Biocomposites Developed with Litchi Peel Based on Epoxy Resin: Mechanical Properties and Flame Retardant - Hindawi.com
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Hindawi
Journal of Chemistry
Volume 2021, Article ID 3287733, 9 pages
https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/3287733
Research Article
Biocomposites Developed with Litchi Peel Based on Epoxy Resin:
Mechanical Properties and Flame Retardant
Tuan Anh Nguyen
Faculty of Chemical Technology, Hanoi University of Industry (HaUI), No. 298, Cau Dien Street, Bac Tu Liem District,
Hanoi 100000, Vietnam
Correspondence should be addressed to Tuan Anh Nguyen; anhnt@haui.edu.vn
Received 23 June 2021; Accepted 18 August 2021; Published 31 August 2021
Academic Editor: Ajaya Kumar Singh
Copyright © 2021 Tuan Anh Nguyen. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License,
which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Bio-based composites are reinforced polymeric materials, which include one or two bio-based components. Biocomposites have
recently attracted great attention for applications ranging from home appliances to the automotive industry. The outstanding
advantages are low cost, biodegradability, lightness, availability, and solving environmental problems. In recent days, biode-
gradable natural fibers are attracting a great deal of interest from researchers to work on and develop a new type of composite
material for diverse applications. The objective of this work is to evaluate fire resistance and mechanical properties of epoxy
polymer composites reinforced with lychee peel (Vietnam), at 10 wt%, 20 wt%, and 30 wt% mass%. The study showed that the
mechanical properties and flame retardancy tended to increase in the presence of lychee peel reinforcement. In the combined
ratios, 20 wt% lychee rind gave a limiting oxygen index of 21.5%, with a burning rate of 23.45 mm/min. In terms of mechanical
strength, in which the Izod impact strength increased by 26.46%, the compressive strength increased by 25.20% and the tensile
strength increased by 20.62%. The microscopic images (SEM images) show that the particle distribution is quite good and the
adhesion and wetting compatibility on the two-phase interface of lychee peel-epoxy resin are strong.
1. Introduction biodegradable composite materials. In addition, banana fibers
and eggshells are used as fillers to make biomaterials for
Currently, the world is facing a lot of problems related to waste concrete reinforcement, obtained from agricultural and
management. Particularly, organic recycling waste or rational postconsumer wastes [4]. Furthermore, chicken femur and
use of waste is a primary concern. Sources of waste are medical beak and fish bones were used to make adsorbents to reduce
waste, organic waste, and plastic waste. Of these three cate- Cd2+ from aqueous media [5]. Antonio Mancino et al. have
gories, organic waste is produced in abundance around the studied using sisal fibers to reinforce epoxy-based composites
world. The organic waste includes kitchen waste such as (green), and the results show that the mechanical properties
vegetable peels, fruits, leaves, eggshells, green stalks, and are improved (allowing the tensile strength to increase by 28%;
vegetables in a chopped state. Many of these have biode- the fibers are randomly improved) [6]. Used coffee grounds
gradable properties [1]. The study of mechanical properties of are a biodegradable organic waste that has been studied by Li
fiber-reinforced composites is of great interest to many sci- et al. [7]. In the work, the research has been carried out to
entists. Biodegradable organic wastes such as lemon peels, reduce the brown color of used coffee grounds and strengthen
onion peels, and potato and carrot peels have recently been polylactic acid (PLA) composites. Mohammad Saberian and
studied to make environmentally friendly, biodegradable colleagues also did an overview of the recycling of used coffee
composites. Green composites were developed using various grounds, oriented to the application as a building material [8].
fillers such as the outermost peel of a lemon [1], onion, potato, Parbin et al. evaluated the mechanical properties of natural
and carrot [2], and cellulose and silk fibroin [3] have recently fiber-reinforced epoxy composites, concluding that fibers of
been studied for their production of environmentally friendly, natural origin such as plant fiber and animal fiber have very
2 Journal of Chemistry good compatibility with epoxy resin. It can be concluded from degradation, reduces pollution, and saves the Earth. Fur- this review that natural fibers are very compatible with epoxy thermore, the reuse of wastes from the agricultural and food substrates because both fibers and matrix adhere to each other industries as reinforcing materials or additives for com- very well forming a strong bond between them. They have the posites is a preferred research direction. Natural fiber potential to replace synthetic fibers in the world of composite composites also help rural economic development [27]. In manufacturing because they exhibit the same or better physics this work, the effects of natural fibers obtained from organic and mechanical properties in many cases [9]. Natural fiber- waste (lychee peels) were studied, and the morphological containing epoxy composites have great potential for engi- structure, mechanical properties, and flame retardancy were neering applications due to their environmental suitability and evaluated. The focus of this work is on the use of agricultural technical and economic feasibility. Many efforts have been waste, lychee peel, as reinforcement for epoxy composite done in this direction to create these relatively new composites. materials at the following concentrations: 0 wt%, 10 wt%, 20 To improve compatibility, the researchers used different wt%, and 30 wt%. methods, such as treating natural fibers with NaOH, silane, and ultrasonic. However, alkali treatment is the most widely 2. Materials and Methods used and is believed to be the technique to enhance substrate compatibility and improve composite properties [10]. Torres- 2.1. Materials. Epikote 240 epoxy (E 240) derived from Arellano et al. have studied the incorporation of natural fibers bisphenol F was purchased from Shell Chemicals (USA) with such as Henequen, Ixtle, and Jute into biobased epoxy resins. 24.6% epoxy content, epoxy equivalent of 185-196, and vis- Mauricio Torres-Arellano and colleagues have studied the cosity at 250C in the range of 0,7 ÷ 1,1 Pa.s. Diethylene application of natural fibers such as Henequen, Ixtle, and Jute triamin (DETA) was purchased from Sigma-Aldrich. into biobased epoxy resins. The results show that the Jute fiber Chemical formula of DETA is H2N(CH2)NH(CH2)2NH2 reinforcement provides high stiffness and strength while the with molar weight of 103 g.mol-1, and specific gravity at 25°C Henequen fiber shows a high strain value [11]. Ayyappa of 0.95 g/cm3. Litchi (Litchi Chinensis) peel was supplied Atmakuri et al. studied the mechanical properties and wetting form Thanh Ha district, Hai Dương province, Vietnam. ability of hybrid epoxy composites reinforced with hemp/flax NaOH was purchased form Sigma-Aldrich, Vietnam. fiber and banana/pineapple fiber. The results of the work show that hemp and flax fibers are a potential alternative to rein- forcements in composites. Hemp and flax fibers can be used 2.2. Methods for structural applications [12]. Rajeshkumar et al. studied 2.2.1. Sample Preparation. Litchi peel (LP) is peeled from improving the mechanical properties of epoxy resins rein- lychee fruit and dried in the sun for 7 days to remove moisture. forced with natural fibers (Phoenix sp.). In this experiment, the The dried pods are ground into a powder. To achieve uniform effects of reinforced content (0%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, and particle size, the sieving method is used. The material was then 50% by volume) and material form (bead (300 mm) and washed with distilled water several times and immersed in 5% thread (10 mm, 20 mm and 30 mm)) were evaluated. The 40% NaOH solution for 3 h at room temperature. The beads were volume fraction of the 20 mm long fiber represents a good further washed with distilled water to remove NaOH. Continue compromise to obtain a good quality composite [13]. Research drying at 50 degrees Celsius for 24 hours until dry. Biosynthetic on reinforcement for green composites, such as cellulose fiber materials were fabricated with litchi peel (LP) content: 10 wt%, with abundant supply, is a modern approach. Look spe- 20 wt%, and 30 wt% (see Figure 1). cifically for cellulose fibers that are produced by natural pathways such as silk or by biological pathways. The structure of the yarn is preserved, and the yarn has many 2.2.2. Analysis special properties, including bacterial cellulose fibers. Bac- terial cellulose (BC) fibers with purity, purity, and high (1) Fire Retardant Evaluation Method. Limiting oxygen content have been noticed by many scientists [14–18]. Epoxy index (LOI) according to JIS K720 standard (Japan): the is widely used with good mechanical properties and high sample bars used for the test were 150 × 6.5 × 3 mm3. The compatibility with reinforcing materials of natural origin average values of the five specimens were reported. The selected for the manufacture of synthetic materials with horizontal burning tests (UL-94HB): standard bar speci- natural fiber reinforcement. However, the disadvantage of mens are to be 125 ± 5 mm long by 13.0 ± 0.5 mm wide and epoxy resin is its brittleness. Therefore, in order to improve provided in the minimum thickness and 3.0 (−0.0 + 0.2) mm this property, there are many works that have been studied thick (ASTM D635-12). The average values of the five to strengthen it with different materials such as glass fiber, specimens were reported. natural fiber, carbon fabric, and nanoadditives (nanoclay The UL 94 flame retardant and oxygen limit tests are [19] and multiwalled carbon nanotubes [20, 21]) and hy- conducted at the Polymer Materials Research Center-Hanoi bridize them with fly ash fillers [22–25], epoxidized linseed University of Technology, Vietnam. oil [26], and so on. Green composite materials are receiving much research attention and have an important role and (2) Method for Determining Mechanical Properties. Tensile position in the world of materials science and engineering strength was determined according to ISO 527-1993 standard today because the increasing demand of environmentally on INSTRON 5582-100 kN machine (USA) with tensile speed friendly materials more and more reduces environmental 5 mm/min, temperature 25°C, and humidity 75%. The average
Journal of Chemistry 3
Vietnamese Litchi peel Floating
Vietnamese lychee
Soak in in the sun,
NaOH 5% 7 days
Epoxy/ solution,
DETA/ wash with
LP 20% distilled
wt water
Drying at
50°C, 24
hours
Figure 1: Retreatment process of litchi peel (LP).
values of the five specimens were reported. The flexural strength interfaces than other ratios observed in Figures 2(b) and
was determined according to ISO 178-1993 on an INSTRON 2(d). The surface roughness of the filler is also one of the
5582-100 kN machine (USA) with bending speed of 5 mm/min, factors that increase the adhesion of the particles and the
temperature of 25°C, and humidity of 75%. The average values substrate. The interlacement between fillers and epoxy
of the five specimens were reported. Compressive strength was resin substrate is also observed in Figure 2(d). The
determined according to ISO 604-1993 standard on INSTRON bonding between fillers at a combination ratio of 20 wt%
5582-100 kN machine (USA), compression speed 5 mm/min, or more is strong. However, when increasing to 30 wt% of
and temperature 25°C. The average values of the five specimens filler, it is possible that the increased content leads to the
were reported. Izod impact strength was determined according formation of a larger agglomerated filler mass, which
to ASTM D265 standard on Tinius Olsen machine (USA), affects the compatibility and adhesion (see Figure 2(c)).
measured at Research Center for Polymer Materials, Hanoi This result is completely consistent with the announce-
University of Science and Technology. The average values of the ment of Patil et al. [2]. The surface morphology of the
five specimens were reported. The morphology of the samples sample observed by SEM (Figure 2) indicates that the
was carried out by scanning electron microscope (SEM, particles are irregularly shaped, with a rough and porous
SU3800, HITACHI, Japan), measured at Materials Room 1, surface. Therefore, these characteristics are interesting for
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering Technology, Hanoi Uni- energy absorption purposes.
versity of Industry, Vietnam.
3. Results and Discussion 3.2. Mechanical Properties. The mechanical properties of
epoxy composites reinforced with lychee peel are presented
3.1. Morphology. The structural morphology of the hybrid in Figure 3. The results of the mechanical strength test show
litchi peel (LP)/epoxy composites was evaluated by SEM and that, with 20 wt% lychee peels, higher results were obtained
presented in Figure 2. From the microscopic images (Figure 2), than the combined ratios of 10 wt% and 30 wt% as shown in
it can be seen that the particles are very well distributed in the Figure 3.
epoxy resin matrix. Additive particles with different sizes, very Results of tensile testing using composite reinforced with
good compatibility, and full wetting and full immersion in the 10 wt%, 20 wt%, and 30 wt% lychee peel showed increases
epoxy resin mass were observed at the combined ratios. Part of compared with primary epoxy materials. The flexural
the grain protruding from the surface is due to the material strength of each composite is reported in Figure 2, which is
being destroyed by mechanical force (red circle). It was also shown to be reduced compared with the primary epoxy
observed that when the sample was destroyed, the additive material. Similar results have been reported in the literature
particles partially protruded from the surface and on the where, in the presence of additives of natural origin, the
contact interface between the additive and the epoxy resin flexural strength tends to decrease [2]. For compressive
matrix, no cracks were found. That shows that the bonding on strength and impact strength, Izod increased with the ad-
the surface of phase division between epoxy resin-additives dition of lychee peel.
(litchi peel) is very good. With the combination of 20 wt% additive, the tensile
The litchi peel-LP combination ratio of 20 wt% forms strength reached 55.37 MPa, flexural strength 72.39 MPa,
the structural morphology with better adhesion between compressive strength 135.37 MPa, and Izod impact
4 Journal of Chemistry
Litchi peel
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 2: SEM figure of composite/litchi peel (LP): (a) 10 wt% LP, (b, d) 20 wt%, and (c) 30 wt%.
strength 9.08 kJ/m2 (see Figure 2). Other combinations of Figure 4(a)). These properties have influenced the change
10 wt% and 30 wt% have lower strength values. This result in mechanical properties.
is said to be consistent with the structural morphological On the other hand, from Figure 4(a), due to the ap-
features as argued in Figure 2. 20 wt% mass admixture pearance of additives in the plastic substrate, when the force
gives structure with better adhesion and compatibility is applied, the crack’s trajectory has been changed (white
than the remaining combinations (Figure 2). The in- arrow, Figure 4(a)), the crack direction is changed by the
creased mechanical properties are attributed to the good existence of additives. Therefore, the process of destroying
compatibility, adhesion, and penetration on interface the material requires a longer time or a stronger force.
between epoxy and litchi peel. There are also other factors From Figure 5, on the interface between the additive,
such as the uniform distribution, the term size, and the epoxy resin, it is observed that the compatibility is very
nature of the component materials. Figure 2 shows that strong, and the adhesion is large. No phase division, wetting,
when increasing to 30 wt% additive, the strength tends to or penetration of additive particles was observed at a high
decrease. This can be explained by the influence of the threshold (white circle, Figure 5(b)).
particle size of the additive because when the concen- The interweaving between additive particles and epoxy
tration increases, it leads to high solution viscosity, lower resin is at a high level [2, 29]. On the other hand, when taking
dispersion, and larger particles caused by agglomeration SEM at a different angle, the crack formation was observed.
(Figure 2(c)). However, it is clear that the crack growth path was prevented
According to Ying Ying Tye et al., the large size of the or changed in the presence of additive particles in the epoxy
natural reinforcement will affect the reduction of mechanical matrix (see Figure 5(a), white arrow). The fracture surface
strength [28]. According to Ying Ying Tye et al., the structure morphology of the material explains the good
micron-sized particle reinforcement for polymer com- compatibility of the two-component materials. This is one of
posites has an effect on reducing the mechanical strength the factors affecting the mechanical properties of materials.
of the material. Particle size and mass percent along with The structural morphology results are consistent with the
surface cohesion play a major role in the resulting me- mechanical strength.
chanical strength results. Figures 4(a) and 4(b)), at two
different magnifications and SEM angles, show different
details about the fracture surface morphology such as grain 3.3. Flame Retardant Properties. The major disadvantage of
distribution in regions, voids (color circle white), and biocomposites is their relatively poor fire resistance [30].
cracks (white arrows). In addition to these factors, particle Materials of natural origin are all flammable. They undergo
and substrate adhesion were also observed (white circle, thermal decomposition at low temperatures of 200 to 300°C
Journal of Chemistry 5
70 84
82
60
80
50 78
Flexural strength (MPa)
Tensile strength (MPa)
76
40
74
72
30
70
20 68
66
10
64
0 62
Neat Epoxy
10LP-Epoxy
20LP-Epoxy
30LP-Epoxy
Neat Epoxy
10LP-Epoxy
20LP-Epoxy
30LP-Epoxy
LP (wt.%) LP (wt.%)
(a) (b)
160 10
140 9
8
Compressive strength (MPa)
120
Impact strength (KJ/m2)
7
100 6
80 5
60 4
3
40
2
20 1
0 0
Neat Epoxy
10LP-Epoxy
20LP-Epoxy
30LP-Epoxy
Neat Epoxy
10LP-Epoxy
20LP-Epoxy
30LP-Epoxy
LP (wt.%) LP (wt.%)
(c) (d)
Figure 3: Mechanical properties of epoxy composites reinforced with lychee peels at the following ratios: 0 wt% LP, 10 wt% LP, 20 wt%, and
30 wt% LP.
[31, 32]. Because of its flammability, it will limit the ap- biomaterial, biocarbon (BC) is derived from different
plication of the material in industrial fields. It is important biomass, such as rice husk, bamboo, grass, and sawdust
to adapt materials with higher fire resistance without af- pine wood.
fecting their good mechanical properties [33]. The main In this work, the effect of agricultural by-products (ly-
function of a carbon-based filler is to form a protective chee peel) on the fire resistance of epoxy composites was
layer of coal during the process of pyrolysis of polymers to studied. The results are presented as shown in Figures 6
limit the transfer of combustible gases and heat and thus do and 7.
prevent further deterioration of the material [34]. This From the results of Figure 6 on the flame retardant
carbon-rich material has recently been used as a reinforcing properties, it is shown that when combining the lychee peel
agent in polymer composites and leads the way for the additive at different weight percentages into the epoxy resin
production of environmentally friendly composite me- base, the flame retardant properties tend to be significantly
chanical properties and fire resistance. Instead of using improved. The combination gives high flame retardant
organic waste directly in the production process properties and reaches the specified threshold of 20 wt% lychee
6 Journal of Chemistry
(a) (b)
Figure 4: SEM image of broken surface of epoxy composite sample/litchi peel (20 wt%).
(a) (b)
Figure 5: SEM image of broken surface of epoxy composite, 20 wt% of litchi peel at different magnifications.
21.8 35
21.6
30
21.4
UL94-HB (mm/min)
21.2 25
21
20
LOI (%)
20.8
20.6 15
20.4
20.2 10
20
5
19.8
19.6 0
Neat Epoxy
10LP-Epoxy
20LP-Epoxy
30LP-Epoxy
Neat Epoxy
10LP-Epoxy
20LP-Epoxy
30LP-Epoxy
Composites Composites
Figure 6: Flame retardant properties of epoxy composites reinforced with litchi peel (LP).
rind with a limiting oxygen index of 21.5%; the burning rate biochar (BC) (see Figure 7). The surface has a porous hon-
according to UL94-HB reaches 23.45 mm/min. eycomb structure consisting of a high carbon concentration.
Additives lychee peel is a rich source of carbon-rich bio- BC filler’s honeycomb porous structure allows pene-
mass, a by-product from the food industry. When burned, a tration of molten polymers during processing and they
cinder block is formed and it is possible that it is a form of create a physical bond, which can lead to improved
Journal of Chemistry 7
(a) (A)
(b) (B)
(c) (C)
Figure 7: UL94-HB test image and SEM surface image after burning: (A, a) 10 wt%, (B, b): 20 wt%, and (C, c) 30 wt% litchi peel.
mechanical fit and fire resistance [34, 35]. About the fireproof 10 wt%, 20 wt%, and 30 wt%. The following conclusions are
mechanism of the lychee peel, when burned, the lychee peel drawn from the current investigation:
forms carbon-rich layers of charcoal and acts as heat-stable
(i) With a composite rate of 20% by weight of the
films. This film has limited the transport of fuel and O2, leading
lychee peel, the mechanical parameters reached
to improved combustion characteristics, such as limiting ox-
the specified level, increasing compared to
ygen index and burning rate (see Figure 7). In short, carbon-
monolithic epoxy materials and other combined
based fillers actively reduce the flammability of polymer
ratios (10 wt%; 30 wt%). The following mechanical
composites by (1) forming a protective charcoal layer and (2)
properties were observed: tensile strength reached
absorbing free radicals. The fire resistance of reinforcing
55.37 MPa, flexural strength 72.39 MPa, com-
materials derived from organic agricultural residues depends
pressive strength 135.37 MPa, and Izod impact
on their compatibility with the base material. On the in-
strength 9.08 kJ/m2.
terface between the natural reinforcing agent and the base
resin with a compatible structure, good adhesion and good (ii) In terms of flame retardant properties, with a
wetting will lead to improved mechanical properties and fire combination of different mass percent, 10 wt%, 20
resistance [36, 37]. wt%, and 30 wt% lychee peel, flame retardant
properties (limited oxygen index and burning rate
4. Conclusions according to UL94-HB) increase, in which the
combination of 20 wt% lychee pods has a limited
In this investigation, the development of a biocomposite oxygen index of 21.5% and a flame retardant rate of
material to strengthen lychee peel was established and 23.45 mm/min. This ratio is the best compared to
completed. Litchi pods were combined following ratios of the rest of the combinations.
8 Journal of Chemistry
(iii) The surface morphology of the SEM images revealed [9] S. Parbin, N. K. Waghmare, S. K. Singh, and S. Khan,
that the lychee peel was compatible and adhered to “Mechanical properties of natural fiber reinforced epoxy
the epoxy resin to a high degree. composites: a review,” Procedia Computer Science, vol. 152,
pp. 375–379, 2019.
Research results in this work once again confirm that the [10] V. Mittal, R. Saini, and S. Sinha, “Natural fiber-mediated
reuse of organic agricultural by-products in the manufacture epoxy composites-a review,” Composites Part B: Engineering,
of composite materials is promising, opening a future trend vol. 99, pp. 425–435, 2016.
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Data Availability vol. 12, no. 12, pp. 1–17, 2020.
All the datasets generated or analyzed during this study are [12] A. Atmakuri, A. Palevicius, M. Siddabathula, A. Vilkauskas,
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included in this manuscript.
properties of natural fiber-reinforced epoxy hybrid com-
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Conflicts of Interest [13] G. Rajeshkumar, V. Hariharan, T. P. Sathishkuma, V. Fiore,
and T. Scalici, “Synergistic effect of fiber content and length
The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest on mechanical and water absorption behaviors of Phoenix sp.
regarding the publication of this paper. fiber-reinforced epoxy composites,” Journal of Industrial
Textiles, vol. 47, pp. 1–22, 2016.
Acknowledgments [14] S.-Q. Chen, P. Lopez-Sanchez, D. Wang, D. Mikkelsen, and
M. J. Gidley, “Mechanical properties of bacterial cellulose
The authors wish to acknowledge the Faculty of Chemical synthesised by diverse strains of the genus Komagataeibacter,”
Technology, Hanoi University of Industry, Vietnam, for Food Hydrocolloids, vol. 81, pp. 87–95, 2018.
funding this work. [15] S. Ye, L. Jiang, C. Su, Z. Zhu, Y. Wen, and W. Shao,
“Development of gelatin/bacterial cellulose composite
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