BACKGROUND UNSC B Topic A: The Situation in Lebanon Topic B: The Future of UN Peacekeeping - IMUNA
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BACKGROUND UNSC B
GUIDE
2 0 2 1
Topic A: The Situation in
Lebanon
Topic B: The Future of UN
Peacekeeping
Email: info@imuna.org
Phone: +1 (212) 652-9992
Web: www.nhsmun.org
Secretary-General Dear Delegates,
Maura Goss
I am honored to welcome you to the Security Council of NHSMUN 2021. My name is Ben Cha-
Directors-General
nenson, and I will be serving as the Director for Session I of this year’s NHSMUN. This is the fifth
Rose Blackwell
year that I have been involved in Model UN and my fifth time at NHSMUN. The Security Council
JJ Packer
is a truly special committee, and I am excited to see the creative solutions you all bring to the com-
Conference Services mittee.
Hannah Lilley
Alisa Wong First, let me introduce myself. I am from Chicago, Illinois, and am currently a sophomore at Case
Delegate Experience Western Reserve University, where I study accounting and history. In my free time, I pretend to
Akanksha Sancheti be a lawyer on my university’s mock trial team and volunteer at the Ronald McDonald House of
John Wood Cleveland. Outside of that, I can be found either on a basketball court or at the library. Throughout
the quarantine, I have greatly improved my low post game, but sadly still cannot dunk. My favorite
Global Partnerships
Sofia Fuentes book that I read over the summer is Bismarck: The Man and the Statesman by A. J. P. Taylor. The world
Salmaan Rashiq of 19th-century diplomacy is genuinely fascinating and serves an excellent reminder of the essential
role of comprise. I hope all delegates will come to committee in March with this in mind.
Under-Secretaries-
General The background guide that follows provides a foundational base for your research into the situ-
Jon Basile
ation in Lebanon and United Nations peacekeeping protocols. The entire Security Council team
Ankita Bhat
has worked tirelessly to create this document, and we hope you can use it as a launching point for
Beatriz Circelli
Caitlyn Johnson further inquiry. Both of these topics require highly targeted solutions to fix decades-old problems.
Patrick Leong The economic and political crisis in Lebanon, while rarely covered in American media, has real
Kathy Li ramifications for the health and wellbeing of millions of people. Meanwhile, peacekeeping is one
Pablo Maristany de of the most widely known, but least understood facets of world politics. Peacekeeping is much
las Casas more than soldiers in blue helmets; it also includes economists, engineers, and other civilian experts.
McCall Olliff
Abolee Raut While these topics are challenging, I am confident that you can tackle them by collaborating with
Pranav Reddy your fellow delegates to reach a resolution. The Security Council team is also here to serve as a
Clare Steiner resource for you leading up to the conference. If, at any point during your preparation, you are
Ann Williams confused about the topic or have any questions, don’t be afraid to email Abigail or me.
Yours,
Ben Chanenson
Director
Security Council B, Session I
ben.chanenson@imuna.org
Email: info@imuna.org
Phone: +1 (212) 652-9992
Web: www.nhsmun.org
Secretary-General Delegates,
Maura Goss
Let me start by saying welcome to NHSMUN 2021, and more importantly, welcome to the Secu-
Directors-General
rity Council! In my opinion, the Security Council is the committee that attracts NHSMUN’s best
Rose Blackwell
researched, most polished delegates. My name is Abby Hawkins, and I will be the Director of the
JJ Packer
Security Council for Session II of this year’s NHSMUN. A former NHSMUN delegate myself, I
Conference Services am very excited to return for my favorite Model UN conference and to a committee that holds a
Hannah Lilley special place in my heart.
Alisa Wong
Delegate Experience Before I present the topics for this year’s Security Council committee, allow me to introduce a little
Akanksha Sancheti bit about myself. I am currently a junior studying International Relations and Arabic at George
John Wood Mason University in Fairfax, Virginia, a twenty-minute Metro ride into Washington, DC, when the
Orange Line is running. I am Vice President of GMU’s Model UN team and a linguistics enthusiast,
Global Partnerships
Sofia Fuentes with varying degrees of fluency in four languages. For advice on where to find the best coffee avail-
Salmaan Rashiq able at all hours of the day, I am your gal! Outside of classes and MUN, I love to spend time in DC
museums or pretending I am still athletic enough to play lacrosse and football. If the quarantine
Under-Secretaries-
General has left you with an abundance of knowledge on early 20th century organized labor or Avatar: The
Jon Basile Last Airbender, I’m positive we will get along famously.
Ankita Bhat
This background guide will help to provide you with the fundamental knowledge to guide your re-
Beatriz Circelli
Caitlyn Johnson search on the committee’s two topics—the situation in Lebanon and United Nations Peacekeeping.
Patrick Leong Both of these topics encompass political, social, and economic concerns, leaving a range of pos-
Kathy Li sibilities for creative and innovative solutions. The financial distress and political unrest in Lebanon
Pablo Maristany de have far-reaching ramifications on the nearly seven million people living in the country and regional
las Casas stability. Peacekeeping, though widely discussed in the context of international security, is a multi-
McCall Olliff faceted approach to ensuring peace that is often met with confusion and scrutiny. The NHSMUN
Abolee Raut Security Council team, after many hours of research, writing, and proofreading, is ecstatic to share
Pranav Reddy
these topics with you all and looks forward to seeing the direction your research and debate takes
Clare Steiner
these topics in committee.
Ann Williams
Although the Security Council can often seem like a daunting committee to be a part of, know that
my co-director, Ben, and I have full confidence in your ability to tackle these contested, complex
topics head-on and collaborate and devise solutions to take meaningful action on these issues. Hav-
ing researched these topics ourselves, your Directors are also here to provide you with resources
for your research and in writing your position papers and serve as a point of contact leading up to
the conference. If at any time you have questions about the topics or the conference preparation
process, don’t hesitate to send Ben or me an email!
Best,
Abby Hawkins
Director
Security Council B, Session II
abigail.hawkins@imuna.org
UNSC B 4| Table of Contents Table of Contents A Note on the NHSMUN Difference 5 A Note on Research and Preparation 7 Committee History 8 Simulation 10 The Situation in Lebanon 12 Introduction 13 History and Description of the Issue 15 Current Status 24 Bloc Analysis 30 Committee Mission 31 The Future of UN Peacekeeping 33 Introduction 34 History and Description of the Issue 35 Current Status 47 Bloc Analysis 55 Committee Mission 56 Research and Preparation Questions 58 Important Documents 59 Works Cited 61
UNSC B
A Note on the NHSMUN Difference |5
A Note on the NHSMUN Difference
Esteemed Faculty and Delegates,
Welcome to NHSMUN 2021! Our names are Rose Blackwell and JJ Packer, and we are this year’s Directors-General. Thank
you for choosing to attend NHSMUN, the world’s largest and most diverse Model United Nations conference for secondary
school students. We are thrilled to welcome you to our conference in March!
As a space for collaboration, consensus, and compromise, NHSMUN strives to transform today’s brightest thinkers into tomor-
row’s leaders. Our organization provides a uniquely tailored experience for all in attendance through innovative and accessible
programming. We believe that an emphasis on education through simulation is paramount to the Model UN experience, and this
idea permeates throughout NHSMUN.
Debate founded on strong knowledge: With knowledgeable staff members and delegates from over 70 countries, NHSMUN
can facilitate an enriching experience reliant on substantively rigorous debate. To ensure this high quality of debate, our staff
members produce extremely detailed and comprehensive topic overviews (like the one below) to prepare delegates for the com-
plexities and nuances inherent in global issues. This process takes over six months, during which the Directors who lead our
committees develop their topics with the valuable input of expert contributors. Because these topics are always changing and
evolving, NHSMUN also produces update papers intended to bridge the gap of time between when the background guides are
published and when committee starts in March. As such, this guide is designed to be a launching point from which delegates
should delve further into their topics.
Extremely prepared and engaged staff: The detailed knowledge that our directors provide in this background guide through
diligent research aims to spur critical thought within delegates at NHSMUN. Before the conference, our Directors and Assistant
Directors are trained rigorously through copious hours of exercises and workshops to provide the best conference experience
possible. Beyond this, our Directors and Assistant Directors read every position paper submitted to NHSMUN and provide
thoughtful insight on those submitted by the feedback deadline. Our staff aims not only to tailor the committee experience to
delegates’ reflections and research but also to facilitate an environment where all delegates’ thoughts can be heard.
Emphasis on participation: The UN relies on the voices of all of its Member States to create resolutions most likely to make
a dramatic impact on the world. That is our philosophy at NHSMUN too. We believe that to properly delve into an issue and
produce fruitful debate, it is crucial to focus the entire energy and attention of the room on the topic at hand. Our Rules of
Procedure and our staff focus on making every voice in the committee heard, regardless of each delegate’s country assignment
or skill level. However, unlike many other conferences, we also emphasize delegate participation after the conference. MUN
delegates are well researched and aware of the UN’s priorities, and they can serve as the vanguard for action on the Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs). Therefore, we are proud to also connect students with other action-oriented organizations to en-
courage further work on the topics.
Focused committee time: We feel strongly that interpersonal connections during debate are critical to producing superior com-
mittee experiences and allow for the free flow of ideas. Ensuring policies based on equality and inclusion is one way in which
NHSMUN guarantees that every delegate has an equal opportunity to succeed in committee. We staff a very dedicated team
who type up and format draft resolutions and working papers so that committee time can be focused on communication and
collaboration.
Educational emphasis, even for awards: At the heart of NHSMUN lies education and compromise. As such, when NHSMUN
does distribute awards, we de-emphasize their importance in comparison to the educational value of Model UN as an activity.
UNSC B 6| a NoTe oN The NhSMUN DiffereNCe NHSMUN seeks to reward schools whose students excel in the arts of compromise and diplomacy. More importantly, we seek to develop an environment in which delegates can employ their critical thought processes and share ideas with their counterparts from around the world. We always prioritize teamwork and encourage our delegates to engage with others diplomatically and inclusively. In particular, our daises look for and promote constructive leadership that strives towards consensus, as delegates do in the United Nations. Realism and accuracy: Although a perfect simulation of the UN is never possible, we believe that one of the core educational responsibilities of MUN conferences is to educate students about how the UN System works. Each NHSMUN committee is a simulation of a real deliberative body so that delegates can research what their country has said in the committee. Our topics are chosen from the issues currently on the agenda of that committee (except historical committees, which take topics from the appropriate time period. This creates incredible opportunities for our delegates to do first-hand research by reading the actual statements their country has made and the resolutions they have supported. We also incorporate real UN and NGO experts into each committee through our committee speakers program and arrange for meetings between students and the actual UN Permanent Mission of the country they are representing. No other conference goes so far to deeply immerse students into the UN System. As always, we welcome any questions or concerns about the substantive program at NHSMUN 2021 and would be happy to discuss NHSMUN pedagogy with faculty or delegates. Delegates, it is our sincerest hope that your time at NHSMUN will be thought-provoking and stimulating. NHSMUN is an in- credible time to learn, grow, and embrace new opportunities. We look forward to seeing you work both as students and global citizens at the conference. Best, Rose Blackwell and JJ Packer Directors-General
UNSC B
A Note on Research and Preparation |7
A Note on Research and Preparation
Delegate research and preparation is a critical element of attending NHSMUN and enjoying the conference’s intellectual and
cosmopolitan perspective. We have provided this Background Guide to introduce the topics that will be discussed in your com-
mittee. This document is designed to give you a description of the committee’s mandate and the topics on its agenda. We do not
intend to represent exhaustive research on every facet of the topics. We encourage and expect each of you to critically explore
the selected topics and be able to identify and analyze their intricacies upon arrival to NHSMUN in March. Delegates must be
prepared to intelligently utilize your knowledge and apply it to your country’s unique policy.
The task of preparing for the conference can be challenging, but to assist delegates, we have updated our Beginner Delegate
Guide and Advanced Delegate Guide. In particular, these guides contain more detailed instructions on how to prepare a
position paper and excellent sources that delegates can use for research. Use these resources to your advantage—they can help
transform a sometimes-overwhelming task into what it should be: an engaging, interesting, and rewarding experience.
An essential part of representing a state in an international body is the ability to articulate a given state’s views in writing. Ac-
cordingly, NHSMUN requires each delegation (the one or two delegates representing a country in a committee) to write a posi-
tion paper for both topics on the committee’s agenda. In delegations with two students, we strongly encourage each student to
participate in the research for both topics, to ensure that both students are prepared to debate no matter what topic is selected
first. More information about how to write and format positoin papers can be found in the NHSMUN Research Guide. To sum-
marize, position papers should be structured into three sections, described below.
I: Topic Background – This section should describe the history of the topic as it would be described by the delegate’s coun-
try. Delegates do not need to give an exhaustive account of the topic background, but rather focus on the details that are most
important to the delegation’s policy and proposed solutions.
II: Country Policy – This section should discuss the delegation’s policy regarding the topic. Each paper should state the policy
in plain terms and include the relevant statements, statistics, and research that support the effectiveness of the policy. Compari-
sons with other global issues are also appropriate here.
III. Proposed Solutions – This section should detail the delegation’s proposed solutions to address the topic. Descriptions of
each solution should be thorough. Each idea should clearly connect to the specific problem it aims to solve and identify potential
obstacles to implementation and how they can be avoided. The solution should be a natural extension of the country’s policy.
Each topic’s position paper should be no more than 10 pages long double-spaced with standard mar-gins and font size. We
recommend 2-4 pages per topic as a suitable length. The paper must be written from the perspective of the country you are
representing at NHSMUN 2021 and should articulate the policies you will espouse at the conference.
Each delegation is responsible for sending a copy of its papers to their committee Directors via myDais on or before 19 Febru-
ary 2021. If a delegate wishes to receive detailed feedback from the committee’s dais, a position must be submitted on or before
29 January 2021. The papers received by this earlier deadline will be reviewed by the dais of each committee and returned prior
to your arrival at the conference.
Complete instructions for how to submit position papers will be sent to faculty advisers via the email submitted at registration.
If delegations are unable to submit their position papers on time, they should contact us at info@imuna.org as soon as possible.
Delegations that do not submit position papers to directors will be ineligible for awards.
UNSC B 8| Committee History Committee History As one of the six principal organs of the United Nations, the Security Council is tasked with the establishment of peacekeeping operations, the designation of international sanctions, the approval of changes to the United Nations Charter, and the procedure of accepting new member states into the United Nations.1The Security Council is the only body of the United Nations with the ability to issue binding resolutions to member states. The Security Council also holds the authority to refer to the International Criminal Court cases which would not otherwise be under the jurisdiction of the Court.2 The Security Council’s five permanent members are the great powers from the second World War—China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States.3 These members, sometimes referred to as the Big Five, exercise the ability to veto substantive resolutions. These resolutions require nine affirmative votes to pass, but a veto from any permanent member over- rules this, preventing the resolution from being adopted.4 An additional ten non-permanent members make up the rest of the fifteen-member body, with non-permanent positions elected to serve two year terms. These positions are divided by region with members representing the African, Asia-Pacific, Eastern European, Latin American and Caribbean States, or Western European and Others groups.5 The 2020 non-permanent members of the Security Council are Estonia, Niger, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Tunisia, Vietnam, Belgium, the Dominican Republic, Germany, Indonesia, and South Africa. The principal document governing the Security Council is the Provisional Rules of Procedure, as stipulated in the United Na- tions Charter. Since its establishment in 1946 under Article 23 of the Charter of the United Nations, the Rules of Procedure have been amended on several occasions, including by Resolutions 263 345, and 528, adding Russian, Spanish, Chinese, and Arabic as working languages of the Security Council (French and English are the working languages of the UN as a whole). 6The Provisional Rules of Procedure comprises eleven chapters, detailing procedure for meetings, relations with other United Na- tions organs, and the admissions process for new member states, among other processes. The role of President of the Security Council rotates among member states each month, tasking the appointee with presiding over meetings, setting the agenda, and overseeing crises. Meetings are held year-round, unlike General Assembly sessions, and occur most frequently in New York City.7 Much of the Security Council’s history has unfortunately been defined by gridlock. The veto power held by the five permanent members has been an obstacle to committee functions and acts as a counterweight to the Security Council’s immense mandate. As such, negotiating resolutions that all permanent members support or do not oppose will be essential for a successful NHS- MUN committee. Compromises are difficult and involve trade-offs but are possible if all actors engage in good faith negotia- tions and don’t abuse the veto, which is a last resort. Despite these limitations, the Security Council has achieved numerous successes. Under article 42 of the UN Charter, the Secu- rity Council approved a US-led coalition to reverse the North Korean invasion of South Korea in 1950. The Security Council has also certified naval blockades against the former Yugoslavia, Sierra Leone, and Haiti to enforce Security Council sanctions.8 Additionally, through Resolutions 984 and 1540 (2004), the Security Council has worked to prevent the spread of weapons of mass destruction to state and non-state actors.9 In recent years, the Security Council was instrumental in the negotiation and 1 1/UNTS/XVI, “Charter of the United Nations, Chapter V: The Security Council,” 24 October 1945. 2 S/96/Rev.7, “Provisional Rules of Procedure of the Security Council,” 21 December 1982. 3 “The UN Security Council,” Council on Foreign Relations, last modified 24 September 2018, https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/un-security- council. 4 “UN Security Council Working Methods: The Veto,” Security Council Report, last modified 2 August 2019. https://www.securitycouncilre- port.org/un-security-council-working-methods/the-veto.php. 5 S/96/Rev.7. 6 S/RES/263, “Security Council Resolution 263,” 24 January 1969, S/RES/345, “Security Council Resolution 345,” 17 January 197,S/ RES/528, “Security Council Resolution 528,” 21 December 1982. 7 S/96/Rev.7. 8 “FAQ,” United Nations, accessed September 21, 2019, https://www.un.org/securitycouncil/content/faq. 9 “Resolution 1540.” United Nations, Accessed September 23, 2019, https://undocs.org/S/RES/1540%20(2004), “Resolution 984,” Unit-
UNSC B
Committee History |9
implementation of a peace accord between the Colombian government and FARC after nearly half a decade of conflict.10
The Security Council first met in London in 1946 and has since held sessions in a variety of locations including Addis Ababa,
Panama City, and Geneva, although the Security Council meets permanently in New York City at the United Nations Headquar-
ters.11 The Security Council is one of the most active UN bodies and is almost always in session. At least one member is always
present at UN Headquarters in order to open sessions when necessary.12
The Security Council functions as a parliamentary body and assembly, tasked with maintaining international peace and security
by establishing diplomatic means to resolve disputes, dissuading nations from escalating disputes into hostilities, and engaging in
the enforcement necessary to maintain international peace.13 The Security Council holds multiple styles of meetings to fulfill its
mandate, including informal consultations, formal meetings, and meetings with troop-contributing countries.14 The provisional
agenda and formal adoption of an agenda of matters are governed by the Provisional Rules of Procedure. In addition to a for-
mal agenda of matters to be discussed or consulted upon, the President of the Security Council for each month enumerates a
Programme of Work that schedules meetings and consultations based on necessity.15
Along with the entire United Nations, the Security Council was created after World War II in hopes of preventing another
conflict of such magnitude. While the other bodies of the United Nations were designed to address the root causes of issues
through in-depth solutions, the Security Council’s purpose is to quickly respond to crises with deescalating measures16 Within
the United Nations Charter, the Security Council is given four major goals: maintain international security; promote positive
relationships among nations; use collaboration to solve international issues and to ensure human rights; and coordinate the ac-
tions of nations.
Due to the Security Council’s mission to ensure international peace, the Council collaborates with many global groups. The
European Union has recently been in closer collaboration with the Security Council. Adopted in 2015, Resolution 2250 was
comprised from collaboration between the European External Action Service and the Security Council. The Resolution, which
focuses on ensuring peace and security for young children, is being implemented and has a Progress Study to ensure its success.17
The African Union (AU) has also been in communication with the Security Council as the United Nations representative to
the AU has been briefing the Council.18 Throughout crises in Africa, the Security Council works close with the AU, previously
providing guidance during the Burundi and Somalia crises.19
ed Nations, Accessed September 23, 2019, http://unscr.com/en/resolutions/doc/984.
10 “Security Council Hails ‘remarkable Achievements? One Year After Colombian Peace Accord,” UN News, last modified November 30,
2017, https://news.un.org/en/story/2017/11/637921-security-council-hails-remarkable-achievements-one-year-after-colombian-peace.
11 “What is the Security Council,” United Nations Security Council, https://www.un.org/securitycouncil/content/what-security-council
12 Ibid.
13 Ibid.
14 “Provisional Rules and Procedures,” United Nations Security Council, https://www.un.org/securitycouncil/content/repertoire/provisional-
rules-procedure#rule3
15 “UN Security Council,” Global Policy Forum, https://www.globalpolicy.org/security-council.html
16 Rodriguez, Jesus, and Fatimah Alyas, “The UN Security Council,” Council on Foreign Relations, last modified 24 September 2018, , www.cfr.
org/backgrounder/un-security-council.
17 Admin, Youth, “Announcement of EU Collaboration on the First UN Security Council Resolution 2250 on Youth, Peace and Security,”
United Nations, 2017,www.un.org/youthenvoy/2017/03/announcement-eu-collaboration-first-un-security-council-resolution-2250-youth-
peace-security/.
18 UN News Centre, “UN-African Union Partnership ‘Not a Choice but a Necessity’, Security Council Hears,” United Nations Africa Renewal,
2018,www.un.org/africarenewal/news/un-african-union-partnership-%E2%80%98not-choice-necessity%E2%80%99-security-council-
hears.
19 Ibid.
10|UNSC
S
B
imulation
Simulation
As delegates serving on the Security Council at NHSMUN 2020, all members will have the opportunity to put forth resolutions
aimed at addressing some of the world’s most complex international issues. These resolutions are meant to embody the work of
the UNSC and should reflect the central objective of the body: to maintain global security and stability.
The five permanent members of the Security Council, known as the P5, possess veto power on substantive issues. The ten
remaining delegations, which bring total committee membership to fifteen, do not have veto power. If there are no permanent
members voting against the resolution (i.e. vetoing the resolution), nine affirmative votes are required to pass a resolution regard-
less of the number of members in attendance. The Council may, from time to time, invite non-SC states, organizations, and/or
members to participate in the proceedings. Such members may only vote on procedural matters; once the committee has entered
formal voting procedure on any resolution, the invitee is not permitted to cast their vote.
In the simulation of the SC at NHSMUN, the Director and Assistant Director will chair debate. Together, the Director and AD
are referred to as the dais. The dais is charged with the task of maintaining decorum throughout the committee session. The
dais will also assist delegates in their use of parliamentary procedure and work to ensure that all points of order are handled ap-
propriately. Furthermore, the Director and AD will provide directional advice, and delegates may ask the dais any questions they
have about the topics themselves and/or procedural matters.
A delegate’s first job before coming to committee is to research both topics before the committee and to feel comfortable advo-
cating their assigned country’s policies. It is important that even if someone does not agree personally with a country’s policies,
the delegate remains true to country policy and continues to voice these ideas to the committee, remaining cognizant of how
these policies are reflected in resolutions written during the simulation. As members on a very specialized committee, delegates
are encouraged to work together towards a viable solution, and all members should seek to collaborate with states whose policies
and opinions on the issues similar to their own.
The first task in committee will be to set the agenda. To do this, a speakers list will be established solely for this purpose. Del-
egates are not allowed to substantively discuss the issues at this time, but instead, should voice their opinions on the order in
which the issues will be debated. Following the vote on the setting of the agenda, delegates are encouraged to motion to open a
new speakers list intended for substantive debate on the first issue on the agenda. Debate will move in the order of this speakers
list until a vote by the Council moves the discussion into either a moderated or unmoderated caucus. As committee progresses,
the dais might choose to introduce different debate styles (such as round robin or round table) as needed. These forms of debate
may be utilized when in the best interest of the committee and will be explained further during the first committee session. Votes
on procedural matters such as unmoderated or moderated caucuses are procedural matters and will require a simple majority
vote with any abstentions being prohibited.
The goal of this simulation is to produce well-written, comprehensive resolutions to the issues at hand. Through formal and in-
formal debate, delegates will begin this resolution writing process by creating a working paper, which is essentially a collection of
ideas on possible solutions. Once the dais accepts the working paper it becomes a draft resolution and may be edited, withdrawn,
or merged with another draft resolution at any time prior to formal voting procedure. When the dais accepts a motion to close
debate or the speakers list is exhausted, the committee moves into voting procedure on the draft resolutions.
Throughout committee, as the dais sees fit, shorter resolutions focused on more short-term, immediate solutions may be accept-
ed to be voted on more rapidly with less intense debate or amendment processes. During these times, veto power for the P5 is
active and abstentions are permitted. Draft resolutions may be passed with any nine countries voting in favor; however, if one orUNSC B
Simulation |11
more of the P5 votes negatively on the resolution it automatically does not pass. Working on the Security Council at NHSMUN
is a unique, unparalleled opportunity for students to take control of their own education. Delegates’ abilities to work together,
compromise, and accurately advocate the policies of the states they represent will determine the success of the committee.UNSC B
NHSMUN 2021
Topic A:
The Situation in Lebanon
Photo Credit: RomanDeckertTopic A: The Situation in Lebanon
Simulation |13
Introduction
For years, the country of Lebanon put forth a picture of prosperity as a favorite tourist destination
and banking sector hub. In the 1960s, before the 1975 Civil War, Lebanon was a top vacation spot
for celebrities and other affluent tourists who enjoyed the many nightclubs, five-star hotels, and the
Ain el Mreisseh seafront in the country’s capital, Beirut.1 Despite the war and the debt accrued from
it, Lebanon saw a resurrection of its commercial status in the early 2000s. Beirut rose again as a pros-
pering and peaceful business center while conflict cropped up across the region. Unfortunately, today
Lebanon’s cities are plagued by poverty and a deep distrust of the Lebanese government, resulting
in the demonstrations beginning in late 2019 and continuing into 2020.2 While the focal demand of
demonstrators is the formation of a new, independent governing body, the issues harming society in
Lebanon stretch far beyond those with the administrations led by former Prime Minister Saad Hariri
and the newly elected cabinet of current Prime Minister Hassan Diab.3
The Republic of Lebanon has faced the challenge of balancing is the decades-long territorial dispute between Lebanon and
political power between the country’s largest religious groups, Israel over the border demarcation known as the Blue Line.
based on ratios decided in the country’s unwritten 1943 Na- The border was most recently redrawn in 2000 to comply with
tional Pact after gaining independence from France.4 The end stipulations in the Security Council’s Resolution 425 from
of the country’s sixteen-year long Civil War in the 1990s and 1978.8 Said resolution also created the peacekeeping opera-
the signing of the Taif Agreement helped to encourage prog- tion known as the United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon
ress towards a more equitable political system.5 Despite this, (UNIFIL).9 UNIFIL’s mandate included the maintenance of
the division of political power between Lebanon’s various po- the border’s integrity and monitoring for possible violations
litical parties has led to fractured loyalty and allegations of of the Blue Line by the Lebanese Shia political party (Hezbol-
bribery and corruption among the political leaders and soci- lah) and the Israel Defense Forces (IDF).10 The largest conflict
etal elites in the country.6 Additionally, former Prime Minister
between the two countries since the creation of the Blue Line
Hariri, who served until his resignation amid protests in 2019,
was the 2006 July War, a 34-day military conflict in Lebanon,
and other members of the government have faced criticism
Northern Israel, and the Golan Heights between paramilitary
for not responding to concerns raised by the people of Leba-
Hezbollah forces and the IDF.11 Routine violations still call for
non regarding public service failures, structural inequalities,
intervention by UNIFIL personnel, including new concerns
and economic distress.7
such as airspace violations by Israel and Hezbollah’s tunneling
Adding to the internal stressors facing Lebanon’s civil society operations under the border.
1 Stephanie d’Arc Taylor, “What became of Beirut’s 1960s jet-set playgrounds,” CNN Travel, June 22, 2015, https://edition.cnn.com/
travel/article/beirut-five-star-hotels-faded-glamor-cnngo/index.html.
2 Ben Hubbard, “Lebanon’s Economic Crisis Explodes, Threatening Decades of Prosperity,” The New York Times, May 12, 2020, https://
www.nytimes.com/2020/05/10/world/middleeast/lebanon-economic-crisis.html.
3 Hubbard, “Lebanon’s Economic Crisis Explodes, Threatening Decades of Prosperity.”
4 “Lebanon After Independence,” Encyclopædia Britannica, last modified August 6, 2020, https://www.britannica.com/place/Lebanon/Leb-
anon-after-independence.
5 United Nations Permanent Missions, The Taif Agreement (October 22, 1989), https://www.un.int/lebanon/sites/www.un.int/files/Leba-
non/the_taif_agreement_english_version_.pdf.
6 William Harris, Lebanon: A History, 600-2011(Studies in Middle Eastern History), (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014): 260-1.
7 Vivian Yee, “Lebanon’s Prime Minister, Saad Hariri, Steps Down in Face of Protests,” The New York Times, October 29, 2019, https://
www.nytimes.com/2019/10/29/world/middleeast/saad-hariri-stepping-down-lebanon.html.
8 United Nations Security Council, Resolution 425, S/RES/425 (March 19, 1978).
9 “UNIFIL Background,” United Nations Interim Force In Lebanon, accessed September 8, 2020, https://unifil.unmissions.org/unifil-back-
ground.
10 “UNIFIL Background,” UNIFIL.
11 Rebecca Stead, “Remembering Israel’s 2006 war on Lebanon,” Middle East Monitor, July 12, 2018, https://www.middleeastmonitor.
com/20180712-remembering-israels-2006-war-on-lebanon/.14|TS opic A: The
imulation
Situation in Lebanon
Lebanon has a long history of accruing foreign debt to sup- on voice over internet protocol (VOIP) calls, such as the pop-
port the country’s development. Following the loss in eco- ular WhatsApp platform, to increase revenue to offset defi-
nomic output from the 2006 war and reliance on remittances cits to the 2020 draft budget.16 Hours later, the government
following the economic crisis in 2008, Lebanon’s public debt withdrew their decision.17 The dissatisfaction of the people
has ballooned alongside its staggering unemployment rates.12 of Lebanon with the government’s response to economic and
This has resulted in an unreliable public services sector, as societal distress boiled over, resulting in months of protest
well as high levels of poverty. Citizens of Lebanon are faced calling for the creation of a new government not burdened by
with challenges such as routine power outages and unreliable corruption and elitism.18 The protests spread from Beirut to
internet connections due to a lack of funds allocated to re- cities throughout the country and resulted in the resignation
pairs and routine maintenance to these resources. of Prime Minister Saad Hariri.19 The Lebanese government
underwent months of deliberation to fill the position, ulti-
Among the country’s 6.1 million inhabitants, approximately
1.5 million are refugees from Syria and Palestine, and thou- mately deciding on Hassan Diab, a former Minister of Edu-
sands of migrant workers are seeking employment.13 Refugees cation.20 In January 2020, the parties of the Lebanese govern-
and migrant workers in Lebanon face unique challenges due ment nominated and confirmed individuals to create a new
to the violent conflict in Syria and the lack of rights of those parliamentary cabinet, despite discontent from demonstrators
without Lebanese citizenship. Economic hardships in Leba- who argued that the newly reformed cabinet was merely a
non have further decreased the opportunities available for any continuation of the old system.21
social protections for refugees, forcing most of the refugees The situation in Lebanon is complex and multifaceted in na-
to rely on international aid programs. Like many countries
ture, affected by historical nuances and contemporary politi-
in the Middle East, Lebanon uses the Kafala system.14 This
cal unrest. This background guide will provide an overview
system ties migrant workers’ legal residency in the country
of the main factors in the crisis in Lebanon and help to il-
to sponsorship by their employers, forces them to continue
lustrate the many concerns of the Lebanese people and the
their employment on the terms of their employer, and leads
international community. In creating solutions, delegates must
to rampant underpayment and fear of deportation for many
consider all the actors that will play a role in their implemen-
workers.15 When devising solutions to address the socioeco-
tation, and balance the issues of international security and
nomic distress facing the country of Lebanon, it is important
the internal socio-political challenges faced by the Lebanese
to keep in mind the large population of non-citizens affected
people. Further, this must be done without encroaching on
by the country’s policies.
Lebanon’s sovereignty or further escalating the crisis with the
On October 17, 2019, the government announced new taxes actions taken.
12 Eric Le Borgne and Thomas J. Jacobs, “Lebanon: Promoting Poverty Reduction and Shared Prosperity: Systematic Country Diagnostic,”
World Bank Group (2016): p. 17, http://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/pt/951911467995104328/pdf/103201-REPLACEMNT-PUB-
LIC-Lebanon-SCD-Le-Borgne-and-Jacobs-2016.pdf.
13 “Lebanon,” European Commission: European Civil Protection And Humanitarian Aid Operations, last modified August 14, 2020, https://
ec.europa.eu/echo/where/middle-east/lebanon_en.
14 “Policy Brief No. 2: Reform Of The Kafala (Sponsorship) System,” International Labour Organization and Migrant Forum in Asia, https://
www.ilo.org/dyn/migpractice/docs/132/PB2.pdf.
15 “Policy Brief No. 2: Reform Of The Kafala (Sponsorship) System,” ILO and Migrant Forum in Asia.
16 Ellen Francis,”Lebanon plans to charge for Whatsapp calls-minister,” Reuters, October 17, 2019, https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-
lebanon-economy-calls-idUKKBN1WW1ZO.
17 Suleiman Al-Khalidi, “Lebanon withdraws voice over internet protocol (VOIP) fees - local media,” Reuters, October 17, 2019, https://
www.reuters.com/article/lebanon-economy-calls-fees/lebanon-withdraws-voice-over-internet-protocol-fees-local-media-idUSL5N27275A.
18 Vivian Yee, “Lebanon Protests Unite Sects in Demanding New Government,” The New York Times, October 23, 2019, https://www.
nytimes.com/2019/10/23/world/middleeast/lebanon-protests.html.
19 Yee, “Lebanon’s Prime Minister, Saad Hariri, Steps Down in Face of Protests,” The New York Times.
20 “Lebanon protests: University professor Hassan Diab nominated to be PM,” BBC News, December 19, 2019, https://www.bbc.com/
news/world-middle-east-50851319.
21 “Lebanon announces formation of new government,” Al Jazeera, January 22, 2020, https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/01/leba-
non-announces-formation-government-200121200947113.html.Topic A: The Situation in Lebanon
History and Description of the Issue |15
History and Description of the Issue it was not conducted accurately.26 Following Lebanon’s dec-
laration of independence from France, negotiations between
Reaffirming the Security Council’s statement in Resolution the leaderships of the Shia, Sunni, and Maronite in Lebanon,
1701, the council fully supports “the territorial integrity, sov- President Bishara al-Khuri, and Prime Minister Raid al-Sulh
ereignty and political independence of Lebanon within its arrived at an unspoken agreement on the configuration of the
internationally recognized borders.”22 Historical turmoil and Lebanese government known as the National Pact.27 The Na-
recent political and economic strife have contributed to spark-
tional Pact set the expectation that the president of Lebanon
ing unrest in Lebanon and calls upon the Council to uphold
would be a Maronite Christian, the prime minister a Sunni
its commitment to previous resolutions. Since gaining inde-
Muslim, and the speaker of the parliament a Shia Muslim.28
pendence, Lebanon has grappled with how best to address
This also divided seats in Parliament to follow a 6:5 Christian
the impacts of its government’s structural sectarianism and
to Muslim ratio.29 However, the Lebanese Constitution left the
the resulting corruption within its political system. Adding to
president largely unchecked by parliament and contributed to
the country’s security concerns are regional conflicts with Is-
growing unrest between religious groups, who believed that
rael over border disputes and the impact of Syria’s civil war
the Christian population held a disproportionate amount of
on Lebanese society. Lebanon’s economy has also faltered in
political power compared to their population size.
recent years due to public debt and mismanagement of funds,
resulting in breakdowns of civil infrastructure, particularly While not the only factor contributing to the outbreak of vio-
waste management. The culmination of these issues and pro- lence marking the beginning of the Civil War in 1975, the link
posed new taxes have led to widespread protests throughout between politics and religion and the resulting power imbal-
the country, demanding a better future for Lebanon. ance impacted the conflict significantly. The division of po-
litical power among the religious groups in Lebanon reflected
History of Sectarianism & Political Unrest in the slight Christian majority seen in the last census, but with
Lebanon
the arrival of thousands of Palestinian refugees into the coun-
Lebanon implemented an institutionally sectarian government try after the 1948 Nakba and the 1967 Niksa, the country’s
when the country declared its independence from France in demographics shifted towards a Muslim majority.30 Fighting
1943.23 Under the French government in 1932, a census of broke out in 1975 between Lebanon’s Maronite Christians and
Lebanon’s population showed a slight majority of Maronite the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO), with external
Christians over the Sunni and Shiite Muslim populations.24 forces like Syria, Iran, and Israel also becoming involved in the
The French government believed this majority would help conflict, further complicating the situation.31 The War resulted
maintain the state’s fidelity to France by modeling it as a Chris- in lasting hostility not only between religious sects but within
tian state in the Middle East.25 Instead, this census laid the sects as well. Within the Shia community, Hezbollah was born
basis for ethnoreligious tensions in Lebanon, as many believe because the Shia Amal Movement was considered too secu-
22 United Nations Security Council, Resolution 1701, S/RES/1701 (August 11, 2006), http://unscr.com/en/resolutions/doc/1701.
23 Farid el-Khazen, The Comnlunal Pact of National Identities: The Making and Politics of the 1943 National Pact, (Oxford: Centre for Lebanese
Studies, 1991), https://lebanesestudies.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/03/8b844d712.-The-Communal-Pact-of-National-Identities-The-
Making-and-Politics-of-the-1943-National-Pact-Farid-el-Khazen-1991.pdf.
24 Arnon Soffer, “Lebanon: Where Demography Is the Core of Politics and Life,” Middle Eastern Studies 22, no. 2 (April 1986), https://
www-jstor-org.mutex.gmu.edu/stable/4283112.
25 Natalia Nahas Calfat, “The Frailties of Lebanese Democracy: Outcomes and Limits of the Confessional Framework,” Contexto Interna-
cional 40, no. 2 (May/Aug 2018), https://www.scielo.br/pdf/cint/v40n2/0102-8529-cint-2018400200002.pdf.
26 Amos Barshad, “The World’s Most Dangerous Census,” The Nation, 17 October, 2019, https://www.thenation.com/article/archive/
lebanon-census/.
27 “Lebanon After Independence,” Encyclopædia Britannica.
28 “Lebanese National Pact,” Encyclopædia Britannica, November 5, 2019, https://www.britannica.com/event/Lebanese-National-Pact-1943.
29 el-Khazen, The Comnlunal Pact of National Identities.
30 Dalal Yassine, “Unwelcome Guests: Palestinian Refugees in Lebanon,” Al Shabaka, July 5, 2010, https://al-shabaka.org/briefs/unwel-
come-guests-palestinian-refugees-lebanon/.
31 John C Rolland, Lebanon: Current Issues and Background (New York: Nova Science Publishing, 2004), 144-6.16|TH opic A: The Situation in Lebanon
istory and Description of the Issue
lar. Among Hezbollah’s earliest declared objectives were re-
claiming Palestinian territory from Israel and establishing an
Islamic state in Lebanon.32
Nearing the end of the Lebanese Civil War, the Taif Accord
was signed in 1989 by the Lebanese Parliament, vowing to end
sectarianism.33 By doing so, the government could rebalance
political power and abolish quotas for seats held by each sect;
this replaced the former reliance on “capability and specializa-
tion in public jobs, the judiciary, the military, security, pub-
lic, and joint institutions, and in the independent agencies.”34
However, many in Lebanon believe that the power was divid-
ed, rather than shared, between sects, contributing to political
gridlock. Lebanese Prime Minister Michel Sassine presiding over the Lebanese parliament.
Sassine would later sign the Taif Agreement, ending Lebanon’s Civil War.
The rise of Hezbollah as a legitimate actor in the Lebanese cused of taking bribes, nepotism, and vote-buying to secure
government further contributed to political unrest. Hezbol- their influence in the government.38 This corruption becomes
lah’s support from Iran not only deepened the divide between increasingly evident during elections, with nearly one in every
the Sunni and Shia communities in Lebanon but also escalat- two Lebanese citizens presented with bribes for their votes.39
ed tensions with other Gulf nations, namely Sunni-led Saudi This has sparked renewed dissatisfaction with the Lebanese
Arabia.35 It has continued to grow its military strength and government among the Lebanese people, who call for an in-
political leverage since the emergence of the movement. The dependent judiciary capable of combating corruption and re-
current leader of Hezbollah, Sayyed Nasrallah, maintains ties distributing wasteful spending towards projects to benefit the
with President Michael Aoun, head of the largely Christian- public.40
supported Free Patriotic Movement, and Nabih Berri, former
head of the rival Amal Movement and current Speaker of Blue Lines & UNIFIL
the Parliament.36 Both Amal and Hezbollah enjoy widespread
Although Israel formally withdrew from Lebanon in 2000, the
support from Shia dominated southern Lebanon.37
answer to where the border between the two countries starts
The increased political divides between sects inhibited the and stops is not agreed upon by the involved parties.41 The
government from addressing structural issues and allowed French and English, who at the time controlled the two re-
corruption to breed; politicians across sects have been ac- spective countries, drew the first boundary between Palestine
32 Krista E. Wiegand, “Reformation of a Terrorist Group: Hezbollah as a Lebanese Political Party,” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 8, (July 23,
2009), https://doi.org/10.1080/10576100903039320.
33 United Nations Permanent Missions, The Taif Agreement.
34 United Nations Permanent Missions, The Taif Agreement.
35 Heather Murdock, “Sunnis riot to protest Lebanon’s new leader,” The Washington Times, January 25 2011, https://www.washingtontimes.
com/news/2011/jan/25/sunnis-riot-to-protest-lebanons-new-leader/.
36 Augustus Richard Norton, “The Role of Hezbollah in Lebanese Domestic Politics,” The International Spectator, (December 6, 2007),
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/03932720701722852.
37 Norton, “The Role of Hezbollah in Lebanese Domestic Politics.”
38 Roberto Martinez B. Kukutschka and Jon Vrushi, “Global Corruption Barometer: Middle East & North Africa 2019: Citizens´ Views
and Experiences of Corruption,” Transparency International, (2019), https://images.transparencycdn.org/images/2019-GCB-Middle-East-
and-Africa-Report.pdf.
39 Kukutschka and Vrushi, “Global Corruption Barometer.”
40 Ishka Yadav, “Lebanon Must Root Out Corruption to Fix Its Economy,” The Globe Post, March 10, 2020. https://theglobepost.
com/2020/03/10/lebanon-corruption/.
41 Frederic C. Hof, “Lebanon and Israel: Blue line tensions,” Atlantic Council, April 16, 2020. https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/mena-
source/lebanon-and-israel-blue-line-tensions/.Topic A: The Situation in Lebanon
History and Description of the Issue |17
Lebanon Armed Forces and UNIFIL patrol along the Blue Line
and Lebanon in 1923.42 This border mirrored the 1949 Israel- (IDF) fences.46
Armistice Demarcation Line (ADL), which created the de jure
Security Council resolution 425 also established the United
division between the newly declared countries of Israel and
Nations Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL), designed to
Lebanon.43 However, the de facto border between Palestine
confirm the withdrawal of Israel from Lebanon and to help
and Lebanon was more ambiguous; the cartographers drew
the Lebanese government re-establish its control of the ter-
straight lines through the land, not accounting for existing vil- ritory.47 Following the invasion of Lebanon by Israel in 1982,
lages claimed by both nations.44 In 2000, the United Nations Israel’s retreat in 2000, and most recently, the Second Leba-
(UN) created the Blue Line border to comply with the Securi- non War in 2006, adjustments were made to UNIFIL’s origi-
ty Council’s 1978 Resolution 425, which had previously called nal mandate.48 The implementation of Security Council Reso-
for the withdrawal of Israeli troops from Lebanon.45 It was lution 1701 ended the 2006 conflict and changed the original
almost identical to the ADL, except for a few hundred meters. mandate of UNIFIL to encompass mediating border skir-
Most of the Blue Line remains uncontested, except for areas mishes, promoting disarmament, ensuring humanitarian aid
such as the Israeli-occupied Golan Heights and along Leba- to be reached by intended civilian populations, and assisting
non’s southern border where there are Israeli Defense Forces in the safe return of displaced persons.49 In recent months,
42 Mutaz M. Qafisheh, “Genesis of Citizenship in Palestine and Israel: Palestinian Nationality in the 1917-1925 Period,” Centre de recherche
français de Jérusalem, no. 21, (December 15, 2010), https://journals.openedition.org/bcrfj/6405.
43 Hof, “Lebanon and Israel: Blue line tensions.”
44 Hof, “Lebanon and Israel: Blue line tensions.”
45 S/RES/425.
46 Hof, “Lebanon and Israel: Blue line tensions.”
47 S/RES/425.
48 “UNIFIL, Lebanon,” United Nations Creative Community Outreach Initiative, accessed September 9, 2020, https://www.un.org/en/ccoi/
unifil-lebanon.
49 S/RES/1701.18|TH opic A: The Situation in Lebanon
istory and Description of the Issue
the Lebanese government has raised concerns over possible Not yet recovered from the economic impact of the 1975–
Israeli violations of Resolution 1701. There have been Israe- 1990 Lebanese Civil War, the Lebanese government estimated
li airstrikes in Syria through Lebanese airspace, resulting in a USD 2.8 billion loss from direct war damage during the 2006
a military standoff between the Lebanese Army and Israeli Second Lebanon War and a USD 2.2 billion loss of annual
troops.50 In response to the recent altercation and UNIFIL economic output and income.55 The International Monetary
intervention, UNIFIL spokesperson Andrea Tenenti assured Fund (IMF) reports that the country’s 2019 public debt fig-
that “no breach of the Blue Line occurred.”51 Despite meet- ure of USD 86.2 billion is more than one and a half times
ings throughout the 2006 conflict and the annual renewal of greater than the country’s reported GDP, placing Lebanon
UNIFIL’s mandate, the Security Council has yet to reach a at the third most indebted country.56 While the rest of the
ceasefire agreement between Israel and Lebanon, making fu- world suffered under the 2008 economic recession, the Leba-
ture violence along the Blue Line inevitable. nese Central Bank attempted to boost its economy by offering
high interest rates to investors. This was done to maintain the
Public Debt & Unemployment currency rate and fund government expenses, creating a reli-
ance on remittances—the transfer of money.57 Risk on these
Losing electricity and relying on a back-up generator for sev-
investments remained low as the central bank borrowed from
eral hours during national blackouts has become a way of life
commercial banks, which proceeded to borrow from their
for many people in Lebanon.52 Political leadership has yet to
wealthy clientele. Many of these clients were later uncovered
develop sustainable solutions for the country’s infrastructure
to be politicians, contributing to the chain of corruption and
distress, instead deepening the public debt through failed
general distrust of public institutions.58
projects in the electricity sector and increased public hiring.53
This failure to act has had damaging effects on the people of The economic failures of the Lebanese government are reach-
Lebanon. As the country is only able to support half of the ing the point of no return. The country declared that it would
nation’s electricity needs, blackouts become the new normal. default on its Eurobond debt in March of 2020, despite hav-
Lebanese citizens plan their schedules around these blackouts; ing never defaulted in its history.59 A Eurobond is a monetary
when they cook, when they shower, and when they turn on loan issued by the European Union. The receiving country
the fans and air conditioning is dictated by which hours they is then expected to pay it off with interest, usually in annual
will have electricity.54 War debt, government corruption, and denominations.60 For example, if a country pays Lebanon
mismanagement have contributed to Lebanon’s debt crisis, USD 1.5 billion over five years, the bond may stipulate that
which exacerbates the poor standard of living for its people. Lebanon has 15 years before the bond matures, or must be
50 Tzvi Joffre, “Lebanon asks western countries to stop Israeli breaches of airspace,” The Jerusalem Post, May 13, 2020, https://www.jpost.
com/middle-east/lebanon-asks-western-countries-to-stop-israeli-breaches-of-airspace-627832.
51 “UNIFIL soldiers break-up stand-off between Lebanon, Israel forces,” Middle East Monitor, April 15, 2020, https://www.middleeast-
monitor.com/20200415-unifil-soldiers-break-up-stand-off-between-lebanon-israel-forces/.
52 Angus McDowall, “Fixing Lebanon’s ruinous electricity crisis,” Reuters, March 29, 2019, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-lebanon-
economy-electricity/fixing-lebanons-ruinous-electricity-crisis-idUSKCN1RA24Z.
53 “Lebanon 2019 Article IV Consultation—press Release; Staff Report; Informational Annex; And Statement By The Executive Di-
rector For Lebanon,” International Monetary Fund, no. 19/312, (October 17 2019), https://www.imf.org/~/media/Files/Publications/
CR/2019/1LBNEA2019001.ashx.
54 Tim Whewell, “Lebanon electricity crisis: Stealing power to survive,” BBC News, December 13, 2019, https://www.bbc.com/news/
world-middle-east-50760043.
55 “Costs of war and recovery in Lebanon and Israel,” Reuters, July 9, 2007, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-lebanon-war-cost/factbox-
costs-of-war-and-recovery-in-lebanon-and-israel-idUSL0822571220070709.
56 “Lebanon 2019 Article IV Consultation” IMF.
57 Harald Finger and Carlos Sdralevich, “IMF Survey: Resilient Lebanon Defies Odds In Face of Global Crisis,” International Monetary Fund,
August 11, 2009, https://www.imf.org/en/News/Articles/2015/09/28/04/53/socar081109a.
58 Chloe Cornish, “End of the party: why Lebanon’s debt crisis has left it vulnerable,” Financial Times, December 31, 2019, https://www.
ft.com/content/078b2e4a-266a-11ea-9305-4234e74b0ef3.
59 Agence France-Presse, “Lebanon to default on debt for first time amid financial crisis,” The Guardian, March 7, 2020, https://www.the-
guardian.com/world/2020/mar/07/lebanon-to-default-on-debt-for-first-time-amid-financial-crisis.
60 Eurobonds (with a capital “E”) should not be confused with eurobonds, which are bonds issued in a currency different than that of
the country they are issued in.You can also read
