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Multisensory Research 34 (2021) 69–92 brill.com/msr
Assessing the Relationship Between Drive for Thinness
and Taste–Shape Correspondences
Yumi Hamamoto 1,2,∗ , Kosuke Motoki 1,3 and Motoaki Sugiura 1,4
1
Institute of Development, Aging and Cancer, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan
2
Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, Tokyo, Japan
3
Department of Food Management, School of Food, Agricultural and Environmental
Sciences, Miyagi University, Sendai, Japan
4
International Research Institute of Disaster Science, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan
Received 31 January 2020; accepted 13 June 2020
Abstract
Eating disorder tendencies are psychological characteristics that are prevalent in healthy young fe-
males and are known to be among the risk factors for eating disorders such as anorexia and bulimia
nervosa. People with greater eating disorder tendencies strongly associate sweet and fatty foods with
weight gain and strictly avoid consuming such foods. However, little is known about how eating
disorder tendencies influence the association between taste and body shape impression. Research
on crossmodal correspondences suggests that people preferentially associate sweet tastes with round
shapes, and individual differences affect the degree of such associations. This study investigates how
the degree of taste–shape matching is related to eating disorder tendencies with a preliminary in-
vestigation of what mediates this relationship. Two experiments were conducted: in Experiment 1,
healthy participants rated the degree of association between basic taste words (sweet/sour/salty/bitter)
and roundness of shape and subsequently completed questionnaires addressing eating disorder ten-
dencies. In Experiment 2, participants answered additional questionnaires addressing obsessiveness,
dichotomous thinking, and self-esteem. The results of Experiment 1 indicated a positive correlation
between drive for thinness, which is one indicator of an eating disorder tendency, and the degree of
matching sweetness to round shape. Experiment 2 replicated the results of Experiment 1 and revealed
the mediating effect of obsessiveness. These findings suggest a relationship between individual dif-
ferences in taste–shape matching and eating disorder tendency and the preliminary mediating role
of obsessiveness. The present study provides new insight into the role of sweet–round matching in
eating disorder tendencies and the associated psychological mechanisms.
Keywords
eating disorder, crossmodal correspondences, sweet, round shapes, obsessive-compulsive symptoms
* To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail: yumi.hamamoto.q2@dc.tohoku.ac.jp
© Hamamoto et al., 2020 DOI:10.1163/22134808-bja10030
This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the CC BY 4.0 license.
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1. Introduction
1.1. Perceptual Bias Related to Eating Disorder Tendencies
Anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa are psychiatric disorders categorized as
feeding and eating disorders. These disorders are characterized by maladap-
tive eating behaviors that originate from individuals’ concerns regarding their
weight and body shape (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). People who
suffer from these eating disorders avoid consuming high-calorie foods in an ef-
fort to prevent weight gain, and this behavior sometimes persists after weight
recovery (Foerde et al., 2015; Gwirtsman et al., 1989; Jáuregui Lobera and
Bolaños Ríos, 2009). It has been suggested that people with greater eating dis-
order tendencies, including nonclinical populations, perceive taste and shape
differently to individuals with lower eating disorder tendencies. People with
greater eating disorder tendencies show, in particular, different body shape
perceptions. They are unable to estimate their body size accurately, with a ten-
dency toward overestimation (Gardner and Bokenkamp, 1996; Hamamoto et
al., 2019; Mohr et al., 2010; Smeets et al., 1999). Furthermore, it has been
demonstrated that taste perception in patients with eating disorders differs
from that of healthy individuals (Chao et al., 2019; Dazzi et al., 2013; Kin-
naird et al., 2018; Oberndorfer et al., 2013; Wagner et al., 2015). Several
studies have focused on the perception of sweet taste because patients with
eating disorders often avoid sweet foods. Participants who had recovered from
eating disorders exhibited different patterns of sensitization to repetitive sweet
stimuli, as compared to those exhibited by healthy people (Wagner et al.,
2015). This difference in sensitization patterns was supported by a neuroimag-
ing study that observed varying brain activity in the insula, which contains the
primary gustatory cortex (Pritchard et al., 1999; Oberndorfer et al., 2013).
Although considerable research has been conducted in this field, these dif-
ferences in shape and taste perception have been investigated independently.
Given that individuals with greater eating disorder tendencies avoid sweet
foods to prevent weight gain and may strongly associate their body shape with
sweet tastes, eating disorder tendencies may relate to the associations between
shape and taste perceptions.
1.2. Taste–Shape Matching: Crossmodal Correspondences
Studies on crossmodal correspondences have demonstrated associations be-
tween shape and taste. The term crossmodal correspondences refers to the
phenomenon whereby people associate features in one sensory modality with
features in other modalities in a consistent manner (Spence, 2011). Earlier re-
search has documented correspondences between shape and taste (Motoki et
al., 2019a; Spence and Deroy, 2013; Velasco et al., 2016a). Sweet taste is reli-
ably matched with rounded shapes, while sour taste corresponds significantly
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to angularity (Ngo et al., 2013). Sweet taste is also matched with symmet-
ric rather than asymmetric shapes, while sour taste is associated with no such
preference (Turoman et al., 2018). The association between sweet taste and
roundness is not limited to simple shapes: people match sweet tastes to round
faces (Motoki et al., 2019a). Furthermore, it has been suggested that there
are individual differences in the degree of matching between taste and shape
roundness (Velasco et al., 2015). For example, sweet tastes were generally
associated with round shapes, but the degree of this sweet–round matching
varied across participants (Velasco et al., 2015). This earlier finding suggests
that personality traits underlie the association between shape and taste. Thus,
we hypothesize that eating disorder tendencies will also influence taste–shape
matching.
1.3. Hypothesis Development
We hypothesized that taste–shape matching, particularly sweet–round match-
ing (i.e., the degree of association between sweet taste and shape roundness),
is related to eating disorder tendencies. Shafran et al. (1999) revealed that in-
dividuals with greater eating disorder tendencies exhibited specific cognitive
distortion. Eating disorder tendency was associated with the belief that sim-
ply thinking about eating a forbidden food (sweet foods) could lead to weight
gain (thought–shape fusion: Shafran et al., 1999). Taste–shape matching might
explain this cognitive distortion. Patients believe that they will gain weight
just by thinking about consuming high-calorie foods, perhaps because obesity
(round shape) is strongly associated with high-calorie foods (sweet tastes).
H1: People who have greater eating disorder tendencies will strongly asso-
ciate sweet tastes with round shapes.
As a preliminary exploration study, it was also hypothesized that specific
personality traits would mediate the relationship between eating disorder ten-
dencies and sweet–round matching. The mediating effects of the following
personality traits were investigated: obsessiveness, dichotomous thinking, and
low self-esteem (Byrne et al., 2008; Legenbauer et al., 2011; Oshio and
Meshkova, 2012; Palascha et al., 2015; Shafran et al., 1999). It is suggested
that obsessiveness is related to the association between thought–shape fusion
and eating disorder tendencies (Coelho et al., 2012; Radomsky et al., 2002;
Shafran et al., 1999). Consequently, we expected that obsessiveness would
mediate the association between sweet–round matching and eating disorder
tendencies. Dichotomous thinking is a black or white cognitive thinking style.
This style affects individuals’ attitudes toward food, their own body image, and
their food intake (Byrne et al., 2008; Oshio and Meshkova, 2012; Palascha et
al., 2015). It was hypothesized that dichotomous thinking may cause an ex-
treme association between sweet tastes and round shapes. Moreover, patients
with eating disorders often have low self-esteem and judge their self-worth
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primarily according to their body weight and shape (American Psychiatric As-
sociation, 2013; Legenbauer et al., 2011). This low self-esteem may engender
attentional biases toward weight, body checking, food, and calories (Aspen et
al., 2013). As such, individuals who have lower self-esteem may also perceive
stronger associations between sweet tastes and body shape.
1.4. The Present Study
This study aimed to clarify the relationship between individual differences
in taste–shape matching and eating disorder tendency. Additionally, poten-
tial personality traits mediating this relationship were investigated. To this
end, two experiments were conducted. The purpose of Experiment 1 was to
investigate, exploratorily, relationships between taste–shape matching and eat-
ing disorder tendencies. The main purpose of Experiment 2 was to replicate
the results of Experiment 1, and the mediator of the relationship between
taste–shape matching and eating disorder tendency was preliminarily inves-
tigated. Across both experiments, the healthy participants matched basic taste
words (sweet/sour/salty/bitter) with angular or round shapes. They subse-
quently completed questionnaires relating to personality traits, such as eating
disorder tendencies.
2. Material and Methods
2.1. Recruiting Procedure and Ethical Approval
We recruited participants via Lancers (https://www.lancers.jp/) and distributed
the survey via Qualtrics (https://www.qualtrics.com/jp/). This study was ap-
proved by the Ethics Committee of Tohoku University Graduate School of
Medicine, Japan, and was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of
Helsinki.
2.2. Taste–Shape Matching Task
In both Experiments 1 and 2, the degree of taste–shape matching was assessed.
Participants were shown each basic taste word (sweet/sour/salty/bitter) and
were required to indicate the extent to which they associate each taste word
with the shape symbolic scales anchored with angular (left-hand side) or round
(right-hand side) shapes. Each pair of shapes was on a slider-controlled visual
analog scale (VAS) ranging from 0 (most likely associated with angular shape)
to 100 (most likely associated with round shape). A similar exercise was used
in an earlier study on crossmodal correspondences between taste and shape
(Velasco et al., 2015). Four types of shape pairs were used (Velasco et al.,
2015; Fig. 1); thus, the number of trials was 16 (i.e., 4 shape pairs ×4 taste
words).
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Figure 1. Stimuli used in the taste–shape matching task. Participants indicated the extent to
which they associate taste with shape using the visual analog scale (VAS) (the scale ranged
from 0 to 100, with 0 on the left and 100 on the right). When a participant associated sweet
taste with round shape, they would move the VAS to the right. We investigated all combinations
of taste words and shape pairs; thus, participants underwent 16 trials (4 shape pairs ×4 taste
words).
3. Experiment 1
3.1. Participants
We recruited 295 people for Experiment 1; 133 people were excluded accord-
ing to the following exclusion criteria: failure to respond to all questionnaire
items and failure to answer two filler questions. Many participants failed to
answer all questionnaire items because the questionnaire items were not set in
forced-choice format and no reminder was implemented to notify participants
that they had forgotten to select items. Finally, data from 162 participants were
analyzed (mean age ± SD = 40.6 ± 10.4 years old, mean body mass index ±
SD = 21.9 ± 3.7).
3.2. Questionnaire
Participants answered the Japanese version of Eating Disorder Inventory 2
(EDI2; Shimura et al., 1994) after the taste–shape matching task to measure
their eating disorder tendencies. This is a self-report questionnaire compris-
ing 11 subscales relating to eating disorder tendency, including drive for
thinness, bulimia, body dissatisfaction, ineffectiveness, perfectionism, inter-
personal distrust, interoceptive awareness, maturity fears, asceticism, impulse
regulation, and social insecurity. Participants answered each question accord-
ing to a six-point Likert scale where 1 = never and 6 = always. The modified
scoring system (e.g., modifying 1–3 scores into 0, and modifying 4–6 scores
into 1–3) that is usually used to evaluate the severity of eating disorder symp-
toms was not applied, because raw scoring (e.g., a score of ‘1’ where partici-
pants rated ‘1’) is considered better for evaluating eating disorder tendencies
in healthy individuals (Schoemaker et al., 1994).
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Figure 2. Scatter plot of the degree of sweet–round matching and drive for thinness. The left
graph shows the correlation in Experiment 1 (r = 0.179, p = 0.023), and the right graph shows
the correlation in Experiment 2 (r = 0.141, p = 0.041). The sweet–round matching score was
distributed from 0 to 100, where 0 indicates that participants associated sweet tastes with angu-
lar shapes (i.e., shapes on the left side of the horizontal axis) and 100 means that participants
associated sweet tastes with round shapes (i.e., shapes on the right side of the horizontal axis).
3.3. Statistical Analysis
The degree of taste–shape matching was calculated first. Participants under-
went four taste–shape matching task trials for each taste, and we scored the
degree of taste–shape matching as the average of these four trial scores.
Next a two-tailed simple correlation analysis was conducted to investigate
the relationship between taste–shape matching and eating disorder tendency.
There were four tastes (sweet/sour/salty/bitter) and 11 eating disorder ten-
dencies from EDI2, and all correlations between the degree of taste–shape
matching and eating disorder tendencies (i.e., 4 taste–shape matching × 11
subscales from EDI2) were analyzed. Pearson’s correlation coefficients were
calculated using R version 3.3.3 (https://www.R-project.org/), and statistical
significance was set at p < 0.05.
3.4. Results: Experiment 1
The analysis demonstrated that the degree of sweet–round matching was
positively correlated with drive for thinness (r = 0.179, p = 0.023; Fig. 2,
left). Positive correlations between the degree of sour–round matching and
ineffectiveness (r = 0.257, p < 0.001), interpersonal distress (r = 0.195,
p = 0.013), and social insecurity (r = 0.184, p = 0.019) were also observed.
The analysis also revealed negative correlations between degree of bitter–
round association and asceticism (r = −0.223, p = 0.004) and perfectionism
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Table 1.
Correlation coefficients between the degree of taste-shape matching and eating disorder ten-
dencies in Experiment 1. In Experiment 1, the correlations between the degree of taste–shape
matching (i.e., matching between roundness and each taste) and the subscales from EDI2 were
investigated. Positive correlation means that participants with greater eating disorder tendencies
more strongly associated the relevant tastes with round shape. By contrast, negative correlation
means that a greater eating disorder tendency would cause a stronger association between the
relevant tastes and angular shape
Sweet–round Sour–round Salty–round Bitter–round
Asceticism 0.054 0.082 0.095 −0.223∗
Bulimia 0.103 0.008 0.050 −0.039
Body dissatisfaction 0.001 0.003 0.048 −0.001
Drive for thinness 0.179∗ −0.112 −0.066 −0.106
Ineffectiveness −0.111 0.257∗ 0.042 0.012
Interoceptive awareness 0.033 0.114 0.088 −0.008
Interpersonal distrust −0.066 0.195∗ 0.150 0.029
Impulse regulation 0.034 0.022 0.127 0.009
Maturity fear −0.083 0.091 −0.052 −0.078
Perfectionism 0.082 −0.039 −0.117 −0.168∗
Social insecurity −0.037 0.184∗ 0.119 −0.001
∗ , p < 0.05.
(r = −0.168, p = 0.032). No further significant correlations were observed,
and all correlations, including those that were non-significant, are presented in
Table 1.
3.5. Summary and Short Discussion: Experiment 1
The correlation between the degree of sweet–round matching and eating dis-
order tendencies was investigated. As expected, a positive correlation between
the degree of sweet–round matching and drive for thinness was found. Drive
for thinness is among the body image problems that are characteristic of eat-
ing disorders. We hypothesized that the relationship between sweet–round
matching and eating disorder tendencies has its origin in the consumption of
high-calorie foods and subsequent weight gain; this result tends to support
our hypothesis. However, significance was lost after correcting for multiple
comparisons where Experiment 1 was exploratory, such that all possible corre-
lations were analyzed. Experiment 2 was performed to confirm the correlation
between sweet–round matching and drive for thinness.
Several positive and negative correlations between taste–shape matching
and eating disorder tendencies for other shapes were also found, although
these correlations were not pertinent to our hypothesis.
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4. Experiment 2
4.1. Participants
Based on the results of Experiment 1, power analysis was conducted to de-
termine the appropriate sample size for Experiment 2. We used G*Power 3.1
(Faul et al., 2009) and set the effect size at 0.179, which was the result ob-
tained from Experiment 1. Effect size (f = 0.179), alpha level (a = 0.05),
and power (1 − b = 0.8) were input into G*Power. The required sample size
was 279. Thus, 307 people were recruited, and 96 were excluded in accor-
dance with the same exclusion criteria as in Experiment 1. The drop-out rate
was high because, again, the questionnaire items were not set in forced-choice
format and no reminder was implemented to notify participants that they had
forgotten to select items. Data from 211 participants were finally analyzed for
Experiment 2 (mean age ± SD = 40.1 ± 10.1 years old, mean body mass in-
dex ± SD = 22.1 ± 3.8). Power analysis showed that the study had sufficient
power, despite the smaller than intended sample size (power = 0.75).
4.2. Questionnaire
In addition to EDI2, we adopted several questionnaires aimed at measur-
ing participants’ personality traits that may mediate between eating disorder
tendency and taste–shape matching. These questionnaires included the Yale–
Brown Obsessive-Compulsive Scale (Y-BOCS), the Rosenberg Self-Esteem
Scale (RSES), and the Dichotomous Thinking Inventory (DTI). Participants
answered the Japanese version of the Y-BOCS (Hamagaki et al., 1999), which
is widely used to measure obsessive-compulsive traits. It comprises two sec-
tions: questions about obsessive thoughts and questions about compulsive
behaviors. All questions were summed up to evaluate participants’ obsessive-
ness. Participants also completed the Japanese version of DTI (Oshio, 2009),
which assesses the tendency toward a dichotomous thinking style. Finally,
participants answered the Japanese version of RSES (Mimura and Griffiths,
2007), which evaluates participants’ self-esteem. It is widely known that peo-
ple with eating disorders tend to have low self-esteem and that low self-esteem
is a key risk factor in the development of eating disorders (American Psychi-
atric Association, 2013).
Although it was not the focus of our study, some questions relating to sweet
taste and round shape were included in the questionnaire for the purpose
of detecting potential mediators. Participants answered questions relating to
frequency and emotion regarding sweet tastes and shape. Earlier research sug-
gested that frequent experience of two different stimulus modality sets (e.g.,
sweet tastes and round shape) caused crossmodal correspondences (Ernst,
2007; Parise et al., 2014; Spence, 2011). Furthermore, emotion category (e.g.,
both sweet tastes and round shape are associated with positive emotion) is also
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associated with crossmodal correspondences (Motoki et al., 2020; Spence,
2019; Velasco et al., 2015). Thus, participants answered questions relating to
frequency (i.e., how often they hear/see information pertaining to the relation-
ship between sweet foods and round body shape) and emotion (i.e., how much
they associate sweet food/round shape with negative feelings; how much they
associate sweet food/round shape with positive feelings, and how much they
associate sweet food/round shape with saliency). Questions pertaining to the
relationship between body shape/weight and taste/shape were also included:
how much do you associate sweet foods with your own body shape; how much
do you associate sweet food/round shape with obesity; how much do you asso-
ciate sweet food/round shape with weight; how fearful are you that your body
shape will change as a result of eating sweet foods; and how much do you
perceive yourself as gaining weight by eating sweet foods?
4.3. Statistical Analysis
A two-tailed simple correlation analysis was performed to confirm the re-
sults of Experiment 1. A further two-tailed simple correlation analysis was
conducted to investigate the correlation between taste–shape matching, eating
disorder tendency, and personality traits (obsessiveness, dichotomous think-
ing, self-esteem, frequency, and emotions relating to sweet taste and round
shape).
Regarding the correlation between sweet–round matching and drive for
thinness, multiple comparison correction was not conducted. Previous studies
have suggested that if there is a primary outcome, multiple comparison correc-
tion is not needed (Althouse, 2016; Feise, 2002; Li et al., 2017). Experiment
2 had the primary outcome (the correlation between sweet–round matching
and drive for thinness), which was set based on the result from Experiment 1.
Thus, statistical significance regarding the correlation between sweet–round
matching and drive for thinness was set at p < 0.05 without multiple com-
parison. However, regarding potential mediating factors, Experiment 2 was an
exploratory study and included no a-priori hypothesis. Thus, multiple com-
parison correction was conducted in the analysis of the correlation regarding
potential mediating factors (i.e., obsessiveness, dichotomous thinking, self-
esteem, frequency of exposure, emotional reaction, and body image issues
relating to sweet taste/round shape). The false discovery rate (FDR) was con-
trolled based on previous research (Benjamini and Hochberg, 1995). For this
analysis, statistical significance was set at the FDR-corrected p-value < 0.05.
In Experiment 2, it was hypothesized that the relationship between taste–
shape matching and eating disorder tendency is mediated by personality traits
(obsessiveness, dichotomous thinking, self-esteem, frequency, emotion, and
body-related issues regarding sweet taste/round shape). To this end, mediation
analysis was conducted using the PROCESS macro for SPSS (Hayes, 2013).
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Table 2.
Correlation coefficients between the degree of taste-shape matching and target personality traits
in Experiment 2. In Experiment 2, the correlations between taste–shape matching and other
personality traits were investigated in addition to drive for thinness from EDI2. Obsessive-
ness, dichotomous thinking and self-esteem were respectively evaluated by Y-BOCS, DTI, and
RSES. Positive correlation means that participants with a greater eating disorder tendency more
strongly associated the relevant taste with round shape. By contrast, a negative correlation
means that a greater eating disorder tendency causes a stronger association between relevant
taste and angular shape
Sweet–round Sour–round Salty–round Bitter–round
Drive for thinness 0.141a −0.014 −0.029 −0.066
Obsessiveness 0.166b 0.025 −0.010 −0.050
Dichotomous thinking 0.073 −0.066 0.064 0.024
Self-esteem −0.076 0.058 0.065 −0.038
a , p < 0.05; b , FDR-corrected p-valueY. Hamamoto et al. / Multisensory Research 34 (2021) 69–92 79
Table 3.
Correlation coefficient between drive for thinness and other personal-
ity traits in Experiment 2. To determine a mediation factor, we investi-
gated the correlation between drive for thinness and personality traits,
namely obsessiveness, dichotomous thinking, and self-esteem. Drive
for thinness was evaluated using EDI2. Obsessiveness, dichotomous
thinking and self-esteem were respectively evaluated by Y-BOCS,
DTI, and RSES
Drive for thinness
Obsessiveness 0.216∗
Dichotomous thinking 0.130
Self-esteem −0.172
∗ , FDR-corrected p-value80 Y. Hamamoto et al. / Multisensory Research 34 (2021) 69–92
Figure 3. Model to predict the effect of drive for thinness on the degree of taste–shape matching
mediated by obsessiveness in Experiment 2. Although the effect was small, obsessiveness had
a significant mediating effect on drive for thinness and the degree of taste–shape matching.
Standardized coefficients (b) are displayed. Asterisks indicate significant paths (p < 0.05∗ ).
effect was estimated using unstandardized regression coefficient by setting
drive for thinness as the independent variable (X), sweet–round matching as
the outcome variable (Y ), and obsessiveness as the mediator variable (M). The
bootstrap estimates were positive and the 95% bias-corrected confidence in-
tervals did not include zero. The total indirect effect was 0.038, SE = 0.022,
CI [0.002, 0.087] (Fig. 3).
4.5. Summary and Short Discussion: Experiment 2
Experiment 2 replicated the results of Experiment 1 in terms of the positive
correlation between the degree of sweet–round matching and drive for thin-
ness. It was also found that obsessiveness mediated this relationship. No other
factors (e.g., self-esteem) were correlated with both sweet–round matching
and drive for thinness. Therefore, we could not investigate the mediating role
of other mediation factors. Other correlations between eating disorder tenden-
cies and taste–shape matching observed in Experiment 1 were not replicated.
5. Discussion
5.1. Summary of Findings
This study examined relationships between the magnitude of taste–shape
matching and the degree of eating disorder tendency in healthy adults. The
results of Experiment 1 demonstrated that the degree to which individuals
match sweet taste to round shape is positively correlated with drive for thin-
ness. The results of Experiment 2 replicated the findings of Experiment 1
and observed the potential mediating role of obsessiveness in the relationship
between sweet–round matching and drive for thinness. Taken together, these
findings suggest that individual differences in taste–shape perception relate to
a subset of eating disorder tendencies (i.e., drive for thinness) and that obses-
siveness mediates this relationship. These findings offer a novel explanation
for the psychological mechanisms of eating disorder tendencies.
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5.2. Theoretical Contributions: the Role of Sweet–Round Matching in Eating
Disorders
The correlation between sweet–round matching and drive for thinness sug-
gests that eating disorder tendencies relate to individual differences in sensory
matching. Previous studies have reported that people with greater body im-
age concerns — an indicator of eating disorder tendencies — tend to believe
that they will gain weight by simply thinking about eating high-calorie foods
(Coelho et al., 2012; Radomsky et al., 2002; Shafran et al., 1999). Based on
these previous studies, it was hypothesized that people with greater eating
disorder tendencies associate sweet foods with being overweight and, thus,
participants exhibit a correlation between sweet–round matching and eating
disorder tendencies. Given that drive for thinness is among the key body im-
age concerns, our findings may support this hypothesis. The round shape in
the association between sweet–round matching and drive for thinness may not
be a simple geometrical shape; it may be related to body shape. This spec-
ulation is supported by the results of Experiment 2, which are related to the
correlation between sweet foods, round shape, and body image concerns. Par-
ticipants with greater drive for thinness associated sweet foods/round shape
with obesity, weight, and dieting (Supplementary Table 2). These participants
also associated sweet foods with their own bodies (Supplementary Table 2).
They had stronger fears of their body shape changing as a result of eating
sweet foods and stronger beliefs that they would gain weight by eating sweet
foods (Supplementary Table 2). Therefore, participants with greater drive for
thinness may perceive round shape as related to an overweight body shape
and, thus, may be more likely to associate sweet taste with round shape.
Only drive for thinness was significantly correlated with sweet–round
matching, and this result may suggest that a behavioral drive to be thinner is
related to sweet–round matching. EDI2 has two subscales related to body im-
age concerns, drive for thinness and body dissatisfaction. Body dissatisfaction
is mainly assessed by questionnaire items relating to dissatisfaction with one’s
own body (e.g., ‘I think that my hips are too big,’ ‘I think that my thighs are too
large,’ etc.) and is not associated with motivation to lose weight. On the other
hand, drive for thinness includes a behavioral drive to be thinner (e.g., ‘I think
about going on a diet,’ ‘I think about losing more weight,’ etc.). This behav-
ioral drive to be thinner may cause individuals to associate sweet foods with
an overweight body image, to avoid the risk of gaining weight. Obsessiveness
mediation might imply that participants with greater obsessiveness believed
that they should lose weight and had a stronger drive to be thinner. Given
that the correlation between sweet–round matching and body mass index did
not reach the statistical threshold (r = 0.122, p = 0.076), this may imply that
sweet–round matching derived from a behavioral drive to be thinner could be
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maintained after weight loss. It has been reported that some people continue
their behaviors aimed at weight loss even after losing enough or excessive
weight (Stice et al., 2011). And maintenance of sweet–round matching may
explain this continued behavior aimed at weight loss. Thus, our results may
prompt a discussion about the importance of sweet–round matching in eating
disorder tendencies.
5.3. Theoretical Contributions: the Role of Crossmodal Correspondences in
Mental Disorder Tendencies
The present study contributes new insights into the relationship between indi-
vidual differences in sensory matching and mental disorder tendencies. It has
been reported that individual differences in sensory matching are correlated
with autistic traits in healthy people (Hidaka and Yaguchi, 2018; Yaguchi and
Hidaka, 2020). The present study added a new example of the relationship
between sensory matching and mental disorder tendencies by investigating
eating disorder tendencies. Our mediation analysis also suggested that ob-
sessiveness (tendency toward obsessive-compulsive disorder) is related to the
formation of sensory matching. Thus, other mental disorder tendencies may be
related to sensory matching. The present study may suggest the potential im-
portance of investigating sensory matching (i.e., crossmodal correspondences)
in mental disorder research fields.
5.4. Model of Association Between Sweet–Round Matching and Drive for
Thinness
The association between taste–shape matching and drive for thinness may
be explained by statistical regularities in the environment: the frequent co-
occurrence of two different modal stimuli. (e.g., high pitch/small size corre-
spondences: small/short parts in musical instruments, such as the vibraphone
or the guitar, make high-pitched sounds; Spence, 2011 for a review). Partic-
ipants may have had experiences such as weight gain after consuming sweet
foods, being told not to eat sweet foods to avoid gaining weight, or seeing me-
dia portrayals of overweight people consuming sweet foods. Participants who
reported a higher frequency of seeing/hearing information regarding the rela-
tionship between sweet foods and round body shape exhibited a higher drive
for thinness (Supplementary Table 2). Previous studies investigating thought–
shape fusion (Coelho et al., 2012; Radomsky et al., 2002; Shafran et al., 1999)
support the hypothesis that the statistical crossmodal correspondences model
underlies our findings. These studies intensified participants’ thought–shape
fusion by causing them to constantly think about eating high-calorie foods,
which the participants believed caused them to gain weight. Participants with
greater eating disorder tendencies tend to believe more strongly that they will
gain weight by simply thinking about eating high-calorie foods(Coelho et al.,
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2012; Radomsky et al., 2002; Shafran et al., 1999). Thus, repeated exposure
to the association between sweet foods and round body shape may have inten-
sified the participants’ beliefs that they would gain weight after eating sweet
foods. Consequently, participants who had a higher drive for thinness were
more likely to associate sweet taste and round shape with obesity, weight gain,
and behaviors aimed at losing weight (Supplementary Table 2).
The mediating role of obsessiveness implies that obsessiveness may rein-
force the association between sweet foods and round body shape. Previous
studies have also reported that, after manipulation for intensifying thought–
shape fusion, people with greater obsessiveness showed stronger thought–
shape fusion (Coelho et al., 2012). The results might suggest that people with
greater obsessiveness tend to associate the two repeatedly presented stimuli
(i.e., sweet foods and overweight body shape) more strongly.
If obsessiveness reinforces the association between the two repeatedly pre-
sented sets of stimuli, it might suggest that the mediating role of obsessiveness
could be generally applied to statistical crossmodal correspondences. From the
present study, it cannot be concluded how obsessiveness reinforces the associ-
ation of two sets of stimuli. However, given that the repeated co-occurrence of
different modal stimuli is necessary for the establishment of statistical cross-
modal correspondences, obsessiveness might cause overestimation of subjec-
tive co-occurrence experience frequency. Thus, obsessiveness facilitates the
establishment of statistical crossmodal correspondences. This hypothesis may
account for individual differences in the magnitude of crossmodal correspon-
dences.
5.5. The Role of Emotion in the Relationship Between Sweet–Round
Matching and Drive for Thinness
Aside from the role of obsessiveness, it is implied that emotional factors may
mediate the correlation between sweet–round matching through the associa-
tion of sweet tastes with round shapes in a unique way. The present study
showed that both sweet–round matching and drive for thinness showed rela-
tionships with emotional factors. In Experiment 2, participants answered two
separate questions pertaining to emotional valence (i.e., ‘Do you feel posi-
tively toward sweet taste and round shape’ and ‘Do you feel negatively toward
sweet taste and round shape’), scored on a scale ranging from 1 (strongly dis-
agree) to 6 (strongly agree). Thus, a low score on the positive valence item
does not necessarily indicate that the participant had a negative emotional
response to these stimuli. Finally, participants showed a positive correlation
between sweet–round matching and positive feelings toward sweet taste and
round shape and positive correlation between drive for thinness and negative
feelings toward sweet taste and round shape (Supplementary Table 2). It has
been reported that both sweet taste and round shape have positive valence,
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and this common emotional valence guides people to associate sweet taste
with round shape (Velasco et al., 2015, 2016b). Our results replicated these
previous results: sweet–round matching was correlated with positive feelings
toward sweet taste and round shape (Supplementary Table 2). On the other
hand, there was no significant correlation between drive for thinness and posi-
tive feelings toward sweet taste and round shape. Thus, drive for thinness does
not appear to influence positive feelings toward sweet taste and round shape.
By contrast, a positive correlation between drive for thinness and negative
feelings toward sweet taste and round shape was observed (Supplementary Ta-
ble 2). Given the expression of the questionnaire items pertaining to drive for
thinness (e.g., ‘I am terrified of gaining weight’), drive for thinness should be
classified as having negative emotional valence. Therefore, in the present con-
text, it is suggested that drive for thinness may influence participants’ negative
emotional feelings toward sweet taste and round shape. It is further suggested
that negative emotion could also lead to an association between sweet taste
with round shape as well as a positive emotion, which is one of the present
study’s novel findings. Taken together, emotional factors should mediate the
correlation between sweet–round matching and drive for thinness, and each
positive and negative emotion may independently relate to this mediation.
Although our findings suggest that emotional mediation has a unique role,
we could not perform a mediation analysis using the questionnaire data re-
lated to emotional responses to sweet taste and round shape. This was because
these emotional responses correlated with either sweet–round matching or
drive for thinness; correlation with both is necessary to perform mediation
analysis (Supplementary Table 2). However, it should be noted that the format
of our questionnaire, independently investigating positive and negative feel-
ings toward sweet taste and round shape, may have influenced the findings. If
emotional responses to sweet taste and round shape had been evaluated on a
continuous scale, correlations with both sweet–round matching and drive for
thinness may have been seen. This would have allowed us to analyze the me-
diating role of emotion in the relationship between those two factors, which
should be a goal of future studies.
5.6. Other Correlations Between Taste–Shape Matching and Eating
Disorder Tendencies
The significant correlations were not consistent between Experiments 1 and
2. In Experiment 1, positive correlations between the degree of sour–round
matching and ineffectiveness, interpersonal distress, and social insecurity were
observed, and the degree of bitter–round matching was negatively correlated
with asceticism and perfectionism (Table 1). In Experiment 2, positive cor-
relations between the degree of sweet–round matching and bulimia, body
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dissatisfaction, interoceptive awareness, and impulse regulation were observed
(Supplementary Table 1).
Generally, sour taste is associated with angular shape (Ngo et al., 2013;
Velasco et al., 2015) although the participants with greater eating disorder ten-
dencies showed the opposite association in the present study. It was reported
that patients with eating disorders showed lower sensitivity to sour tastes com-
pared to healthy individuals (Chao et al., 2019; Kinnaird et al., 2018; for
reviews). This lower sensitivity to sour taste may be due to an aberrant mental
representation regarding the sour–round correspondences.
The above sensitivity hypothesis does not apply to bitter–round matching.
It has also been reported that patients with eating disorders showed lower sen-
sitivity to bitter tastes compared to healthy individuals (for reviews, see Chao
et al., 2019 and Kinnaird et al., 2018). However, among our participants with
greater tendencies toward eating disorders, the association between bitter taste
and angular shape was stronger. Different mechanisms may relate to the nega-
tive associations of bitter–round matching with asceticism and perfectionism.
Factor analysis performed in a study of a Japanese population showed that as-
ceticism and perfectionism can be classified together (Shimura et al., 1994).
Perfectionism is widely known to be strongly related to obsessive-compulsive
disorder, sufferers of which show strong sensitivity to disgust stimuli (Moretz
and McKay, 2008; Tolin et al., 2006). Given that bitter taste is widely recog-
nized as being unpleasant (Ammann et al., 2019; Dubovski et al., 2017; Obrist
et al., 2014), participants with higher asceticism and perfectionism may have
greater sensitivity to bitter tastes, which could explain the negative correla-
tions between bitter–round matching and asceticism and perfectionism seen
herein.
Sweet–round matching correlated with other eating disorder tendencies in
Experiment 2, albeit not in Experiment 1. Bulimia and body dissatisfaction
are related to eating behavior and body image, as well as drive for thinness
(Shimura et al., 1994). It is reported that, in Japanese healthy people, some
items from drive for thinness were categorized the same factor with items from
bulimia or body dissatisfaction (Shimura et al., 1994). Thus, it was speculated
that these correlations may partially share a common mechanism with that re-
lating to the correlation between sweet–round matching and drive for thinness.
Interoceptive awareness and impulse regulation subscales of the EDI2 relate to
self-control (Shimura et al., 1994). Thus, given that people with higher obses-
siveness often show higher impulsivity (i.e., lack of self-control: Blaszczynski,
1999; Hoehn-Saric and Barksdale, 1983; Matsunaga et al., 2005), these sub-
scales may at least partially relate to obsessiveness, which may explain the
correlations with sweet–round matching.
However, we found no evidence for these suggestions, and we could not
replicate these results. For now, it is speculated that these correlations were
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a Type I error. Too few participants were recruited to investigate these cor-
relations. Therefore, future studies should investigate these correlations by
recruiting larger samples.
5.7. Limitations and Future Directions
This study investigated the relationship between the degree of taste–shape
matching and eating disorder tendency in typical, developing adults. The study
has several limitations. First, and most importantly, only healthy people were
recruited, and it is recommended that future studies compare differences in
the degree of taste–shape matching between patients with eating disorders and
healthy participants. It is hypothesized that patients with eating disorders as-
sociate sweet tastes with round shapes more than do healthy participants.
Second, the relationship between the degree of taste–shape matching and
food selection and preferences was not investigated; this should also be inves-
tigated in a future study. We suspect that participants with higher sweet–round
matching would tend to avoid eating sweet foods due to their higher drive for
thinness.
Third, shape location (i.e., round shapes were always presented on the
right-hand side) was not counterbalanced; thus, any directional preference of
the participants could have affected the results. However, one-way repeated
measures ANOVA showed a significant effect of taste word (F4,210 = 618,
p < 0.001, ηp2 = 0.746). Moreover, a one-sample t-test showed that bitter (t =
−14.60, p < 0.001), salty (t = −17.66, p < 0.001), and sour (t = −19.42,
p < 0.001) tastes were significantly skewed toward the angular end of the
shape-rating scale relative to the midpoint (50), while sweet was significantly
skewed toward the round end of the scale (t = 42.43, p < 0.001). These re-
sults were similar to those presented in a previous study that counterbalanced
roundness and location (Velasco et al., 2015). This suggests that any effect of
direction preference would have been small in our study and, therefore, would
not have a big influence on the main findings.
Fourth, actual taste stimuli were not used in our study, so we could not in-
vestigate the relationship between such taste stimuli and the shape stimuli. The
decision not to use actual taste stimuli was based on previous crossmodal stud-
ies that similarly did not include actual sensory stimuli (Motoki et al., 2019b;
Saluja and Stevenson, 2018; Spence et al., 2015; Velasco et al., 2015, 2018).
The results of these studies suggested that crossmodal correspondences occur
even when only word stimuli related to sensory perceptions are used. However,
if actual taste stimuli had been used, we could have investigated a spatiotempo-
ral mapping effect for each taste (Obrist et al., 2014). It is reported that sweet
tastes provide a ‘mouth filling’ (lasting long time and filling the whole mouth)
experience, while bitter tastes create a ‘thin’ (lasting long time and straight
through mouth to back) experience. Spatiotemporal mapping of sweet tastes
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might be rounder and more expanded than other tastes, so that this may in
turn have been associated with round body shape. Thus, individual differences
in spatiotemporal mapping of sweet tastes may relate to the association be-
tween drive for thinness and sweet–round matching. This study also reported
that umami conferred a similar mouth filling experience to that of sweet taste.
In a future study, the role of spatiotemporal mapping in the context of sweet
and umami taste stimuli should be investigated. An association of umami with
round shape and a relationship between umami–round matching and drive for
thinness would support a key role for spatiotemporal mapping of taste with
respect to the results of the present study.
Fifth, although we could replicate the association between drive for thinness
and taste–shape matching in both experiments, the effect size (r) of the rela-
tionship between drive for thinness and taste–shape matching was relatively
weak (r = 0.179 in Experiment 1 and r = 0.141 in Experiment 2). Addition-
ally, while the effect was significant, the indirect effect of obsessiveness was
also weak (b = 0.038).
Sixth, the present study also encountered problems in relation to the sample
size. Although we were unable to include participants who failed to respond
to all of the questionnaire items in the analysis, and the final sample size was
smaller than expected, power analysis nevertheless showed that a sufficient
number of participants had been recruited. Based on the effect size in Exper-
iment 1 and the number of participants in Experiment 2 (n = 211, r = 0.179,
and α = 0.05, two-tailed), the power analysis for our main outcome measure
yielded a power of 0.75. A post-hoc power analysis combining the data from
Experiments 1 and 2 (n = 377, r = 0.157, α = 0.05, two-tailed) was also per-
formed. This post-hoc power analysis yielded a power of 0.88, which suggests
that we will probably be able to replicate the present results in a future study.
Finally, it is necessary to investigate the physiological mechanisms (e.g.,
perception, attention or memory function, etc.) of our findings. Earlier studies
have indicated that eye-tracking or neural measures have the potential to elu-
cidate the physiological mechanisms of food-related processing (Foerde et al.,
2015; Manippa et al., 2019; Motoki et al., 2018, 2019c; Piqueras-Fiszman et
al., 2013). Future studies should investigate this issue.
5.8. Conclusions
To summarize, our findings reveal that eating disorder tendencies are associ-
ated with the degree of taste–shape matching. Participants with a higher drive
for thinness are more likely to associate sweet taste with round shape, and
the relationship is mediated by obsessiveness. These findings suggest that dis-
turbed taste–shape matching is associated with eating disorder tendencies and
that obsessiveness plays a mediating role. The study’s results may lead to the
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via free access88 Y. Hamamoto et al. / Multisensory Research 34 (2021) 69–92
identification and implementation of effective treatment and prevention meth-
ods.
Acknowledgements
I gratefully acknowledge the financial support of the Division for Interdis-
ciplinary Advanced Research and Education Selective Examination, Tohoku
University (YH). This study was supported by KAKENHI JP17H06219 (MS),
Grant-in-Aid for Research Activity start-up JP19K23384 (KM), and Grant-
in-Aid for JSPS Fellows JP19J21589 (YH) from the Japan Society for the
Promotion of Science. The English in this document has been checked by at
least two professional editors, both native speakers of English. For a certifi-
cate, please see: http://www.textcheck.com/certificate/8lADXj.
Supplementary Material
Supplementary material is available online at:
https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.12661556
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