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Online Language Teacher Education:
An Annotated Bibliography
A commissioned bibliography for the
Association for Quality Education and Training Online
aqueduto.com
Denise E. Murray, Macquarie University
MaryAnn Christison, University of UtahAbout this bibliography provide but one way of sorting the
This bibliography is made available free of contributions of these papers. We have
charge by Aqueduto, and is available from included a variety of materials from a range of
our website at: http://aqueduto.com/
research/. sources with varying quality: some are peer
reviewed and others are less formal. Many of
You may download, print, distribute and the OLTE-specific research studies used the
share the bibliography in hard copy or community of inquiry (CoI) framework of
electronic means so long as it is not edited, social presence, teaching presence, and
changed, redesigned or broken up into
smaller sections. cognitive presence. This framework was
initially articulated in Garrison, Anderson, &
Please use the following details to refer to this Archer (2000) and is included under
publication: foundational papers.
Murray. D.E. and Christison, M. (2020). An
Annotated Bibliography for Online Language Elsewhere (Christison & Murray, 2017), we
Teacher Education. Aqueduto, Norwich. have classified “OLTE into five different types
based on how online technologies are being
implemented in the design of courses—
enhanced, blended/hybrid, flipped, online
with a synchronous component, and
asynchronous online” (p. 17). In this
annotated bibliography, we have included all
types, not only those courses and programs
that are fully online, because there are few
To organize the articles, chapters, and books
extant empirical research studies that fall into
in this annotated bibliography for online
that category. We have also included articles
language teacher education (OLTE), we have
on the use of videos for promoting teacher
created three categories for the documents:
reflection. While these articles are not specific
(1) research, (2) foundational, (3) and
to OLTE, the use of video in OLTE is thought
commentary/descriptive. Research papers
to be a useful tool, especially for the
are focused primarily on reporting results
practicum.
from one empirical research study or from a
series of studies. Foundational papers and
Note: There are many gaps in the extant
books may not be about OLTE directly, but
research literature on OLTE. An AQUEDUTO
they are included because the ideas
commissioned literature review identifies
presented in these documents have been
these gaps and recommends areas for future
used to form the basis for theoretical and
research. The review is available at:
instructional frameworks that have influenced
OLTE and its research base or have the
http://aqueduto.com/research/
potential to do so. Commentary and
descriptive papers offer opinions and
remarks on specific aspects of research or
describe experiences related to and
reflections on OLTE. These categories
2Research Papers persevered were individually invested in
completing the required work, rather than in
Arnold, N., & Ducate, L. (2006). Future the collaborative interactions. There was a
foreign language teachers’ social and high dropout rate, which the researchers
cognitive collaboration in an online presumed was due to primitive technology
environment. Language Learning & and poor tutoring.
Technology, 10(1), 42–66.
Brooke, M. (2014). Developing the reflective
Arnold and Ducate studied the use of practice capabilities of pre-service trainees
discussion boards in a foreign language through online means. 4th CELC Symposium
methodology course at two universities in the Proceedings (pp. 50-60). Retrieved from
United States. They used the communities of http://www.nus.edu.sg/celc/research/
inquiry (CoI) framework for their analysis of the books/4th%20Symposium%20proceedings/8).
data, finding that the participants were highly %20Mark%20Brooke%2017-10-2014.pdf
engaged in dialoging with their peers.
Participants used this social presence to Brooke studied preservice ESOL teacher
develop their understanding of pedagogy. learners during a practicum, wherein they
Arnold and Ducate attributed cognitive reflected on and shared their experiences
presence to the structure of the discussions: through asynchronous e-journaling and
the teacher educators did not participate in collaborative discussion forums. For their
the discussions but were responsible for reflections to result in new understandings of
assigning specific topics and developing language teaching, he found that he needed
grading criteria for the discussions, thus, to use intensive, explicit scaffolding through
focusing students’ attention on one another questioning. Participants asked themselves:
and the topic. What did I already know but still benefited
from when teaching in school? What did I not
Banegas, D. L., & Manzur Busleimán, G. know but learned from observing teaching in
(2014). Motivating factors in online language school? What would I like to implement in my
teacher education in southern Argentina. own teaching? What are my comments on and
Computers & Education, 76, 131–142. reactions to the experiences that I have had?
Banegas & Busleimán used an online survey Chiero, R., & Beare, P. (2010). An evaluation
and interviews to investigate motivation in an of online versus campus-based teacher
online English language teacher training preparation Programs. MERLOT Journal of
course for practicing teachers across Online Learning and Teaching, 6(4). Retrieved
Patagonia, Argentina. Some teachers needed fromhttp://jolt.merlot.org/vol6no4/
a degree to continue teaching, while others chiero_1210.pdf
were interested in English language teaching
(ELT) but could not move to towns for such The purpose of this study was to compare an
training. The authors found that students innovative online teacher education program
were motivated to participate in the course to with traditional campus-based programs
obtain the qualification. Those who within a large state university system in the
United States. The study analyzed data from
3annual systemwide evaluations of teachers. Through the use of a survey, Copland and
Participants were supervisors and program Garton explored the impact of an OLTE
graduates who had completed one year of course on teachers being able to implement
professional teaching. Results showed that new ideas and approaches from the OLTE
supervisors’ ratings were consistently higher course into their own ELT classrooms. For
for teachers from the online program for both comparison, on campus students also
the selected campus-based programs and completed the survey. They found that the
the system as a whole. Characteristics online program promoted continuing
identified in the literature on effective online professional development and career growth
learning and on effective teacher preparation of online teachers through this situated
provided the frameworks that were used to learning. However, they noted that the
describe the advantages of online teacher cohorts in the two programs differed
education programs over the traditional considerably, which may have affected the
pathways. results.
Contijoch-Escontria, M. C., Burns, A., & Crichton, R., Edmett, A., & Mann, S. (2019).
Candlin, C. N. (2012). Feedback in the Video based observation and feedback for
mediation of learning in online language Thai in-service teachers: The mentor’s role.
teacher education. In L. England (Ed.), Online ELTED, 22, 27-42.
language teacher education: TESOL
perspectives (pp. 22-77). New York, NY: Taylor This article focused on analyzing mentors’ and
& Francis. Thai teachers’ interviews, as well as
recordings of teacher-mentor discourse. The
Contijoch-Escontria, Burns, and Candlin purpose of the study was (1) to elaborate on
examined how feedback in OLTE mediates elements of the mentors’ role that helped
learning. They conducted an analysis of the Thai teachers reflect on their practice and (2)
feedback discourse from tutors to teacher to determine how mentors could support a
learners in a masters’ level program in Mexico video-based intervention. The data came
and analyzed data from questionnaires and from a process wherein the mentors guided
interviews with both tutors and learners. They teachers’ reflections on videos of their own
found that the tutors needed to reflect teaching and videos of other Thai teachers;
critically on their methodological procedures both online and face-to-face discourses were
and assessment practices, with a specific used. The research also considered the
focus on the language used in the feedback, mentors’ roles, identities, and interactions.
to prevent misunderstandings that resulted Interviews revealed some of the challenges
from online communication. and affordances that video observations
provided in this process.
Copland, F., & Garton, S. (2012). Life after
online learning. In L. England (Ed.), Online Edmett, A.W. (2018). Online professional
language teacher education: TESOL development of English teachers: An analysis
perspectives (pp. 64-77). New York, NY: Taylor of cognitive presence via the community of
& Francis. inquiry framework (Unpublished doctoral
4dissertation), University of Bath, Bath, collaborative activity of two groups, and
England. teachers’ perceptions of the collaboration
that took place.
This study explored the educational benefits
of online dialogue using a Community of Eröz-Tuğa, B. (2013). Reflective feedback
Inquiry (CoI) framework, which allows learners sessions using video recordings. ELT Journal,
to collaboratively construct knowledge 67, 175–183.
through critical discourse. CoI research has
suggested that higher levels of reflective The practicum is an important component in
thought are not occurring in online the education of pre-service teachers. It
discussions. This doctoral research introduces prospective English language
investigated the extent to which teaching teaching (ELT) professionals to the real world
presence, in other words, the online course of teaching, which includes observing
design and facilitation, affected the experienced teachers and putting theoretical
development of reflective thought. Two knowledge into practice. This article
groups of in-service teachers were given presented the results of a qualitative case
differing discussion forum tasks. Results study investigating the contribution of
showed that the group using debate and case reflective feedback sessions, which used
study-type tasks had increased incidences of video recordings, to the professional
cognitive presence. preparation of English language pre-service
teachers. The results demonstrated the
Ernest, P., Catasús, M. G., Hampel. R., importance of clarifying expectations for
Heiser. S., Hopkins. J., Murphy. L., & teaching, sharing assessment criteria in
Sticker, U. (2013). Online teacher advance, and giving regular feedback on
development: collaborating in a virtual teaching performances. Using videos of
learning environment. Computer Assisted teachers’ own classroom presentations
Language Learning, 26(4), 311-333. contributed to the development of teaching
skills and was more effective that simply
Because teachers play an important role in talking about teaching.
facilitating learner collaboration online, they
need skills to do so successfully. This research Gakonga, J. (2012). Collaboration or bust? An
was piloted by two universities with the aim of inquiry into the use of differing on-line models
advancing teachers’ experiences of online of delivery for a pre-service grammar course
group work. Twenty teachers trialed a set of for English teachers (Masters dissertation).
pilot activities to raise awareness of factors University of Warwick. Retrieved from https://
that contribute to successful collaborative www.teachingenglish.org.uk/sites/teacheng/
online activity. The research examined the files/jo_gakonga_glt_0.pdf.
competences and skills of the teachers as they
implemented the activities. Quantitative and The Internet has changed teacher education
qualitative data were collected, allowing so that many in-service courses are now
researchers to examine the amount of offered exclusively online. This mixed
participation among participants, the methods study traced the development of an
5online course that was aimed at teacher Hall and Knox reported on an international
language awareness. It described how the survey of OLTE providers to present an
course could be taught most effectively using understanding of the range of programs and
a range of technology and a balance of their characteristics. They identified 116
interactive and independent learning. programs, receiving responses from 24
Synchronous learning using a virtual individuals from 23 institutions. These
classroom and asynchronously accessed institutions represented a variety of different
recordings were compared. Results showed types in terms of size, utilization of
that asynchronously accessed recordings technology, qualifications offered, quality,
were preferable because they were both staffing configurations, and geographical
convenient and pedagogically useful, location. Respondents identified issues, such
allowing for the freedom to replay, pause, as the need for quality standards, the high
take notes, and consult other reference workload, the challenge in communicating
materials for the consolidation of learning. digitally, and their changing roles as teacher
The results also showed that asynchronous educators. The authors conclude with a
collaborative learning via the Internet had discussion of the need for research into the
motivational value as the majority of challenges and affordances of OLTE.
participants in this study preferred
independent learning. Hall, D. & Knox, J. S. (2012). Investigating
assessment in online discussions: A case study
Garton, G., & Edge, J. (2012). Why be an of peer assessment in an LTED course. In L.
online learner in TESOL? In L. England (Ed,), England (Ed,), Online language teacher
Online language teacher education: TESOL education: TESOL Perspectives (pp.137-153).
Perspectives (pp.9-21). New York, NY: New York, NY: Routledge.
Routledge.
Hall and Knox first reported on the results of
Using student data, Garton & Edge sought to surveys administered to both OLTE providers
reconceptualize distance learning so that and students, which comprised online
teacher learners were not considered to be assessment issues, such as technology,
distant, but to be situated. In this situated learning, and the pedagogical value
reconceptualization, the scaffolding of of assessing discussions. The chapter then
concepts and different approaches to reported on a case study in which they
practice supported teacher learning as course investigated peer assessment of
participants experimented with their own contributions in online discussions from both
practice in context. Through this distance and on campus students. Students
experimentation of action, reflection, and found the task to be challenging as did the
action, teachers no longer saw theory and instructors whose workload increased
practice as separate. significantly. The researchers concluded that
the innovation was worthwhile, but ultimately,
Hall, D. R., & Knox, J. S. (2009). Issues in the the validity of peer assessment of online
education of TESOL teachers by distance discussions was critically dependent on
education. Distance Education, 30(1), 63-85. individuals’ responses to the task and context.
6Johnson, M. (2002). The role of computer- particular, the challenges of studying
supported discussion for language teachers: complex concepts without intense
What do the students say? CALICO Journal, engagement with other students. They
20, 1, 59-80. identified strategies they used to compensate
for lack of engagement. They emphasized
This article reported on findings from the both the importance of how quality
author's on-going study of the use of instruction was organized, delivered, and
computer-mediated communication (CMC) assessed and how technology could facilitate
to support postgraduate second-language or hinder learning.
teacher education (SLTE). Participants were
students enrolled in a distance education, Mann, S. & Talandis, Jr, J. (2012). Developing
computer assisted language learning (CALL) communities of practice at a distance. In L.
course that used web-based conferencing to England (Ed.), Online language teacher
support both required and optional education: TESOL perspectives (pp. 122-136).
computer-based assignments. Transcripts of New York, NY: Routledge.
students’ online communication were
analyzed to determine what they discussed Mann and Talandis researched two different
and whether social cohesion in the technologies for facilitating communities of
discussions was enhanced through use of practice (CoPs) in university-based OLTEs: a
CMC. Findings from the study are reported discussion list that was archived and a
according to organizing categories of social platform for networking groups. The archive
interaction and the different tasks that was available to potential students, course
affected the online communicative participants, and program graduates. The
exchanges. In addition, the article discussed other platform was available to course
curriculum design features and the participants and program graduates. The
implications of these design features for researchers found that forming and
technology-enhanced instructional practice. supporting online CoPs was highly complex
and needed to be carefully designed for the
Legg, M. & Knox, J. S. (2012). Reflections on CoP to be sustained. In particular, they
learning TESOL at a distance. In L. England warned that the needs of individual CoP
(Ed,), Online language teacher education: members should not be sacrificed in favor of
TESOL Perspectives (pp.54-63). New York, the cognitive and social needs of the
NY: Routledge. community.
Using narrative inquiry, Legg and Knox McLoughlin, D. & Mynard, J. (2009). An
examined their own experiences in the same analysis of higher order thinking in online
distance learning master’s program—Legg, discussions. Innovations in Education and
when online discussion groups were available Teaching International, 46(2), 147-160.
and Knox, when communication was
restricted to paper/post and primitive early This paper described a study of online
email. They shared similar experiences discussion forums as tools for promoting
around the social nature of learning, in higher-order thinking. Online discussion
7forum transcripts were collected over a 20 case reports. The results identified what
week semester, analyzed for evidence of programs, workshops, and/or courses were
higher order thinking, and placed within one being offered online, the levels at which such
of the model’s categories of triggering, education was being offered (e.g.,
exploration, integration, or resolution, (see undergraduate, diploma, masters’ degree,
Garrison et al, 2001 in foundational papers). workshops, courses), and the issues that arose
The results showed evidence of higher-order in delivering teacher education online and
thinking processes as the majority of the posts how to address them. Of the 186 institutions
were categorized as exploration or offering OLTE, 18 agreed to write case
integration. Specific conditions needed to be reports. The issues identified through the
present in order for higher order thinking to three data sets included distinguishing
arise, suggesting that initial teacher prompts appropriate candidates for OLTE, developing
had a bearing on the nature of learners’ posts. communities of practice, the intersection of
technology and pedagogy, and OLTE quality.
Murphy, E. (2004). Recognising and
promoting collaboration in an online Murray, D. E., & Christison, M. A. (2017).
asynchronous discussion. British Journal of Online language teacher education:
Educational Technology, 35(4), 421-431. Participants’ perceptions and experiences.
Retrieved from https://www.tirfonline.org/wp-
Murphy’s research of an online asynchronous content/uploads/2017/03/
discussion among pre-service teachers of TIRF_OLTE_2017_Report_Final.pdf.
French in a methods course was designed to
investigate the efficacy of a collaboration This research focused on the experiences and
framework. The instrument consisted of a perceptions of teacher educators (instructors)
continuum of six processes that move from and teacher learners (students) in online
social presence through to producing shared language teacher education (OLTE). To carry
artefacts. She found the instrument to be out the study, two online questionnaires were
effective in uncovering the teachers’ developed. One hundred eighty-five
processes. Participants engaged primarily in programs/courses were invited to participate
processes related to social presence and and a total of 446 questionnaires were
articulating individual perspectives, but they returned. The quantitative data were analyzed
did not reach a stage of sharing goals and using Qualtrics, while the qualitative data
producing shared artefacts. were coded to create categories that related
to the main constructs represented in the
Murray, D. E. (2013). A case for online research questions. The results shed light on
language teacher education. Retrieved from who is participating in OLTE, teacher learners’
http://www.tirfonline.org/wp-content/ reasons for choosing OLTE, as well as both
uploads/2013/05/TIRF_OLTE_Two- teacher educators’ and teacher learners’
PageSpread_May2013.pdf. perceptions of the different types or
configurations possible for OLTE (i.e.,
Murray’s study on the state of OLTE involved enhanced, hybrid, synchronous online),
a literature review, webpage analyses, and indicators of quality, learning management
8systems, and assessment practices. Nunan conducted a case study of a web-
based course in a distance TESOL program to
Murray, D. E., & Christison, M. A. (2018). determine the potential of this mode of
Online language teacher education: A review delivery. Data included chat transcripts and
of the literature. A commissioned research teacher learner interviews. He found that the
report for the Association of Quality chat feature allowed teacher learners to
Education and Training Online. Norwich, engage in conversations with one another
England: AQUEDUTO. Retrieved from http:// and the professor and was used to question
aqueduto.com/research/. how the knowledge from the course applied
to their own classrooms. The participants
The spread of English as the global language found this new way of learning challenging,
for commerce, science, and technology and especially when logjams occurred during chat
the development of new digital technologies sessions. The author noted that web-based
have transformed transnational education instruction could be used for collaborative
and made online learning the fastest growing learning but could also facilitate traditional
area of education in the 21st century. As more transmission modes.
OLTE programs emerge in response to the
demand for online learning, issues of quality Pawan, F., Paulus, T. M., Yalcin, S., & Chang,
in OLTE naturally emerge and practitioners C. (2003). Online learning: Patterns of
turn to research for guidance. The authors engagement and interaction among in-
note that there is a dearth of research service teachers. Language Learning &
available on OLTE, especially relative to Technology, 7(3), 119–140. Retrieved from
learner outcomes. The authors structure their http://llt.msu.edu/vol7num3/pawan/.
review of the research around the following
issues: (a) factors that determine how OLTE is Collaborative interactions are an essential
defined; (b) various purposes teacher learners element of any pedagogy that assumes that
have for learning online; (c) reasons why learning is collaborative and that
teacher learners choose OLTE; (d) issues in understanding develops as a result of
OLTE, such as the readiness of teacher modeling, participation in, and reaction to the
learners, (d) the preparation of teacher behaviors and thoughts of others. This study
educators for teaching online, (e) assuring was conducted to analyze the collaborative
quality; (f) teacher educators’ and teacher interactions that were used during
learners’ attitudes and perceptions; (g) and discussions in three online classes. The goal
frameworks for examining OLTE. Six was to support instructors in including
recommendations for OLTE are given. collaborative interactions in their courses. As
a framework for the study, the practical inquiry
Nunan, D. C. (1999). A foot in the world of model (Garrison et al., 2001) was used.
ideas: Graduate study through the internet. Findings suggested that without explicit
Language Learning & Technology, 3(1): 43-60. guidance from the course instructors,
Retrieved from https://www.lltjournal.org/ students engaged primarily in "serial
item/2286. monologues." Three intervention strategies
were offered to increase collaborative
9interaction during online discussions. Participation in online communities is an
increasing need for future language teachers
Rodriquez, M. E. (2016). Effective and their professional development. This
pedagogical practice in online English research investigated participation,
language teacher education. Unpublished interaction patterns, and levels of social
doctoral dissertation. University of Arizona. presence (SP) of pre-service English as a
Retrieved from https://repository.arizona.edu/ foreign language (EFL) teachers in online
bitstream/handle/10150/613241/ communication within a longitudinal study
azu_etd_14601_sip1_m.pdf?sequence=1. and a blended learning setting. A second aim
was to explore social network analysis (SNA)
It is essential for providers of OLTE to as an alternative method of measuring SP. The
demonstrate quality in online instruction and results indicated that an online course that
for students to receive a quality educational focused on tutoring skills and SP improved
experience. This study explored students’ preservice EFL teachers’ online participation
and instructors' perceptions of effective skills. Increased interaction and the
pedagogical practices in OLTE. Participants development of a more cohesive network
were 18 instructors and 125 former students were observed as the course progressed. The
from non-credit certificate, professional findings suggested a relationship between
development, and post-secondary credit content analysis for SP (especially the
OLTE courses. Each participant completed an interactive dimension) and SNA measures
online survey. Twenty-two students, eight (centrality, influence, and prestige), showing
instructors, and two program coordinators promise for SNA as an emerging research
participated in semi-structured interviews. method for the investigation of SP.
Results of this study indicated that
participants had positive perceptions about Shin, D., & Kang, H-S. (2017). Online
the current pedagogical practices. However, language teacher education: Practices and
an analysis of surveys and interviews showed possibilities. RELC Journal, 1-2. https://
that instructional strategies could be doi.org/10.1177/0033688217716535.
improved as students perceived there to be
little variety in online instructional activities. Along with the expansion of computer
The difference in perceptions of collaboration technologies in education, an increasing
between the student and instructor groups number of academic degrees and
surveyed was statistically significant. Students professional development credentials in
also perceived instructor online presence to language teacher education are offered
be low, particularly in the discussions. online. Despite the rapid growth in the
number of OLTE programs, there is still a
Satar, H. M. & Akcan, S. (2018). Pre-service dearth of research about OLTE, its
EFL teachers’ online participation, implementation practices and its overall
interaction, and social presence. Language efficacy. The aim of this article was to critically
Learning & Technology, 22(1), 157-183. https// review emerging patterns surrounding OLTE
dx.doi.org/10125/44586. programs and to contribute to promoting the
efficacy of these programs. The review was
10based on a synthesis of the existing literature sharing of ideas for empowering classroom
on OLTE and the supplementary studies of teachers online. TESOL Journal, 5(3), 444-464.
other related areas, such as computer-
assisted language learning (CALL) and In efforts to maintain America's global
computer-mediated communication (CMC). competitiveness in the knowledge based
The authors discussed the purposes, learning economy, teacher professional development
experiences, and evaluations of OLTE has moved to center stage. With increasing
programs with the aim of supporting teachers numbers of English learners in U.S. schools,
through collaborative, reflective, and several states have adopted mandatory
experiential learning. The discussion professional development for classroom
illuminated critical issues and possibilities that teachers, intended to equip them with the
emerged at the programmatic and knowledge and skills they need to shape
pedagogical levels of OLTE. The authors also students’ future capacities to contribute to
identified the challenges unique to OLTE the well-being of the country. This research
programs, as well as a future research agenda. addressed the question of whether using
online delivery for teachers’ professional
Shin, J. K. & Bickel, B. (2012). Building an development was a more viable option than
online community of inquiry with participant- using school- or site-based programs. It then
moderated discussions. In L. England (Ed.). described the frameworks that guided the
Online language teacher education (pp. design and organizational structures for an
102-121). New York, NY: Routledge. online teacher development program for K12
teachers of English learners. Insights shared in
Shin and Bickel discussed the results of this article might serve as guidelines for
multiple investigations into building framing the implementation of similar
communities of inquiry (CoIs) in online programs that aimed to create empowered
professional development courses for teachers who know how to work with English
international English teachers. The program learners.
used participatory discussions that were
moderated and modeled by instructors, with Foundational Papers
the goal of increasing participants’ cognitive
presence and distributing teaching presence Anderson, T., Rourke, L., Garrison, D. R., &
by having participants became effective Archer, W. (2001). Assessing teaching
starters and wrappers in online discussions. presence in a computer conferencing
Although different instructors used different context. Journal of Asynchronous Learning
instructional approaches (direct, Networks, 5(2). Retrieved from http://
participatory, and facilitating), all courses www.aln.org/pubications/jaln.v4n2/
were evaluated highly by teachers for both v5n2...anderson.asp.
content and delivery.
Anderson et al.’s article presented a study that
Smith, S. U. (2014). Frameworks shaping and applied the community of inquiry (CoI)
online professional development program for framework to assess teaching presence in
K-12 teachers of ELLs: Toward supporting and online graduate courses. The analyzed
11transcripts for the three categories of online contexts. The areas of teacher
teaching presence found differences in the development covered include the notion of
occurrence of the categories across different adaptive expertise for lifelong learning as
courses. teachers’ knowledge, skills, and attitudes are
not fully developed in pre-service programs
Annand, D. (2011). Social presence within the and the complexity problem as teachers must
community of inquiry framework. The deal with and juggle multiple academic and
International Review of Research in Open and social goals on an ongoing basis.
Distributed Learning, 12(5). Retrieved from
http://www.irrodl.org/index.php/irrodl/article/ Dede, C., Ketelhut, D. J., Whitehouse, P.,
view/924/1855. Breit, L., & McCloskey, E. M. (2009). A
research agenda for online teacher
The role of social presence in the CoI professional development. Journal of
framework is critiqued, and evidence is Teacher Education, 60, 8-19.
presented that questions the extent of
knowledge co-construction that occurs in This article highlights key online teacher
most higher education settings, thereby, professional development (oTPD) areas that
challenging the framework’s underlying need to be researched. The literature review
assumption. CoI has evolved from a documented that much work is anecdotal and
description of a learning process within a focuses on describing professional
social constructivist paradigm to an development programs or “lessons learned”
empirically testable construct in an objectivist without providing full details related to
one. The argument is that social presence participants, setting, research questions,
does not impact cognitive presence in a methods of data collection, or analytic
meaningful way and that best teaching strategies. Research on oTPD needs to be
practices, which are suggested by CoI-based conducted for software developers to know
studies, are informed by objectivist, the best design features to include and for
cognitively oriented learning theories. educators to remain informed about the types
of programs that support teacher change and
Darling-Hammond, L., Hammerness, K., student learning. The recommendations in
Grossman, P., Rust, F., & Shulman, L. (2005). this article can be used to guide OLTE
The design of teacher education programs. In scholarship toward the development of an
L. Darling-Hammond & K. Bransford (Eds.), evidence-based conceptual framework.
Preparing teachers for a changing world:
What teachers should learn and be able to do Education Endowment Foundation (EEF)
(pp. 390-440). San Francisco: Jossey Bass. (n.d.). IRIS Connect: Developing classroom
dialogue and feedback through collective
This chapter reviews classic and video reflection. Retrieved from https://
contemporary theory and research on teacher educationendowmentfoundation.org.uk/
learning and development. The areas of projects-and-evaluation/projects/iris-connect.
teacher development covered are equally
important for teachers in face-to-face (f2f) and This paper described a professional
12development project that was aimed at the research and was a core concept in
improving dialogue and feedback practices defining cognitive presence in a CoI. The
among teachers in 11 schools through the use practical inquiry model was used to
of online videos and collective video operationalize cognitive presence for the
reflection. On the basis of a range of evidence purpose of developing a tool to assess critical
from videos of lessons, interviews, and before discourse and reflection. The authors
and after surveys; there was moderate presented encouraging empirical findings
evidence of change in the school climate; related to creating an efficient and reliable
strong evidence that out-of-class activities, instrument to assess the nature and quality of
such as film clubs, promoted discussion of critical discourse and thinking in a text-based
teaching and learning; moderate evidence of educational context.
change in teachers’ thinking; and moderate
evidence of change in teachers’ practice. A Gaudin, C., & Chaliès, S. (2015). Video
large majority of teachers responding to an viewing in teacher education and professional
end-of-project survey were positive about the development: A literature review.
value of the project for their practice. Educational Research Review 16, 41–67.
Garrison, D. R., Anderson, T. & Archer, W. This article reviewed the international
(2000). Critical inquiry in a text-based literature on video viewing in teacher
environment: computer conferencing in education and professional development.
higher education. The Internet and Higher Two hundred and fifty-five articles were
Education, 2, 87–105. collected, summarized and categorized,
using a conceptualization that included four
Garrison et al.’s article articulated a new aspects: teachers’ activities as they viewed
framework for analyzing higher education classroom videos, the objectives of video
programs taught through computer viewing, the types of videos viewed, and the
conferencing. The framework identifies three effects of video viewing on teacher education
components: social presence, teaching and professional development. The findings
presence, and cognitive presence. According suggested focused on three questions for
to the model, it is the interaction between the guiding future research. These questions
three components that results in learning. were related to (a) whether teachers were able
to identify and interpret teaching events using
Garrison, D. R., Anderson, T. & Archer, W. video and create diverse objectives (for video
(2001). Critical thinking and computer viewing and for including diverse videos), (b)
conferencing: A model and tool to access whether video was being used in both
cognitive presence. American Journal of preservice teacher education and in-service
Distance Education, 15(1), 87-105. professional development, and (c) how it was
being used. The findings from this study have
This article described a practical approach to potential for guiding future research in OLTE
judging the nature and quality of critical as videos provide important tools for
discourse in a computer conference. A model understanding teaching and learning in
of a critical community of inquiry (CoI) framed classroom contexts.
13Hockly, N., & Clandfield, L. (2010). Teaching quality of online programs) of online teacher
online. Surrey, England: Delta Publishing. preparation programs.
OLTE requires knowledge and skills in both Kebritchi, M., Lipschuetz, A., & Santiague,
teacher education and online teaching; L. (2017). Issues and challenges for teaching
therefore, this book provides a critical successful online courses in higher education:
resource for language teacher educators who A literature review. Journal of Educational
are interested in OLTE, as well as language Technology Systems, 46(1), 4-29.
teachers who are interested in online
teaching. It contains three distinct sections This article synthesized prior empirical studies
that focus on the theory and practice of online and provided an overview of the issues in
teaching, as well as on teacher development. online courses. Three major categories of
The first section focuses on getting started, findings were identified. Learners’ issues
designing and building online courses, and included their expectations, readiness,
learning more about what tools are available identity, and participation in online courses.
for teaching online. The second section Instructors’ issues included changing faculty
focuses on practical activities for the four skills roles, transitioning from face-to-face to
and using beginning and ending activities online, time management, and teaching
effectively. The final section provides styles. Content issues included the role of
resources and references for teacher instructors in content development,
educators. integration of multimedia in content, role of
instructional strategies in content
Huss, J. A. (2007). Administrator attitudes development, and considerations for content
toward online teacher preparation programs: development.
Are principals logging on—or logging off?
Retrieved from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ Luyt, I. (2013). Bridging spaces: Cross cultural
EJ987301.pdf. perspectives on promoting positive online
learning experiences. Journal of Educational
This study investigated the attitudes of U.S. Technology Systems, 42(1), 3-20.
school principals toward the legitimacy of
online programs for the education of Online learning has been transformed into a
preservice teachers. A random cluster cross-cultural learning space as students from
sampling was used to select participants, and non-English backgrounds enroll in credit-
a total of 326 principals completed the bearing courses and adjust their thinking and
questionnaires. The results showed that writing to adapt to online practices. This
principals were apprehensive about whether article explored how the globalization of
teachers coming from online programs could online learning has created unique challenges
develop appropriate dispositions toward for teaching and learning online in terms of
teaching in face-to-face contexts and whether how dominant Western educational practices
the social aspects of teaching would be reinforce ways of knowing, thinking, and
compromised. They also worried about the writing. The conclusion from the review was
ethical issues and the legitimacy (e.g., the that online courses, including OLTE, can
14transform learning when culturally inclusive and only five included measures of student
assignments are included. learning. Learning was principally defined as
perceived learning and assessed with a single
Marsh, B., & Mitchell, N. (2014). The role of item on a closed-form survey. The authors
video in teacher professional expressed concerns over the soundness of
development. Teacher Development, 18(3), such measures. The review indicated that
403-417. deep and meaningful learning did not arise in
these research reports on CoI as learning was
Understanding the potential for video use is associated with independent activities and
essential in OLTE as video can play a critical didactic instruction and not with learning that
role in learning online and is a critical resulted from sustained communication,
component of the teaching practicum. This which is critical for the CoI framework. The
literature review focuses on the use of video in results suggest that the research reports that
both preservice teacher education and in- were considered in this article, neither
service professional development. Research confirmed nor disconfirmed the efficacy of the
supports the use of video technology CoI framework.
synchronously and asynchronously. It can
extend the quantity and quality of classroom Zhao, Y., Lei, J., Lai, B. Y. C., & Tan, H. S.
observation experiences and, therefore, has (2005). What makes the difference? A practical
the potential to help teachers develop their analysis of research on the effectiveness of
observation skills, their abilities to analyze distance education. Teachers College
teaching, and reflect on and learn from their Record, 107, 1836-1884.
observations. In this article, the authors
describe how linking theory to practice, The purpose of this study was to identify
developing pedagogical language, and factors related to effectiveness in distance
learning through communities of practice education. Although aggregated data of
might be achieved through the use of video in available studies have shown no significant
e-contexts. Claims for gains that were made difference in outcomes between distance
in relation to subject matter knowledge are education and face-to-face education, further
less convincing. examination of the differences revealed that
distance education programs, just like
Rourke, L. & Kauka, H. (2009). Learning in traditional education programs, vary a great
communities of inquiry: A review of the deal in their outcomes. Effectiveness in
literature. Journal of Distance Education, 23 distance education was associated with a
(1), 19-48. number of different pedagogical and
technological factors. This study led to some
The purpose of this study was to investigate important data-driven suggestions for and
learning within the CoI framework. Two about distance education.
hundred and fifty-two research reports that
referenced CoI were reviewed. From the 252 Commentary or Descriptive Papers
reports, only 48 collected and analyzed data
for one or more aspects of the CoI framework Bonadeo, F. S. (2013). Using a virtual
15classroom in the practicum: Innovations and in response to the TESOL Technology
enhanced practices. Argentinian Journal of Standards Framework. She detailed the
Applied Linguistics, 1(2), 79-87. design and delivery features of the course, as
well as its content and pedagogical principles,
Bonadeo reflected on her experiences its alignment to the standards, and the
teaching the practicum via the virtual challenges faced in teaching CALL online.
platform, Moodle. Participants exchanged
and commented on lesson plans, materials, Compton, L. K. L. (2009). Preparing language
and teaching ideas, as well as their practicum teachers to teach language online: A look at
teaching experiences. This engagement in skills, roles, and responsibilities. Computer
the collaborative and reflective activities was Assisted Language Learning, 22(1), 73-91.
instrumental in building a community of
practice (CoP) that continued after This paper reviewed and critiqued an existing
graduation. skills framework for online language teaching
and highlighted the complexity of identifying
Bauer-Ramazani, C. (2006). Training CALL online language teaching skills. The critique is
teachers online. In P. Hubbard & M. Levy followed by an alternative framework for
(Eds.), Teacher education in CALL (pp. online language teaching skills, which covers
183-200). Amsterdam, NL: John Benjamins three categories of skills (technology,
Publishing Company. pedagogy, and evaluation) at three levels of
expertise (novice, proficient, and expert). The
In her 2006 chapter, Bauer-Ramanazi framework is meant to guide language
explained how her college migrated from a teacher education programs. This paper also
face-to-face course on computer assisted uses a systems view (i.e., parts that are
language learning (CALL) to a fully online connected and joined together by specific
distance course. She explained the relationships) to look at the roles and
implementation stages, principles, and responsibilities of various stakeholders in an
structure of the course, as well as instructional online learning system. Four major
tasks, and concluded with a discussion of recommendations are provided to help
challenges and future directions training language teacher training programs prepare
teachers online. future language teachers for online language
teaching.
Bauer-Ramazani, C. (2017). Teacher training
with CALL online (distance): A standards- England, L. (2012). Online distance TESOL in
based approach. In J. B. Son & S. Windeatt the 21st century: From the trench. In L.
(Eds.), Language teacher education and England (Ed.), Online language teacher
technology: Approaches and practices (pp. education: TESOL perspectives (pp. 1-6). New
129-32). London, England: Bloomsbury York, NY: Routledge.
Academic.
In this introductory chapter, England
In her 2017 chapter, Bauer-Ramanzi explained described the landscape of OLTE in which her
how an online CALL course had been adapted edited volume is situated. She overviews its
16reach (who takes online classes and why), Hall and Knox discuss the difficulties teachers
content (what is taught, who teaches online, have when teaching online. They note that
and what media and devices are used), and workloads are increased and administrative
status (the advantages and challenges of support staff are a lifeline for students. They
online TESOL). also acknowledge the marginalized status of
online teaching resulting from lack of upper
England, L. & Hall, D. (2012). The future of management engagement in and awareness
online TESOL. In L. England (Ed.), Online of their distant student population.
language teacher education: TESOL
perspectives (pp. 187-199). New York, NY: Healey, D. (2012) Planning a distance
Routledge. education course for language teachers:
What administrators need to consider. In L.
England and Hall note the proliferation of England (Ed.), Online language teacher
OLTE and seek to chart future directions. They education: TESOL perspectives (pp. 172-184).
outline key issues and also discuss the roles New York, NY: Routledge.
and responsibilities of instructors and
administrators, paying particular attention to Healey elaborates on the issues that
the need for standards of quality for OLTE administrators need to address before the
provision. development of fully online language teacher
education. These issues cover all stages of
Gruber, P. 2017). Blended approaches to implementation (planning, course
teaching languages with computers. In J. B. preparation, teaching, and marketing) in
Son & S. Windeatt (Eds.), Language teacher terms of both the human resources and the
education and technology: Approaches and technology infrastructure that need to be
practices (pp. 35-49). London, England: selected and deployed.
Bloomsbury Academic.
Hockly, N. (2018). Video-based observation
Gruber describes a graduate course titled, in teacher education. ELT Journal, 72(3), 1-7.
Technology and Language Learning, that he doi: 10.1093/elt/ccy022.
teaches across three modes of delivery: face-
to-face, blended, and fully online. He details Video recordings of classroom practice can
the course content, the course features, and be effective vehicles for analyzing teaching
issues he has encountered relative to the and supporting and developing reflective
different modes. The course uses a learning practices among both pre-service and in-
management system in which all students are service teachers. This article focused on the
required to participate. use of recorded video for self- and peer
observations for professional development
Hall, D. & Knox, J. (2012). Rewards and rather than the use of video for external
challenges of online program administration. evaluative purposes. Although the focus of
In L. England (Ed.), Online language teacher this article was on face-to-face contexts, we
education: TESOL perspectives (pp. 137-153). included it in this bibliography because video
New York, NY: Routledge. observation in OLTE is important, particularly
17for the practicum. In addition, there is little From results culture to quality culture (pp.
published research to date relative to online 252-261). New York, NY: Routledge.
practices; however, the article reviewed two
English language teacher education This chapter provided commentary on the
programs that involved teachers in viewing meaning and quality of OLTE. Two important
videos. factors framed the content of this chapter.
The first factor concerned the nature of OLTE
Humphries, S. & Mihai, F. (2012). Addressing as the education of English language teachers
the challenges of online assessment: Practical online is distinct from other types of teacher
solutions for TESOL instructors. In L. England education and professional development in
(Ed,), Online language teacher education: terms of its online delivery and interaction;
TESOL Perspectives (pp.39-53). New York, therefore, it warrants consideration as an
NY: Routledge. independent domain of research. The second
factor focuses on the tensions between the
Humphries and Mihai’s exploration of both “ever-expanding possibilities of the online
summative and formative assessment was space” (p. 252) and the temptation that
conducted through the lens of assessment providers of OLTE face relative to OLTE. The
validity, reliability, practicality, and tendency is to view OLTE in terms of
authenticity. Within each concept, they convenience and its financial benefits rather
articulated issues online teachers need to than in terms of asserting quality.
consider, as well as recommendations for
designing online assessments. Kiddle, T., & Prince, T. (2019). Digital and
online approaches to language teacher
Khalsa, D. K. (2012). Creating communities of education. In S. Walsh & S. Mann (Eds.) The
practice. In L. England (Ed.), Online language Routledge handbook of English language
teacher education: TESOL perspectives (pp. teacher education (pp. 111-125). New York,
81-92). New York: NY: Routledge. NY: Routledge.
Khalsa identified areas of OLTE research that This chapter provides an overview of the
need to be explored to ensure that the approaches available for using digital and
development of communities of practice online tools and platforms for language
(CoPs) result in learning, such as shared teacher education. As such, it is an important
identity, empowering human relationships, article for OLTE. The authors provide a history
more student choices, trust in a virtual team of digital technology in language and teacher
setting, guidelines for a virtual team setting, education and consider challenges and
and issues of power. opportunities. In addition, they delve into
interaction, design, platforms and tools, and
Kiddle, T., & Dudeney, G. (2019). Monitoring options for assessment. These variables are
and evaluating the quality of online TESOL discussed in blended and fully online teacher
teacher education courses: Ensuring quality education programs of various sizes. Finally,
assurance standards. In J. D. Agudo (Ed.) the implications of these variables are
Quality in TESOL and teacher education: considered for individuals and organizations,
18for trainers and trainees, and for those who course content was adapted for teacher
make decisions relative to digital teacher learners who were proficient users of
education practices. technology. Taught both face-to-face and
online, the course focused on the content of
Kouritzin, S. (2002). The personal, practical, language learning, but it did include an
and professional rewards of teaching MA- optional practical tutorial for those who
TESOL courses online. TESOL Quarterly, 36 needed it.
(4), 621-624.
Nunan, D. (2002). Teaching MA-TESOL
In this article, the author described her courses online: challenges and rewards.
experiences using WEBCT for a pilot course TESOL Quarterly, 36(4), 617-621.
with four TESOL teachers. Kouritzin
acknowledged that she faced each of the In this paper, the author looked at the
challenges that Nunan (2002) had described, challenges and rewards of developing and
but she added one more—the relentlessness implementing a web-based master’s
of the reading and writing commitment that is program in TESOL for a relatively new virtual
required of the online teacher. unversity. The program targeted TESOL
teachers working in parts of the world where
McAllister, P. G. (2012). Teaching research opportunites for graduate study were limited.
methods in an online distance course. In L. Four challenges were described along with
England (Ed.), Online language teacher potential solutions.
education: TESOL Perspectives (pp.93-101).
New York, NY: Routledge. Nunan, D. (2012). Preface. In L. England (Ed.),
Online language teacher education: TESOL
McAllister described the challenges of Perspectives (pp. vii-xv). New York, NY:
building a research methods course online, Routledge
especially given students’ apprehension
regarding research methods courses in face- As well as summarizing the themes of the
to-face contexts. She listed the essential volume’s chapters, Nunan also traced his own
components for a successful course, including experiences with OLTE and identified the
engagement in discussion forums, using roles of online technology in learning: as a
rubrics for grading assignments in the course, carrier of content, as a practice tool, as a
and explicit instruction. learning management system, and as a
communication device.
Motteram, G. (2017). Language learning and
technology: A thirty-year journey. In J. B. Son Opp-Beckman, L. (2012). Administration of
& S. Windeatt (Eds.), Language teacher online distance education: Academic services
education and technology: Approaches and in support of ESOL e-learners. In L. England
practices (pp. 63-76). London, England: (Ed,), Online language teacher education:
Bloomsbury Academic. TESOL Perspectives (pp.157-65). New York,
NY: Routledge.
Motteram explained how the masters’ degree
19Opp-Beckman discussed the support London, England: Palgrave Macmillan.
services, both human and computer-based,
that are needed to deliver online services to The goal of Son’s volume was to provide
educators in remote and low-resourced guidance on how teachers could develop the
settings. Participants from over 100 countries knowledge, skills, and strategies they needed
identified their priorities, such as timely and to use CALL in their classrooms. It includes
courteous communication, and then listed specific suggestions for how to improve
other issues to consider, such as capacity. language teacher education and
development.
Son, J.-B., & Windeatt, S. (Eds.) (2017).
Language teacher education and technology:
Approaches and practices. London, England: Please use the following details to
refer to this publication:
Bloomsbury Academic.
Murray. D.E. and Christison, M. (2020). An
Son & Windeatt’s edited volume is primarily Annotated Bibliography for Online Language
focused on how CALL pedagogy is being Teacher Education. Aqueduto, Norwich.
included in language teacher education
programs so that teachers have the
knowledge and skills for employing
technology in their language classes.
However, several chapters also discussed
teacher development courses that were
delivered online (chapters authored by Bauer-
Ramanazani, Gruba, Hubbard, Motteram,
and Son).
Son, J. B. (2017). CALL research, practice and
teachers’ roles. In J. B. Son & S. Windeatt,
Language teacher education and technology:
Approaches and practices (pp. 51-62).
London, England: Bloomsbury Academic.
Describing an elective masters’ course, Son
focused on the features of the course and the
issues and challenges in teaching it. The
features included task-based learning, the
teacher’s role in a CALL context, interaction,
and collaboration. The course was offered
both online and on-campus.
Son, J.-B. (2018). Teacher development in
technology-enhanced language teaching.
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