATTOOS While participants were college students in an influenced by friends than by their parents. institution that required Bible and theology class- Unfortunately, this finding is not surprising given es, not everyone had completed the required the general conclusions of many studies that courses at the time of our interviews. In any peers have greater influences upon individuals case, tattooing did not seem to be a particular than do their parents. The finding in this regard theological concern for all of them. That is, any is consistent with the previously cited literature spiritual connotations were individually ascribed regarding general disapproval shown by parents rather than theologically based. Moreover, while for tattoos on their children (Armstrong et al., students anticipated that their tattoos were per- 2002; Coe et al., 1993). manent dedications for life, none considered the The method of sampling used in the study was possibility that later Scriptural understandings straightforward as described earlier. The e-mail might show their present decisions to be impru- was sent from the account of the psychology dent, and none expressed potential regret for department secretary. Viz, a general request for their decisions to have the chosen designs indeli- self-identification was issued via a campus-wide bly marked on their skins. Students made no e-mail. There were no individuals responding to mention of consulting with Bible professors, pas- the query who showed pathological tendencies tors, or others spiritual mentors to help them in their tattoo practices—such as shock or to explore Scriptural teachings in this area. While inflict pain on their bodies. We have no a priori these observations are not meant to be criti- reason to suspect that anything in the recruitment cisms, we observed that students in this study process might have scared off such a potential seemed to have given minimal considerations to subgroup of students. In short, the participants in specific or relevant passages in the Bible or to the study, from observable and rational perspec- any potential ramification for later reinterpreta- tives, appeared to reflect the population of tat- tions of Scriptural teachings in this practice. tooed students on this particular campus. Instead, the primary persuading factor for Finally, the evangelical Christian students in obtaining tattoos seemed to be a personal attribu- our sample notably did not associate tattoos with tion of the tattoos’ purpose and significance. unruly individuals who, sometimes, stereotypi- Regardless of Biblical teachings or parental influ- cally have been associated with tattooing prac- ences, a number of individuals perceived the tat- tices (e.g., bikers, sailors, etc.). Their mindsets toos as being symbolic of their personal were more consistent with the new attitudes sug- commitments to be at their utmost for God. Some gested by the literature on tattooing. That is, we also believed that their tattoos could serve as con- previously noted that secular society seems to be duits for conversations that could lead to sharing accepting tattooing practices more today than the gospel. By this phrase, they meant that tattoos they have in previous generations. Two percent might naturally lead to conversations where they of the student population (at the university being could explain the Bible’s teaching of salvation by studied) responded to an email solicitation for grace through faith to unbelievers. To these stu- participation. Considering the potential number dents, tattoos serve as a personal, sometimes pub- of students with tattoos who did not respond to lic, declaration of devotion to God. the open solicitation, the number of students in Additionally, we underscore that generally stu- this CCCU evangelical institution who have a dents’ parents were discouraging of the tattooing permanent tattoo may fall within the norm of the practice. It was not the intent of the study to general population (3% to 5%). Students in our probe into the family dynamics of the partici- present sample spent most of their developmen- pants’ lives. Nonetheless, we take note of the tal years in the new millennium and seem to Bible’s instructions to honor one’s parents (Exo- reflect these changing societal values. Stated dus 20:12, Ephesians 6:1-3). The majority of stu- plainly, as the world has become more accepting dents in our sample did not indicate spending of tattoo practices, so have the evangelical stu- time with their parents and receiving, perhaps, dents in our present sample. what the book of Proverbs refers to as their “wise Tattooing remains a controversial practice counsel.” For the few who did discuss with their among Christians. While some believe that any parents, their decisions appeared to run counter prohibition is irrelevant in the New Testament to their parents’ wishes. Instead, they seemed to context, others remain adamant that such practice place greater weight in the counsel of their denotes, at least, defiance and disobedience and, friends. Simply, these students seemed more at worse, a courting with the demonic—that is,
FIRMIN, TSE, FOSTER, AND ANGELINI 203
practice influenced by the devil (e.g., Watkins, pean-Americans and minority students are repre-
2007). It is clear that participants in our sample sented would strengthen the research design.
who obtained tattoos do not possess a clear or The students in the present study came from a
comprehensive Biblical theology on the subject. sample where the institution was located in a
Consistent with other studies on spheres of rural, Midwest small town. Moreover, the univer-
influences, peers play a larger role than do par- sity possesses a national reputation for being rel-
ents. Decisions were based primarily on personal atively conservative—with a fundamentalist,
constructs of right/wrong or pragmatics, not historical tradition. We believe that further stud-
parental insights or Scriptural specifics. In other ies should assess this topic with students from
words, for this group of evangelical Christians, more open or progressive, evangelical tradi-
neither frequency of practice nor rationales (for tions. In order to understand best the dynamics
or against) tattooing seem any different from of how evangelical Christian young people view
those of the general population. We believe this tattooing practices, gauging various samples
conclusion is consistent with recent develop- seems necessary due to the heterogeneity of the
mental literature. For example, Lashbrook (2000) population. We do believe, however, that the
reported that when shame or embarrassment present study makes a significant contribution to
this overall understanding. Given the paucity of
was at stake, peers generally outweighed
previous research conducted with evangelical
parental influences—even for older teens. Addi-
Christian populations on this topic, we believe
tionally, Wheeler (2007) reported that contempo-
that the present research will be heuristic for
rary college students, unlike previous
future researchers.
generations, likely fit extended adolescent mod-
Future research studies in this area should
els of human development, rather than young
consider drawing from random samples of CCCU
adult models. In sum, the salience of peer influ-
institutions, employing survey methods. Findings
ence on our study’s participants is congruent
from the present research should provide highly
with experts’ current thinking in this domain. useful data for generating apt questionnaires.
Such research could compare individuals who
Limitations and Future Research receive tattoos with those who have not chosen
To some degree, all qualitative research suffers to be tattooed. Additionally, future researchers
from deficits in external validity. Thus, although may wish to account for the sizes and locales of
we followed principles to enhance generalizabili- tattoos. Using same-gender researchers and par-
ty as much as possible in the present study ticipants (only) may enable the researchers, with
(Firmin, 2006b), our findings are limited in this permission and pre-informed consent, to view
regard. Results from qualitative research best various tattoos. This may help to factor potential-
achieve external validity through replication. That ly moderating variables that influence tattoo
is, as qualitative studies are repeated across mul- decisions, such as colors, shapes, symbols, body
tiple contexts, cultures, and time periods, ground- locations, and the like into our overall under-
ed theory emerges in its most robust form standing of tattooing practices.
(Rafannti, 2006). Consequently, future researchers
should repeat this study in other contexts of References
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Flick, U. (2002). An introduction to qualitative
Authors
research (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publishers.
Forbes, G. B. (2001). College students with tattoos Michael W. Firmin (Ph.D. Syracuse University) is pro-
and piercings. Psychological Reports, 89, 774-786. fessor and chair of the psychology department at
Glaser, B. G. (1992). Basics of grounded theory anal- Cedarville University in Cedarville, OH. Dr. Firmin is a
ysis. Mill Valley, CA: Sociology Press. licensed psychologist in the state of OH. His research
Heinrichs, K. (1999, May 24). Tattoos no longer interests include professional human service analyses,
taboo? Christianity Today, 43 (6), 17. quantitative studies in intelligence, and qualitative
Lashbrook, J. T. (2000). Exploring the emotional research, serving as editor of the Journal of Ethnographic
& Qualitative Research.
dimension of adolescent peer pressure. Adolescence,
35, 747-757. Luke M. Tse (Ph.D. in Psychology & Counseling, New
Lynne, C., & Anderson, R. (2002). Body piercing, tat- Orleans Baptist Theological Seminary, 2000) is Associate
tooing, self-esteem, and body investment in adolescent Professor of Psychology at Cedarville University (OH).
girls. Adolescence, 37, 627-637. Dr. Tse is a National Certified Counselor and a Licensed
Maxwell, J. A. (2005). Qualitative research design Marriage & Family Therapist. His research interests
(2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. include issues pertaining to marriages and families,
Millner, V. S., & Eichold, B. H. II. (2001). Body pierc- cross-cultural relationships, and Biblical Counseling &
ing and tattooing perspectives. Clinical Nursing Spiritual Formation.
Research, 10, 424-441. Janna B. Foster (B.A. in Psychology, Cedarville Univer-
Raffanti, M. (2007a, June). Phenomenological sity, 2007) is enrolled in a Psy.D. program at the Indi-
bracketing as a pedagogical tool in grounded theory. ana University of Pennsylvania.
Paper presented at the 19th annual Ethnographic and Tammy L. Angelini (B.A. in Psychology, Cedarville
Qualitative Research in Education conference, University, 2006) is a Foster Care Caseworker at Alders-
Cedarville, OH. gate Youth Service Bureau (PA).You can also read
