Care for the Environment and Environmental Crime Based on Theravada Buddhist Philosophy
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International Journal of Criminology and Sociology, 2021, 10, 1229-1244 1229
Care for the Environment and Environmental Crime Based on
Theravada Buddhist Philosophy
Dittita Tititampruk* and Tanet Ketsil#
Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities, Mahidol University
Abstract: From past to present, global compressions on human and environmental systems are more likely to increase
than ever before in human history. With the science and technology advancement, we are living in the age of the global
village that enables more convenient and brings us closer together. However, this also means that human being is
suffering from global environmental crisis including the threat of war, economic crises, racial conflicts, environmental
degradation, and environmental crime. This paper represents library-based work to date in Buddhist contemporary and
useful perspectives and strategies on environmental protection and prevention in the backdrop of growing consumerism
and capitalism influenced by western cultural in post-globalization era. Comparing to other countries, Thailand faces
various environmental problems and some of them could become to environmental crime such as illegal wildlife trade;
smuggling ozone-depleting substances; illicit trade in hazardous waste and pollution; illegal mining; illegal, unregulated
and unreported fishing; illegal logging and associated trade in stolen timber. Since Thailand is one of largely Buddhist
practical countries, measures to conserve the environment can draw on the principles and precepts of Lord Buddha’s
teachings, known as Tripitaka. In Lord Buddha’s lifetime, environmental problems were not salient, but surprisingly, Lord
Buddha recognised such problems because they are related to natural law. Accordingly, he established disciplinary rules
for monks to live as models of not destroying the environment. The five precepts of Buddhism are the examples of the
main principals in Buddhism which is regulations regarding the relation with environmental crime protection and
humanity.
Keywords: Buddhist, Environmental crime, Environmental protection, Buddhist Five Precept, Contemporary
society, Theravada Buddhist philosophy, Thailand.
INTRODUCTION independent entity sent the alarm about the air
pollution problems at intervals from the reports of
The world has undergone many changes because Greenpeace group (Green Peace, 2017). In Thailand,
of human activities, including global environmental the ambient airborne particles were estimated. It found
changes. Indeed, environmental changes are that in 2017, the 24-hour average which was examined
increasing, contributing to climate change, which, in was in the range of 2-116 µg/m³. The maximum
turn, causes unbalances in the natural world. For average of all over the country was 74 µg/m³ (The
instance, the exploitation of natural resources that are standard value was at 50). The annual average was in
not replaceable, as seen in the case of fossil fuel the range of 9-36 µg/m³ (The standard value was at
burning, has led to the greenhouse effect (Choeikiwong 25). The standard value was about 40-50 days per
2012). Deforestation has increased because of year. During January-March, from checking the causes
ignorant actions by villagers and the indifference of of ambient airborne particles basically, it found that the
both the government and larger society. Environmental problem came from burning the agricultural materials
change worldwide has led to effects such as unusual and from cooking producing smoke. It was about 40-
precipitation, flooding and heavy snowfall. It is even a 45%. 30-35% was from traffic and vehicles. 10-15%
cause of polar ice melting at the North Pole, which has was from industry. Most of particles coming from
contributed to the increasing level of Pacific Ocean construction and dust road are bigger than PM2.5.
water, a phenomenon associated with earthquakes From the result measuring the faraway pollution from
(Chumsai Na Ayudhya and Dhammasakiyo, 2015). the remote sensing in many provinces like in the areas
of central and northeastern regions, the quantity of
Apart from the above-mentioned problems, Thailand
ambient airborne particles PM2.5 which was examined
and Chiangmai faced with the continuing severe air
was over the standard value during January-March.
pollution during the beginning of 2019. The government
The annual average of ambient airborne particles
defined the emergency measures for solving the air
quantity was over the standard value especially in
pollution problems. Scholars and the group of
Chiangmai. The 24-hour average quantity of ambient
airborne particles was during 36-239 µg/m³
*Address correspondence to this author at the Department of Social Sciences, (Theerapong, 2019).
Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities, Mahidol University, Salaya,
Phutthamonthon, Nakhon Pathom 73170 Thailand; Tel: +6681-926-6287;
E-mail: dittita.tit@mahidol.ac.th Various countries including Thailand signed a
#
E-mail co-author: tanet.ket@mahidol.ac.th United Nations Treaty to counteract climate change
E-ISSN: 1929-4409/21 © 2021 Lifescience Global1230 International Journal of Criminology and Sociology, 2021, Vol. 10 Tititampruk and Ketsil
(Choeikiwong, 2012). In Thailand, the Enhancement destroying on the environment by human unless
and Conservation of the National Environmental mindsets of people who are more likely to become
Quality Act (No. 2) B.E. 2561 (The Government materialism and consumerism person in modern
Gazette, 2018) (Amendment), which falls under the societies would not be changed. Comparing to other
Ministry of Natural Resources and the Environment, similarly studies, the authors attempt to bring the light
was published in the Royal Thai Government Gazette. the Buddhist principals or strategies which could be
eliminate or mitigate the environmental problems and
In additions, the consequences of environmental environmental crime problems in Thai society and
problem not only limit to destroying of natural could be the first consideration to create as a practical
environmental resources, but also some problems model to prevent the environmental problems.
transformed to be the environmental crime or green However, Buddhism’s principles are practical and
criminology. Environmental criminology can be timeless for Thai society as well as other countries.
basically explained as the study about Crimes against Especially in the current situation of environmental
the Environment (Jitsawang, 2016). Damage and change, it is important for Thai society and individuals
seizing the advantages from the natural resources in to learn and practice the principles of Lord Buddha’s
this world occurred for a long time, but it has just been teachings. Hence, there are still unknown gap
taken to be the issue in the second half of the 20th explaining how principles of Buddhist philosophies and
century because the trend of interest of world concepts related to environmental problems including
community in the environmental damages and the environmental crime protection or prevention,
attempt of a group of criminologists who requested and especially in the Buddhist favour countries like
reflected the point of view against that action being one Thailand. The authors felt strong require to pursue
type of crime (Gottfredson and Hirschi, 1990; library-based exploratory study on this issue.
Aroonwipada, 2016).
This present paper argues that even though the
Moreover, it has been pointed out that for Thai principles of Buddhism were founded over 2,500 years
society to flourish, individuals should take responsibility ago, they can have an application that is modern,
in caring for the environment. Thai people are mostly contemporary and practical for taking care of the
Buddhists, but not everyone in Thailand knows or environment and maintaining the balance of nature.
understands all the Buddhist principles. Lord Buddha However, the main objectives of this paper are firstly to
himself lived with the natural environment, in a period address literature review on current situations of
known as the Rains Retreat or Buddhist Lent, environmental issues in contemporary Thai society.
throughout 45 rainy seasons of Buddhism propagation Buddhism in contemporary and Buddhist principals
(Somdet Phra Buddhakosajarn, 2017). He also put into toward environmental protection should be following
legislation many disciplinary rules for monks to live a discussed. This paper also presents some example of
balanced life in harmony with nature without destroying temples in Thailand, where participate in environmental
the environment. protection by following the Buddhist principals.
In the face of deforestation, climate change, and In the discussion section, the authors attempt to
extreme flooding in Thailand, Buddhist monks are address how Buddhist disciplines and environmental
stepping up as environmental leaders. Although the problem and crime prevention are related and how
Buddhist religion typically emphasizes a detachment Buddhist strategies on environmental caring look like.
from society, these monks are acting as environmental The relationship between Buddhist philosophy and
advocates through ritual, advising in the political crime, especially five precepts and environmental crime
sphere, and agricultural work. By putting the Thai are also discussed to represent how effective Buddhist
environmental movement on a moral platform, ecology approaches on environmental perspectives.
monks are encouraging followers to protect the
environment as a religious duty. Methodology Applying in this Study
Theorical Framework and Aims of this Paper The present doctrinal study is a kind of library based
exploratory academic study; hence the research
The authors of this paper strongly believed that no methodology mainly consists of critical analysis of
environmental legislation or policy nevertheless of how existing secondary literature resources with respect to
effectively it is implemented will stop the ongoing the theorical framework. The academic work primarilyCare for the Environment and Environmental Crime Based on Theravada International Journal of Criminology and Sociology, 2021, Vol. 10 1231
includes the collection of literature and reference the numbers of population increased very fast. So, the
materials in the form of hard and soft copies. The hard areas for living and doing the agriculture including the
copies included the books, reports, reprint of published pasturage were needed more. Forests were cut
research papers, leaflets etc. whereas the soft copies because woods were used as the energy and the
included reliable webpages, research electronic files production materials. The modern technology like
download from the internet. Information from collected electric chain saws and tractors were used. Cutting
literature was referred and critically analyzed to trees were done in the short time. The forest areas of
representing the ideas and issues on environmental world decreased very fast since that time (Learning
problems and environmental crime by the Buddhism Center for Earth Science and Astronomy: LESA, 2021).
philosophy and concept perspectives.
However, the consequences of increasing world
Current Situations of Environmental Issues in population were not only the change in workplaces, but
Contemporary Thai Society it affected in a chain which made the world condition
changed in many dimensions. We may explain the
The concept of ‘society’ has been acclaimed in the world condition change occurring from things which can
Western world, where social theory was founded. Plato be found in the daily life as follows. When the
(427–347 B.C.) explained that people live individually population increase, the cities are bigger. When the
and separately, but they also tend to live together cities are bigger, the houses or workplaces locate in
owing to the threat of disaster. Later, French further places. People need to use vehicles to travel.
philosopher Auguste Comte (1798–1875), who is The fuel will be burnt. The greenhouse gas is released
regarded as the ‘father of sociology’, defined ‘society’ into the atmosphere. The world has the higher
as a development of humankind associated with the temperatures. The agricultural areas are changed to be
law of three stages, and this idea is the origin of social the community areas. The albedo of world surface is
theory (Chantavanich,2012). changed. When the forest areas became the
agricultural areas, burning forest and fields increased.
Contemporary Thai society is marked by various
The greenhouse gas was released into the
changes such as population growth, human activity
atmosphere. The world temperatures were higher. The
causing environmental problems and the Thailand 4.0
human’s warehouse system made people to
economy, which has led to cultural shifts in family
accumulate a large quantity of food in supermarkets. It
relationships. These factors, which directly influence
affected to the food chain and the ecology. When
the environment (Choeikiwong 2012), are detailed in
people increased their production needs, every kind of
the sections below.
factories released the greenhouse gas. Some kinds of
Population Growth greenhouse gas like FREON (a kind of gas which is the
CFC substance) do not affect to the greenhouse effect
In Paleolithic for many ten thousand years, there only, they also damage the ozone in the stratosphere.
were only about 1-5 million of people living in the world. Living things will be in the danger, and the ecology also
They lived with eating plants and hunted like animals is affected and the world population increase.
which were hunters. Until ten thousand million years,
people had the evolution to make a living with doing the Owing to Thailand’s rapid population growth
agriculture and raising animals in small areas without (Institute for Population and Social Research, 2018)
making any effects to the ecology. Until Metal Age, five and the immigration of foreign workers, both legally and
thousand years ago, people began to know to build illegally, urban areas such Bangkok and Pattaya have
metal tools (Learning Center for Earth Science and become densely populated. This has led to a highly
Astronomy: LESA, 2021). Cutting trees started from competitive environment, a high rate of resource
that period. However, the numbers of people still consumption, selfishness and a lack of sense of
increased in the little rate. Until people invented responsibility for environmental protection and an
antibiotics in 1357, the death rate was less than the increasing to offend the environmental crime or does
birth rate so much. The numbers of population something impacting both direct or indirect
increased and accumulated since that time. Until the consequences to create the environmental crime
industrial revolution period in 1847, people used occurrence such as illegal tree cutting, illegal wildlife
machines to manufacture products and facilities. There trading or even the release of waste into rivers or air
was the energy consumption in the large quantity, and which later lead to water and air pollution.1232 International Journal of Criminology and Sociology, 2021, Vol. 10 Tititampruk and Ketsil
Environmental Effects of Human Activity ecology, it is fond to call forests to be vegetative cover
type. They can mean the stony grounds covered with
According to Choeikiwong’s six-year study that mosses and little plants, meadows, and big forests with
included 25,000 scientists in over 30 countries, humans 50-metre-high trees. Besides, the forests give benefits
are a significant factor in climate change, and, more directly and indirectly to everything in the world.
importantly, environmental protection is the
responsibility of everyone, not just certain individuals It is clear that forest resources are very important,
(Choeikiwong, 2012). Yet, in Thailand, under the as they are the biggest and most important sources
excuses of poverty and survival and without a collecting heredities of creatures. There also are
consideration for long-term consequences, many several plants and animals living in forests which
people have engaged in deforestation, forest trespass humans have never known. They are the sources
or wood smuggling. According to the Royal Forest improving heredities of plants and animals and the
Department’s statistics, the forest area in Thailand sources of ingredients for medicines. Forests have also
continuously declined during the period of 1973–1998, been the resources which humans used for building
although there was an increased growth rate from towns and communities since the primitive age. They
2000–2014. This is because, since 1999, the Thai help to absorb water and to slow down the flood. These
government has had awareness of the significance of are the importance and direct and indirect advantages.
forest resources. As a result, it decreased deforestation So, the Thai government in every period give the
and started reforestation projects (Royal Forest importance to the national policies of forests. It defines
Department, 2014).
40% of areas in Thailand to be the forest areas.
(Channarong, 1992).
Moreover, populated urban residential areas near
rivers were mostly constructed by encroaching on the The Situation of Forest Resources and
land for public interest. Many people dump garbage Conservation Forest Areas in Thailand
and waste into the rivers, affecting the environment of
the community and society overall. Thus, human The situation of forest resources in Thailand should
behaviour has direct negative influences on nature. be concerned as time passed. In 2017, Thailand had
the forest areas about 102.16 million Rai or 31.58% of
Although Thailand passed the Enhancement and
all areas. They were stable when being compared in
Conservation of the National Environmental Quality Act
2016. When considering in the last 4 years (2014-
(No. 2) B.E. 2561 (The Government Gazette, 2018).
2017), it found that the decreasing rates of forest areas
Amendment as an effort toward environmental
were better because the government gave the
protection, the law appears impractical to implement in
importance to increase the forest areas for achieving
some organisations or regions. Since the law merely
the targets defined in National Forest Policy B.E. 2528,
directs responsible officials to perform their duties, by
The National Economic and Social Development Plan
itself, it is not adequate for natural resources
conservation and preservation or environmental Volume 12 (B.E. 2560-2564), and the national reform
protection. plans for natural resources and environment of which
the targets were to increase the forest area proportion
The Importance of Forest Resources to be 40% of all areas at least (Office of Natural
Resources and Environment Policy and Planning:
Forest resources play an important role in the entire ONEP, 2019). However, Thailand still has the
system of natural resources that mutually support. conservation forest areas. It shows that plentiful areas
They are generally called the ecology. For are still kept well as the following details. Conservation
understanding the value of forest resources, forest areas are consisted of national park areas,
Siripatanadilox (1992) stated that the forest that as the wildlife sanctuaries, non-hunting wildlife areas, botanic
law, the forest means areas which aren’t possessed gardens, and arboretums which Department of National
legally. They are defined into many kinds of forests,
Parks, Wildlife, and Plant Conservation is responsible
such as National Reserved Forests, Forests being
for. In 2017, there were 458 places of which the areas
ready to be reserved forests, National Parks, and
were 69,359,906.51 Rai. When considering in the last 6
Wildlife Reserves. As the general meaning, forests are
years (2012-2017), it found that the conservation forest
areas covered with plants like trees, bushes, grasses,
areas tended to increase. (ONEP, 2019).
or other plants which aren’t agricultural plants. For theCare for the Environment and Environmental Crime Based on Theravada International Journal of Criminology and Sociology, 2021, Vol. 10 1233
National Reserved Forest Areas Square wa, the areas in the Central region were
The national reserved forests which Royal Forest 567,891 Rai 1 Ngan 35 Square wa, and the South
Department is responsible were found that, in 2017, region had the areas 214,575 Rai 2 Ngan 18 Square
there were 1,221 national reserved forests; the areas wa in order (ONEP, 2019).
were 143,925,404.30 Rai (attached with Ministerial Family Relationships
Regulation) and about 146,344,407.26 Rai (calculated
by the GIS system). It found that the national reserved As Thai society has entered the Thailand 4.0 era,
forests in the north had the most areas; the next ones the economy is focused on innovation (Chanocha
were the Northeast region, the Central region, the 2017). A material culture has emerged, with effects on
South region, the West region, and the East region in people’s mentality and interactions in the workplace,
order. The forest numbers in the South region were the environment and home, apart from the traditional
most; the next ones were the Northeast region, the influence of religion. For instance, the word ‘phubbing’
North region, the Central region, the East region, and describes the behaviour of people who ignore their
the West region in order. When considering the last 10 companions, and sometimes parents as well, in favour
years (2008-2017), it found that the numbers of of using cell phones or other electronic devices. In
national reserved forest areas (attached with Ministerial addition, sometimes parents are not able to teach their
Regulation) were stable (ONEP, 2019). child properly because the child has already learned
about the subject outside the home or through
Encroached Forest Areas
technology. Thus, education and behaviour, which had
The loss of forest areas in Thailand comes from formerly been shaped early on by the family, are under
many causes. The reforestation is one important the influence of modern changes. This may lead to
reason. Forests are invaded and cut trees. Besides, social problems in family relationships.
forests are reclaimed for agriculture and dwellings
including for tourism. From considering the statistics of The family has long been the most important
breaking forestry law cases in 2017, the national forest institution in Thai society. With strong and healthy
areas were invaded about 107,932.90 Rai, increasing families, the community and society stay strong and
1,649.46 Rai from 2016 when the encroached forest healthy as well. The Moral Promotion Centre
areas were 106,283.44 Rai. The national reserved encourages parents to teach their children about the
forest areas were invaded about 35,607.82 Rai, five precepts, kindness and generousness and to
decreasing 14,445.40 Rai from 2016 when the engage them in moral development activities or take
encroached forest areas were 50,053.22 Rai. When them camping to create a conscience for love and
considering during the last 10 years (2008-2017), it understanding others (Moral Promotion Center of
found that the encroached forest areas tended to Mahidol University, 2010). If the family is weakened,
increase (ONEP, 2019). how can family members be expected to function well
in society?
The Numbers and Areas of Community Forests
Buddhism in Contemporary Society
Royal Forest Department (2018) has arranged the
community forest projects and supported the Lord Buddha established his religion in what is now
community forest management since 2000 until India and Nepal. Jambudvipa was divided into 16 large
present. It arranged in target villages around the cities (Somdet Phra Buddhakosajarn, 2017). Many rich
national reserved forests within 5 km of radius so that people lived there, such as Chadith-setthi,
communities were the center of management, control, Anadhabindhika-setthi and Visakha. People in
care, or maintenance forests; they also developed the Jambudvipa were divided into four castes or varna by
environment and forests and made the community occupation: 1) Kshatriya: rulers, including high
power concurrently along the way of sufficiency authorities such as the Minister and Purohit; 2)
th
economy. The operation results on 30 June 2018, Brahmana: people who had the duty of performing
there were 11,114 villages in the community forest ceremonies and teaching, such as the six gurus; 3)
projects. Their areas were about 6,085,188 Rai 1 Ngan Vaishya: merchants, agriculturalists and ordinary
58 Square wa. In the North region, the community people and 4) Shudra: labourers, who were loathed by
forest areas were the most; they were 3,863,473 Rai others in the hierarchy. A person had to perform duties
43 Square wa; the next ones were in the Northeast on the basis of caste and live with other members of
region, the areas were 1,411,749 Rai 3 Ngan 191234 International Journal of Criminology and Sociology, 2021, Vol. 10 Tititampruk and Ketsil
the same caste. Marriage between members of Moreover, since Buddhism is the main religion in
different castes was prohibited. A child of a person Thailand, environmental protection strategies or
from the Shudra caste and a person from the Vaishya policies should be compatible with the concepts in the
caste was considered Shudra. This type of Buddhist Scriptures, also known as “Tripitaka”.
discrimination causes misery particularly for members
of the Shudra caste. Several environmental problems or environmental
crime prevention perspectives should be found in the
In this context, however, Lord Buddha established Tripitaka in the term of Lord Buddha’ teaching
the Buddhist religion without discrimination of caste, philosophy. In this section, such philosophies should be
gender or age, as such differences were not reviewed and discussed as following:
obstructions for understanding his teachings. Lord
Buddha’s teachings also addressed the environment in The Vinaya
terms of the compatibility of life and nature.
The Vinaya has a long history since Lord Buddha’s
Although Lord Buddha’s teachings were given over lifetime era. During the period that Lord Buddha stayed
2,500 years ago, when there were not many in a Buddhist monastery during the Lord Buddhist Lent
environmental problems, Lord Buddha and his in Waerunchara according to Waerush Brahman’s
followers lived in harmony with nature. That is, they request, during that period, Waerunchara had the
cultivated gratitude without destroying or exploiting famine and the dearth. Monks who stayed in a
natural resources for their own benefit. Moreover, some Buddhist monastery during the Buddhist Lent difficultly
parts of Buddhist doctrine relate to the good of the relied on brown rice of merchants who stayed during
natural world and its significance. Importantly, these the rainy season in this city. Lord Buddha praised
doctrines and disciplinary rules are deemed natural many monks who fought against the difficulty, and they
law; Buddha was merely the founder of the religion who did not find the happiness dishonestly. Although Phra
then spread the ideas. Furthermore, Buddhism and Mokkhallana advised to receive food offerings in other
Thai society developed a close relationship as early as cities, Lord Buddha did not allow him. At that time,
th
the 5 century (Dokbua 1999). Phra Sareeboot who saw the persistence in the religion
asked Lord Buddha. During that period, Lord Buddha
Pursuant to the explanation above, Lord Buddha’s said about the adherence and the disregard in the
teachings are universal concepts that describe natural religion that the discipline enactment and the prayer in
laws with no discrimination by race or gender. In this the middle of every month made the religion to persist.
way, the doctrine can be considered timeless, and it is If they did not do that, the religion would disappear.
no surprise that Thai society has held the traditions and When the story continued like this, Phra Sareeboot told
beliefs of Buddhism over a long period. Lord Buddha to enact the discipline, but Lord Buddha
said that the time had not arrived yet because during
Buddhism Principals Toward Environmental
that time, there were not many monks, gain and
Protection
honors, and his followers were Buddhist saints. They
were the cause to enact the discipline (Mahamakut
In Lord Buddha’s lifetime era, people did not face
Buddhist University, 2014).
environmental problems on the same scale as today,
but Lord Buddha still created disciplinary rules—which So, it was the source that when Lord Buddha
are deemed universal and practical—for the monks, enacted the discipline, he did not do nonspecifically. He
nuns and everyone generally, for guidance purposes. had to use the suitable causes and factors, then he
Apart from these disciplinary rules, he also formulated would enact the discipline as the cause enacted in the
the kindness principle, which explains that people first discipline. The story was that at the place not far
should not destroy things but provide support. The from Vaishali, there was a house named Kaluntha. In
sections below further explain the Buddhist principles that house, there was a son named Sutin. He listened
that relate to environmental protection. the dharma from Lord Buddha and asked to be
ordained. Lord Buddha did not allow him because Sutin
In Thai society, environmental conservation is
had not been allowed by his father and mother yet. So,
regulated by the Enhancement and Conservation of the
Sutin came to his house to ask for his parents’
National Environmental Quality Act (No. 2) B.E. 2561
permission, but he was not allowed. Sutin requested
(The Government Gazette, 2018) Amendment, which
with many reasons, but he did not succeed. Until his
specifies that everyone’s cooperation is needed.Care for the Environment and Environmental Crime Based on Theravada International Journal of Criminology and Sociology, 2021, Vol. 10 1235
friends helped him to talk with his parents, he could be or spitting in the green grass (plant) or the water
ordained. Next, Phra Sutin came to visit his parents, (Bhunyanuphab, 2011). Sankarawashudra describes
they requested him to leave the Buddhist monkhood, Lord Buddha’s response to purifying bathing
but he did not agree. So, his parents asked Phra Sutin (Mahamakut Buddhist University, 2014). In Lord
had a sexual intercourse with his ex-wife so that they Buddha’s time, people in India believed that bathing in
had a son to be descended. Phra Sutin had a sexual the Ganges was purifying since the Brahmin said that it
intercourse with his wife because the discipline saying could take one to heaven after death. However, Lord
that having a sexual intercourse was the mistake had Buddha explained to a Brahmin at the river that he
not been enacted. Next time, Phra Sutin became thin. could not go to heaven since there were many animals
All monks knew and told Lord Buddha. Lord Buddha and species living in the river, and they had spent more
set up the monks’ meeting. He inquired, blamed, and time in the river than the Brahmin had; therefore, there
enacted the discipline forbidding monks to have a was no space for the Brahmin in heaven.
sexual intercourse. He ordered to have the offence and
the gravest transgression (Mahamakut Buddhist Lord Buddha was aware that people dumped
University, 2014) garbage, human waste and other things, including
dead bodies, into the river, which could cause pollution.
That’s why Phra Sutin did not resist against the It also meant that a person who bathed in the river was
discipline because it was the first discipline. So, it was likely to contract germs. Under these circumstances,
regarded that Lord Buddha enacted the discipline, taking away sin and impurity by bathing in the river was
there had to be monks making the mistake, and they irrational.
were blamed at first. Then, Lord Buddha would set up
the monks’ meeting and inquired by himself. When he Prohibiting Deforestation and the Killing of Animals
found that it was the truth and the wrong thing, monks
should not do, he enacted the discipline. The penalty There was a disciplinary rule against deforestation,
was defined also so that monks did not do again. If any and anyone who broke the rule could be liable to
monks resisted against the discipline, they received the punishment. Digging in the ground was also prohibited
penalty as defined. This is the origin of the discipline since such action could kill animals that lived under the
enactment. Besides, followers could not claim that they ground. Pouring water that contained living beings was
did not know the discipline. As the story of Phra prohibited as well. As for monks, they were prohibited
Shappuckkhee, he claimed that “We had just known at from eating nine types of meat (i.e. elephant, horse,
this time that this dharma came in Suttas” (Mahamakut domestic dog, snake, lion, Bengal tiger, leopard, bear,
Buddhist University, 2014). Lord Buddha punished and fox meat), and those who violated the rule would
monks with the petty offence who pretended that they be liable to punishment (Bhunyanuphab, 2011).
did not know anything.
As shown in the paragraph about plants, the first
The Vinaya is one of the three parts in the Tripitaka, discipline, it was about the Arnwee monk. Lord Buddha
which are as follows: 1) Vinaya Pitaka: regulatory stayed at Akkarnwa Stupa near Arnwee. Arnwee
framework for monks and nuns, 2) Sutta Pitaka: monks helped each other to do the construction. They
regulatory framework on general preaching and 3) cut plants by themselves or ordered others to cut.
Abhidhamma Pitaka: doctrines and important dharma Living things in that area were in trouble. They were
(Bhunyanuphab, 2011). This article emphasises the blamed by general people. When Lord Buddha knew,
Vinaya since its doctrine demonstrates that Lord he asked and blamed that “Everyone thought that living
Buddha was well aware of environmental protection things lived in trees. Your actions were not done for the
and legislated conduct for monks and nuns faithfulness”. After that he enacted the discipline to
accordingly. The relevant concepts include prohibitions punish with penalty offence to monks who damaged
on dumping waste, deforestation and killing animals, plants (Mahamakut Buddhist University, 2014). In the
which relate to the principle of kindness. These are classification discipline, plants which monks were
explained below. forbidden to damage were clearly defined. They
defined the plant appearance as follows.
Prohibiting Dumping Garbage and Waste into the
River 1. Plants came from rootstocks, such as Curcuma,
Ginger, Sweet Flag, Galangal, Cyperus
Prohibitions included swimming in the river; pouring Rotundus Linn, etc.
water containing living beings; and defecating, urinating1236 International Journal of Criminology and Sociology, 2021, Vol. 10 Tititampruk and Ketsil
2. Plants came from trunks, such as Sacred Flag, For forbidding to kill animals, the story was that in
Fiddle-leaf Fig, Long Pepper, etc. one period, Lord Buddha stayed at Phra Cheatawan,
the monastery of Anathabinthika, a wealthy person,
3. Plants came from buds, such as Sugarcane, near Phra Nakhon Sawatthee. At that time, Phra
Bamboo, Cattail, etc.
Uthayee who was an archery player in the past did not
like crows. He shot them, cut their heads, and pierced
4. Plants came from treetops, such as Morning
Glory, Lemon Basil, Bai-ya-nang, etc. in the javelin. When monks saw, they blamed and told
Lord Buddha. Lord Buddha called monks to have a
5. Plants came from seeds, such as Rice, Peas, meeting for asking. Phra Uthayee accepted that it was
Sesame, etc. (Mahamakut Buddhist University, true. Lord Buddha blamed him and enacted the
2014). discipline that when any monks killed any living things,
they had the penalty offence (Mahamakut Buddhist
This was another discipline which shown Lord University, 2014). We could see that Lord Buddha
Buddha’s vision in the position of the highest leader enacted the discipline about forbidding to kill animals in
during that time. He clearly defined the appearance of every level of precepts like five Precepts or five basic
plants which monks were forbidden to damage. All of 5
Buddhist precepts of moral practices, eight Precepts,
kinds which he forbids could be said that they were all
and ten Precepts. The details are as follows. Killing
species which were in that period. It was the noticeable
animals which was regarded to be against this
point for the present time that we found most of monks
discipline completely had to consist the following
living in forest areas because villagers in the nearby
compositions. Those animals were living things.
areas cut and cleared other areas and used in the
(Animals meant human, but they did not include
agriculture. So, the areas where monks stayed in a
plants.) Those animals were known that they lived. (If it
Buddhist monastery during the Buddhist Lent still were
was not sure whether those animals still lived or not,
the forests. There were not only the areas in the
upcountry, we could notice that temples or houses of the guilt was smaller.) There were thoughts or the
priest in the downtown had plants covering all areas in intention to kill those animals. There was attempt to kill
temples. When we entered into those places, we felt animals, and they died because of this attempt. If
comfortable, happy, and peacefulness. There might be animals did not die or died because of other causes,
someone opposing this idea, but in general, the the guilty was smaller. The occurring sin was much or
naturalness could be found in the temple areas (Ketsil, small depending on the completeness along these five
2020). rules, the qualification of the dead, and the used
attempt as follows.
Besides, Lord Buddha forbid to dig or order others
to dig soil because it might kill animals if those tools Moreover, the more attempt was used, if killers
harmed animals. He forbids to water or order others to spent more time for planning and preparing, the more
water grasses or soil with water having animals. It the sin was because the mind had to have much
appeared in the paragraph about lie. It was about an power, and that temper was taken for a long time. So,
Arnwee monk. During that period, Lord Buddha stayed killing large animals had more sin than killing small
at Akkranwa Stupa near Arnwee. At that time, Arnwee animals. If the dead had much favour for killers, the sin
monks helped each other to do the construction. They increased. Killing which had the sin the most was killing
dug by themselves or ordered others to dig soil. They their own fathers, mothers, and Buddhist saints
were blamed by general people that they did against (Thammachote, 2016).
monks’ custom. Lord Buddha asked, blamed, and he
enacted the discipline that monks dug soil by As shown in above explanation, it is said that killing
themselves or ordered others to dig soil, they had to be animals’ compositions consideration to be against the
punished with penalty offence (Mahamakut Buddhist Buddhist precepts discipline is look like the homicide
University, 2014). Indian people during that time offense compositions in criminal law. Both two
believed that everything was the organism or the living
offenses, even killing animals or killing human, not only
things. Especially when they are monks, they should
violate the criminal law or other related law such as
not do as layman. It was important that they had not to
forest law, wildlife conservation and protection act, but
exploit living things living in soil. This discipline was
such offenses also against Buddhist precepts discipline
enacted so that there was not any sin being committed
such environmental crime continually (Ketsil, 2020) and being a sin.Care for the Environment and Environmental Crime Based on Theravada International Journal of Criminology and Sociology, 2021, Vol. 10 1237
Prohibiting Lighting Fire Buddha concluded that there were 2 big groups
th of suffering as follows.
According to the 6 discipline in the liquor
paragraph, it is written regarding the banning to light (2.1) Suffering from the condition or from changing
fire to warm oneself. The story started since Lord naturally the body, such as birth, sickness,
Buddha stayed at Phedkala Marukkhathayawan near elderliness, and death. All living things in the
Mueang Soong Suman Kira in Phakkha Region. When world had to face with body changes inevitably.
the winter came, monks in Soon Suman Kira lighted All of them were called physical pain.
fire for warming themselves. There was a snake
receiving the heat, so it went out a log and bit monks. (2.2) Temporary suffering or mental suffering occurred
All of them broke up and escaped. Monks and simple from the external cause, such as when we
people blamed until Lord Buddha knew, and then wished something, and we could not fulfill our
asked, and complained Soon Suman Kira. Later, Lord hope, we would have the suffering. When we
Buddha enacted a discipline that if any monks lighted faced with undesirable things, there will be the
fire by themselves or ordered others to light fire for suffering. When we were separated from
warming, they should get the penalty for such offense. beloved things, we would have the suffering. All
However, after time passed, Lord Buddha allowed sick of them were called mental pain.
monks to light fire and warm themselves. (Mahamakut
Buddhist University, 2014) (3) Sympathetic joy means the gladness when
others received good things. The word “good” in
Lighting fire was the main point because monks in this place meant having the happiness or the
Lord Buddha era lived and stayed in forests during the advance. The gladness when others received
Buddhist Lent. Lighting fire might spread and became good things meant wishing others to have the
forest fire destroying wildlife animals and environment. happiness and the advance without the envy.
It showed Lord Buddha’s omniscient. It could be The envy was the unhappiness. The anger and
applied in the present time, such as the dust problem the distraction always happened when seeing
which caused from burning agricultural scraps and others receiving better things than their own,
cooking food which made smoke and led to the PM2.5 such as when we saw a friend getting dressed
problem which was over the standard value. If neatly and a teacher praised him. We envied
everyone recognized the occurring effects and took the him, so we disturbed him by taking chalk scraps,
principle of this discipline which was enacted by Lord mud, or ink to coat his shirt or trousers to be
Buddha, the occurring problem might be relieved. dirty. We had to practice ourselves to have the
sympathetic joy so that we would have the
Kindness friendship and have the good relationship with
others easily and profoundly.
Lord Buddha suggested the principle of kindness in
Fourt-Brahmavihara as follows: 1) loving-kindness (4) Equanimity or the ignorance means the neutral
(metta) is wishing that others have happiness; 2) mind because it considered that what goes
compassion (karuna) is wishing for others to be free around, comes around as the karma rule which
from sorrow; 3) empathetic joy (mudita) is feeling glad was that anyone did anything, it reacted to
for others’ achievements and 4) equanimity (upeksa) is doers. When we saw that someone received the
being calm (Mahamakut Buddhist University, 2014). retribution in the bad way, we should not be
happy or aggravate him. We should have the
(1) Loving-kindness means wishing everyone to be goodwill. We should try to help others to be free
happy. The happiness was needed by everyone.
from suffering correctly along the moral
It could occur body and mind, such as the (Nyanaponika, 2013).
happiness from having assets, from spending
capitals for consumption, from not having debts, Thus, the rules described above constitute universal
and from working without wickedness, etc. doctrine because they were created for the purpose of
kindness and avoiding destruction. Anyone can
(2) Compassion means wishing everyone to leave
practice them, but Lord Buddha instituted the
from suffering. The suffering was the thing
disciplinary rules especially for monks and nuns, who
exploiting, and the unhappiness occurred body had devoted their lives for Dharma. The disciplinary
and mind. It came from many factors. Lord1238 International Journal of Criminology and Sociology, 2021, Vol. 10 Tititampruk and Ketsil
rules were similar to the law, which meant that if monks Pavaranivesh Vihara Rajavaravihara for a period (21st
and nuns violated the rules, it was possible that they April Capital 2013), and the temple is considered the
were simultaneously violating the law. In addition, the dwelling place of Somdet Phra Nyanasamvara Somdet
Vinaya emphasised intention; for instance, the Phra Sangharaj, also known as Chareon Suwannano
prohibition on killing was detailed, and one’s (Osathanugrah, 2006). Mahamakut Buddhist University
intentions—namely, whether one had killed the animal is also located in the same area.
intentionally or not—were taken into consideration. In
contrast, the law was not that detailed: an eyewitness Wat Pavaranivesh Vihara Rajavaravihara is an
account could lead to the assumption that one had important temple in Thai royal history since several
committed a crime. If people could comply with Lord kings had their ordination there. When visiting with
Buddha’s disciplinary rules, the law would not be family, people tend to reminisce about the Thai
necessary. However, since many people violated the monarchy. Furthermore, Wat Pavaranivesh Vihara
religious rules, enacted laws were needed. Monks and Rajavaravihara has a serene and calm atmosphere
nuns were expected to be role models for others in with an abundance of trees and a beautiful ‘ubosot’
society. (ordination hall). Although the air outside the temple is
highly polluted, one can breathe comfortably inside the
Temples’ Participation in Environmental Protection temple area. Moreover, large fish swim in the canal,
which is evidence of good environmental quality.
Owing to the rapid change of social context from
Lord Buddha’s era to the present day, Buddhism has Wat Nyanavesakavan (Nakhon Pathom)
also changed, as can be seen by the different
interpretations of the principles and concepts. For Wat Nyanavesakavan is located in Nakhon Pathom
instance, a monk in Japan could marry (Chumsai Na province, and it was the dwelling place for Phra
Ayudhya and Dhammasakiyo, 2015). In addition, Somdet Buddhakosajarn (Somdet Phra
monks in Thailand can be learners, practitioners or Buddhakosajarn, 2017) during the rain retreat. The
enlightened persons. To maintain Buddhism and keep temple is located in one of the central provinces of
updated with technology, innovation and globalisation, Thailand, not far from Bangkok. There are many routes
they sometimes have to change their mind-set as well. to Wat Nyanavesakavan, but the most convenient one
Moreover, monks protect the environment by applying is Phutthamonton 5 Road. The appearance of the Wat
practical measures beyond those described in the is different from other temples, as it has many ivies and
Tripitaka. The activities of three temples are described a variety of trees and plants that make it resemble a
below. forest. In the temple area is the library of Thammasapa,
a pool and a white double-story ubosot, which provide
Wat Pavaranivesh Vihara Rajavaravihara (Bangkok) a sense of tranquillity. Furthermore, in Wat
Nyanavesakavan, there is no donation box, no Kau
Wat Pavaranivesh Vihara Rajavaravihara (or Wat
Cim and no activity of placing a gold leaf onto the
Bowon for short) was originally called New Temple. It
Buddha statues. However, the temple provides many
was built by the Heir Apparent in the era of King Rama
activities for free, such as Dharma talks and meditation
III, and King Rama III appointed King Rama IV as the
courses. Therefore, it is an appropriate destination for a
abbot of the temple when King Rama IV was ordained.
family trip.
The temple was later called Wat Pavaranivesh Vihara
Rajavaravihara (Nawikkamun, 2006). It had a Evidently, Wat Nyanavesakavan had good
relationship with Wat Bowonniwet School in the same management since the researchers did not observe
area. In addition, the temple was a place model for a any trash in the temple area. Wat Nyanavesakavan is
wastewater aerator creation, which was one of the
regarded as the city model of tranquillity and relaxation
Royal Initiative Projects of King Bhumibol Adulyadej.
for people who live in the metropolis. Additionally, it
The wastewater aerator was built for sewage
serves as a centre of the community without having a
treatment, a process that involved injecting the
negative environmental impact. That is, the temple
wastewater with oxygen so that the water would be
helps conserve the environment at a good level.
safe enough to use. King Bhumibol Adulyadej was
granted the patent for the project on February 2, 1993 Wat Khao Banchop (Chanthaburi)
and became the world’s first monarch and the only Thai
monarch to be granted a patent. In addition, King The atmosphere of Wat Khao Banchop is natural
Bhumibol Adulyadej was ordained and stayed at Wat and soothing, with shady trees and abundant naturalCare for the Environment and Environmental Crime Based on Theravada International Journal of Criminology and Sociology, 2021, Vol. 10 1239
resources. The temple was built on the basis of that are most likely originated from religious provisions,
preservation and conservation of natural resources, belief and value or respect paid to a religion are
including trees, streams, aquatic animals and wildlife— meaningful and have influence on a way of life of
rather than on the basis of natural resource depletion. people in society (Phrakhru Atthajariyanuwat, 2017).
No one dares to trespass in the temple territory or trap As a consequence, religion plays an important role in
the aquatic wildlife nearby. Consequently, the forest an increase of decrease in the number of crimes.
and wildlife are abundant. In addition, under the Religions and crimes are associated to each other.
leadership of the abbot Phrakhu Dhammadhorn
Boonkara Toonthummo (Uttamapunyo 2018), monks According to Buddhism, an opinion is given that
and villagers planted trees near the canal to prevent both humans and animals are basically afraid of death.
soil erosion caused by water erosion. Wat Khao People should give importance to the value of living at
Banchop also provides a place in its ubosot for every level equally. Attacking, exploiting, killing are bad
meditation retreats and visitors searching for a relaxing deeds that can be formed to be crimes and turn to be
place, fresh air to improve their health and energy or a criminal behavior at the end, which are things that
break from work, city pollution or social problems. Buddhism opposes and prescribes Buddhists to refrain
from doing bad deeds for the benefit of peace at an
If the urban metropolis followed the example of Wat individual level in the first place, having an effect on the
Khao Banchop, a better relationship with the society at a structural level. In addition, Buddhism
environment could be realised. A specific plan could identifies consequences of committing crimes as
recognise Wat Khao Banchop as a role model for persons who commit crimes need to get in trouble as
change. Change must begin with personal residences they will be punished in accordance with criminal law
before advancing to larger parts and, eventually, to all and receive mental suffering at the same time. In this
sectors and relevant persons. Even so, as material regard, Buddhism pays respect to living one’s life that
culture continues to develop and cultural shifts take should not be violated since all animals do not like to
place, it is necessary to observe Wat Khao Banchop in be exploited and are afraid of death. Moreover, crimes
terms of whether there are environmental impacts of its are damages caused by bad deeds or evils from which
activities. Buddhists and everyone should refrain for their own
peace and peace of the society.
DISCUSSION
Five Precepts, Crimes, Environmental Crimes
Concept and Perspective of Buddhism Towards
Crimes Buddhist five precepts refers to guidelines for
ethical living are integral to Lord Buddha’s path of
Criminology is the scientific study of the causes of practice including refrain from killing, stealing, sexual
wrongdoing and ways to prevent wrongdoing known as misconduct, false and harmful speech, and intoxication.
crimes. Therefore, criminologists need to understand It could be said that these five guidelines are
what the causes of crimes are, which factors lead to essentially apply to crime prevention strategies
decision of a person who commits a crime including especially environmental crime approaches. The
how to prevent a crime, which are the questions and authors would represent how concept of five precepts
goals of studying criminology that requires related to environmental crime and environmental
interdisciplinary solutions as a condition of the study in caring in this section.
order to achieve the goals in controlling and preventing
crimes. 1. ‘Panatipata veramani sikkhapadam samadiyami’
or ‘abstrain from killing’ is the first of the five
Religion is a social institution that plays a part in precepts which is the Buddhist guidelines for an
preventing moral wrongdoing or helps suppress or ethical life to refrain from taking life, often
delay the occurrence of wrongdoing and crimes in the phrased as a vow not to kill living creatures. In
form of informal social control one way or another. view of criminology, it can be seen that the first
Religion participates in inhibiting minds of people who precept is associated with a crime known as
are going to violate moral principles or commit violent crime or serious force or threat against
wrongdoing. Any person has a religion as a spiritual life and body, ranging from common assault to
anchor, he/she will have a smaller opportunity to murder (Lydia et al., 1994). Violation of the first
commit wrongdoing (Chapilanan, 1994). Besides, laws precept leads to an assault committed with the1240 International Journal of Criminology and Sociology, 2021, Vol. 10 Tititampruk and Ketsil
intent to cause a seriously bodily injury, known Kuttokanikai Ititwuttaka Musavadasuttra, item
as aggravated assault or an assault with the 203 page 211 that
intent to murder, known as homicide. The first
precept is a basic Buddhist principle related to “.........those who are named as liars can do evil
crimes against life and body according to things...”
criminology and it is sometimes classified as
It means that Buddhism considers that lying is a
environmental crime committing.
fundamental part of do other bad deeds including
2. ‘Adinnadana veramani sikkhapadam committing a crime such as forgery, gathering of
samadiyami’ or ‘abstrain from taking what is not people to form a gang to deceive or cheat others
given’ is the second of the five precepts which is out of something, known as fraudulence. These
the Buddhist guidelines for an ethical life to actions are violation of the fourth precept, which
refrain from taking what is not given, often inevitably lead to a crime.
simplified to not stealing. This precept covers all
5. ‘Suramerayamajja pamadathana veramai
the illegal behavior one would expect, such as
sikkhapadam samadiyami’ or refrain from
burglary, shoplifting, fraud, and counterfeiting, as
intoxicants’ is the fifth of the five precepts which
well as mundane activity like wearing a sibling’s
is Buddhist guidelines for an ethical life to refrain
clothes without asking permission. It is related to
from using intoxicants, which are said to cause
crimes against property (Lydia et al., 1994)
carelessness. While the phrasing in Pali, the
involving the taking of property or money in a
language of some of the oldest Buddhist texts,
professional or occasional manner depending on
undoubtedly refers to alcohol, beliefs about
a situation, opportunity in destruction. Crimes
whether this precept allows for any form of
against property is a category of crime that
alcohol consumption or drug use differ from
includes burglary, motor vehicle theft, theft,
school to school and even from teacher to
arson, vandalism, shoplifting including
teacher. Perhaps because of ingrained cultural
embezzlement and corruption. Therefore,
habits of social drinking and the association of
violation of the second precept is committing a
alcohol with the good life, the fifth precept is
crime according to a criminological explanation.
often not followed to the letter. In addition to
3. ‘Kamesu michacara veramani sikkhapadam alcohol drinks, it includes all types of drugs that
samadiyami’ or ‘refrain from sexual conduct’ is cause unconsciousness leading to making a
the third of the five precepts which is the quarrel, argument or a fight. In addition to
Buddhist guidelines for an ethical life to refrain committing a crime, people perhaps become
from sexual misconduct. It can be compared to victims of a crime. According to criminology, drug
sex-related offences, sexual crime or rape. In use is a crime; victimless crime or a person who
general, sexual activity, most often sexual commits a crime is the victim of the crime.
intercourse, that is forced on another (men,
Most traditional Theravada Buddhists find
women and transgender) without the person’s
marijuana, hallucinogens, and other recreational drugs
consent or against the person’s will is rape,
to be clear violations of the fifth precept, comparing to
which is considered a criminal offense (Lydia et
opinion among Mahayana and Zen Buddhist groups
al., 1994). In this regard, it can be seen that the
varies. Mahayana Buddhists believe that hallucinogens
third precept covers all sexual crimes and
can serve as spiritual aids has been popular in the
violation of the third precept will lead to
West, since many current Western Buddhist teachers
committing a crime.
came to Buddhism during the drug-exploratory
4. ‘Musavada veramani sikkhapadam samadiyami’ counterculture of the sixties. This view lost favor in
or ‘abtrain from false and harmful speech’ is the ensuing decades but is once again in vogue today
fourth of the five precepts which is the Buddhist (Mahamakut Buddhist University, 2014 Phrakhru
guidelines for an ethical life to refrain from false Atthajariyanuwat, 2017). On the other hand, some
and harmful speech, often simplified as not lying. teachers, especially Zen Buddhist teachers understand
the fifth precept to mean refraining from any addictive
According to Buddhism, Lord Buddha blamed or compulsive behavior that intoxicates the mind, such
lying to someone and deceiving others as shown as pornography, gambling, shopping, overeating,
in the Tipitaka Volume 25 Thai version excessive exercise, unskillful use of the internet, andYou can also read
