A Rights-Based Analysis of Child Recruitment - Kindersoldaten.info
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Child Soldiers International
9 Marshalsea Road
London, SE1 1EP
+44 (0) 20 7367 4110
info@child-soldiers.org
A Rights-Based Analysis of Child Recruitment
www.child-soldiers.org
On the cover: A British soldier, © Stephen Mulcahey / Alamy
Child Soldiers International wishes to thank Derek Brett,
Pat Elder, Edwina Hughes, Stefan Mohrle, Bill Scheurer,
Wayne Sharrocks, Ralf Willinger and Renate Winter, whose
support made this report possible. We also gratefully
acknowledge the work of all those organisations campaigning
to end the military exploitation of children worldwide, whose
research we have cited here.
Published in 2018, by: Child Soldiers International 28 Charles Square London N1 6HT United Kingdom www.child-soldiers.org info@child-soldiers.org Printed by: Bowmans Design: Design Corps, Pratt Institute; designcorps.pratt.edu Alyssa Klimo '18, Megan Lee '18, Dana Weiss '17
CONTENTS Glossary of Terms......................................................... 2 'Voluntary' Conscription of Children.......................28 Foreword......................................................................... 3 The Military Training Process...................................29 Executive Summary...................................................... 4 The Military Environment..........................................36 Introduction.................................................................. 8 Participation in Hostilities..........................................40 Child Recruitment by State Leaving the Armed Forces........................................42 Armed Forces: An Overview................................. 12 Quantifying the Impact......................................... 44 Extent of Child Recruitment.......................................13 Mental Health and Alcohol Use...............................45 Child Recruitment and the Law.................................14 Aggression and Violence.......................................... 47 The Child Recruit's Journey.................................. 18 General Health............................................................48 Targeting Children for Recruitment.........................19 Socioeconomic Outcomes........................................48 Socioeconomic Targeting.........................................20 Conclusion: The Case for 18................................ 52 Fantasy Marketing.......................................................21 The Harm of Child Recruitment...............................53 Cadet Forces.................................................................21 The Positive Case for Change.................................54 Recruiting in Schools..................................................22 Recommendations......................................................55 Military Schools...........................................................23 Bibliography.................................................................56 Enlistment and Consent............................................24 Country Index................................................................61
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
AFFLUENT COUNTRIES For the purposes of this report, ‘affluent’ refers approximately
to the richest third of countries globally, as measured by Gross
Domestic Product per capita per annum (equivalent to approx.
$15,000 or greater).
ARMED FORCES (STATE) The principal military organisation of a nation state, comprising
a land force (army) and often also naval and air forces.
ARMED GROUP (NON-STATE) A military organisation or group not integral to the state
armed forces.
CHILD Per international law, this report defines a child as any person
under the age of 18.
CONSCRIPT A recruit who begins military employment by state compulsion.
CRC Convention on the Rights of the Child.
ENLISTED RECRUIT A recruit who begins military employment at the lowest rank
(typically with a background of socioeconomic disadvantage).
NCO Non-commissioned Officer. A common term for an enlisted recruit
who has been promoted to a position with varying degrees of
management responsibility.
OFFICER RECRUIT A recruit who begins military employment in a senior position
(typically with a background of socioeconomic privilege).
OPAC Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child
on the involvement of children in armed conflict.
PTSD Post-traumatic stress disorder.
RECRUIT A person used by a military organisation or group for any military
purpose, not limited to participation in hostilities.
FOREWORD When I spoke with a warlord ‘General’ about why he recruited children he said, ‘Children are abundant, stupid, they obey orders, don’t ask questions, and cost nothing. They are very cheap! They never desert, cannot go home and I can get as many as I want immediately.’ But it is different when children are recruited legitimately by State armed forces, isn’t it? They can make an informed and responsible decision, guided by their parents, they can get an education that their parents might not be able to afford, vocational training for future employment, and they are medically insured. They get a good opportunity for life. Is that so? In one UN Member State judges tell boys in conflict with the law that they have a choice: either prison or the army. This sounds like the army is equivalent to punishment rather than a consideration of the best interests of a child - even though this should be mandatory! Why are States still interested in enlisting children, even if there is no war, no pressing need? Maybe because this way statistics for jobless youth look better? Not all children are targeted by army agents. The overwhelming majority of child recruits are from poor and/or troubled backgrounds, they don’t like school or have difficulties there, and are not able to read texts fluently - certainly not complex legal ones. They don’t see what long term consequences are hidden in rather repressive contracts, and nor do their parents. So much for informed and guided decisions! Instead of finding the glamorous, heroic environment described to them in recruitment advertising, they often find harsh conditions, bullying, humiliation used as a means of control, restriction of freedom of movement, and, even more important, restriction of freedom of thinking or expression. Is there anyone who really believes that a military school is a place for discussion and individual development? Is it not rather a place to learn, above all, to obey as a reflex? Is this not the reason why a judge gives the choice mentioned above? To learn to function and obey without thinking? To have vocational training for the needs of the army, not for a civilian career? What about health? Bullying, sexual violence, peer pressure into violent behaviour, all this leading to a high suicide rate. There is huge alcohol consummation to demonstrate ‘manhood’ and injuries in training with immediate discharge. Are these the ‘highest attainable standards of health’ that a child has a right to? But surely there is not only enlistment to the ranks for poor children – isn’t there also officer training for rather well-to-do children? There is. But when a child has a family member in the army who tries hard to convince him to enlist, does he really have a free choice? ‘Why does 18 matter?’ Because ‘over 18s’ are more likely to believe less easily and think more critically. This is ‘why 18 matters’! Justice Renate Winter Chairperson, UN Committee on the Rights of the Child
‘Clearly one of the most urgent
priorities is to remove everyone under
18 years of age from armed forces.’
Graça Machel, Impact of armed conflict on children (2)
EXECUTIVE
SUMMARY
THE RECRUITMENT OF not usually used in armed conflict, associate military life with action
CHILDREN BY STATE their rights are unaffected. To the adventure films and videogames.
contrary, this report shows that Omitted from recruiters’ marketing
ARMED FORCES
the practice causes material harm are the risks and trauma of war,
As of April 2018, more than four- to children and routinely violates the harsh conditions of the military
fifths (167) of states worldwide several of their fundamental environment, and the restrictive
have now committed in law to rights. This report catalogues legal obligations that follow
‘take all feasible measures’ not these violations, drawing on enlistment. In so misleading
to use children under the age evidence from epidemiological children, military marketing is
of 18 in armed conflict or any research, official sources, and the exploitative.
other hostilities. Two-thirds of testimony of former child recruits.
Schools and Youth
states with armed forces have Organisations
further committed to the so- THE CHILD RECRUIT’S
Education settings are a major
called ‘straight-18’ standard: no JOURNEY
site for promoting military
recruitment of children for any employment to children below
military purpose. The remainder The journey of a child recruit
begins long before they become enlistment age. The US army
have yet to reach this standard, describes schools as the
continuing to capitalise on the eligible for military employment,
and continues through their ‘cornerstone’ of its recruitment
failure of international law to strategy, for example.1 In addition,
forbid recruiting children from enlistment, training, and ultimate
discharge from the armed forces: many states subsidise cadet
age 16. forces and military schools to
States that still allow child Targeting Children immerse children in an apparently
recruitment in law tend to Children, particularly those from risk-free simulation of military life
be relatively affluent and low-income backgrounds, are and begin to train them there
democratically controlled; they targeted for potential recruitment in the techniques of warfare. In
include five of the G7 states, for from a young age. Marketing several countries, children in
example. States often suggest presents military life in glamorous military schools are liable for
that because parental consent terms, sanitises war as heroic an extended period of military
is required and child recruits are in the child’s imagination, and employment after graduation.
frequently encourages children to
The Contract risks their child faces. Parental
New child recruits commit consent, as a safeguard, assumes 46 STATES BELIEVED TO
themselves to absolute control unreasonably that parents who BE ENLISTING CHILDREN
by the state, accept limitations have been abusive or neglectful AS OF APRIL 2018
to fundamental rights, and face of their child are as capable
Afghanistan
markedly increased long-term of defending his or her best
interests as those who have been
Algeria
occupational risks. The contract,
which can bind enlistees to loving and responsible. Australia
serve for a period of years, Austria
could not be imposed lawfully Child Conscription Bangladesh
on a civilian of any age in Some states which operate Belgium
most economically developed adult conscription systems Bolivia
countries. In restricting freedom invite children to begin their
Cabo Verde
and suspending fundamental compulsory service early. Many
children opt for this to limit the Canada
rights, military terms of service
impact of conscription on their Chile
are unambiguously inimical to the
civilian education and career China
best interests of the child.
plans. Since conscription is not Cuba
Adolescent Susceptibility ‘genuinely voluntary’, it ought not Cyprus
Neuroscientific research has to involve children at all. Dominican Republic
found that children in mid- DPRK
adolescence are markedly Training by Coercion
The primary purpose of initial Egypt
more likely than adults to make
military training is to ensure that El Salvador
choices based on emotive
child recruits will obey all orders Eritrea
appeal, and less able to evaluate
the long-term consequences. by reflex and without question. France
Accordingly, a child in mid- It is a coercive process based German
adolescence is less able than on sustained psychological and Guinea-Bissau
an adult to make an informed physical stress, harsh discipline Guyana
and responsible choice about including humiliation and physical
India
enlisting. This developmental punishment, and tight restrictions
Iran
susceptibility combines with on contact with family and
friends. Abuses by instructors are Israel
the underdeveloped literacy of
widespread. Research in the US Mauritania
many child applicants and the
salesmanship of recruiters to found that the rate of attempted Mexico
jeopardise a child’s legal right suicide in the 2000s among Myanmar, Netherlands
to be ‘fully informed’ of the army recruits (all ages) was four New Zealand
consequences of enlistment.2 times higher during initial training Pakistan
Each time a child enlists without than during deployment to Iraq
Papua New Guinea
full comprehension of the risks or Afghanistan. As such, military
Saint Kitts and Nevis
and obligations that follow, the training is wholly incompatible
with states’ legal obligation ‘to São Tomé e Príncipe
choice is not ‘genuinely voluntary’
protect the child from all forms of Singapore
as required by law.3
physical or mental violence, injury Somalia
Parental Involvement or abuse, neglect or negligent South Sudan
Most armed forces are required treatment, maltreatment or Sudan
by law to obtain the ‘informed exploitation...’.4 Syria
consent’ of parents or guardians Tonga
before a child can enlist. In Trinidad and Tobago
practice, the involvement of
United Arab Emirates
parents may be only peripheral,
1. For the full quotation and source, United Kingdom
the information provided to them see “Recruiting in Schools,” p. 22
aims to persuade rather than United States of America
2. OPAC art 3.
inform, and recruiters need only Yemen
3. OPAC art 3.
a signed form as evidence that Zambia
4. CRC art 19.
parents fully comprehend the
Insubstantial Education Participation In Hostilities QUANTIFYING THE
It is common for armed forces While most states do not routinely IMPACT OF MILITARY
to describe training bases as use children in the military theatre, EMPLOYMENT ON
education institutions and argue some reserve the right to do so, or
CHILD RECRUITS
that child recruits enjoy an may do so in error; the UK and US
ongoing education; for example, have sent small numbers of child Research findings, particularly
the British army’s main training recruits to Iraq and Afghanistan, in the last decade, have begun
site for child recruits is called for example. Some armed forces to quantify the effect of military
the Army Foundation College. post child recruits as armed employment on young people,
Typically, training centres for guards at military sites, with the including child recruits. Research
low-ranking military jobs do expectation that they may open in the UK and US has shown that
not operate to the standards fire in the event of an attack. military personnel and veterans
expected of civilian education, Even when child recruits are not are more likely than civilians
basic skills education for child deployed in any way, their uniform to experience stress-related
recruits is rudimentary, and could attract an attack from any mental health problems, drink
the vocational training offered hostile actor. heavily, and behave violently,
has limited transferable value and they have poorer general
to the civilian jobs market. Child Trainee Attrition
health in later life. The extent
These conditions fall short of Child recruits, especially those
of these problems among
states’ legal obligation to direct from economically deprived
recruits under the age of 18 is
education to ‘the development of backgrounds, are more likely
often not directly quantifiable
the child's personality, talents and than adults to drop out of their
from the data, but the studies
mental and physical abilities to training. A third of child recruits
examined for this report show
their fullest potential’.5 to the British army either leave
repeatedly that younger recruits
or are dismissed during training,
are most affected. In the UK,
The Military Environment for example, which usually leaves
for example, the suicide rate
Research in the UK and US them without work and out of
among the army’s youngest
has found that bullying, sexual the education system. Extensive
recruits is substantially higher
violence, and heavy drinking are research in the US armed forces
than both the same age group in
substantially more common in has found repeatedly that child
the civilian population, and adult
the armed forces than elsewhere, recruits from poorer backgrounds
recruits.
and that the youngest personnel are more vulnerable to stress
(including child recruits) are the and more rebellious, which Although child recruits, who
most affected. In common with combine to increase the risk commonly come from deprived
findings from other countries, of early attrition. In addition, backgrounds, often have
an investigation into sexual British research has found that elevated rates of mental health
misconduct in the Canadian child recruits are significantly and behaviour issues before
armed forces noted that relative more likely than adults to be they enlist, the research shows
immaturity is a ‘prominent factor’ discharged due to training that military employment tends
in the elevated vulnerability of the injury, because their bones to aggravate these problems.
youngest recruits, and that various and musculature are not yet Psychosocial vulnerabilities
military settings create ‘particular developed. associated with an adverse
conditions of vulnerability’.6 childhood appear to combine
‘If I was to have a child that was 15 who
wanted to join the army, I wouldn’t let
them. I know...the army and what can
happen. If they wanted to join at 18
that would be their own option.’
Wayne Sharrocks, British infantry, 2006-2013 (3).
hazardously with the stress of CONCLUSION still rely on adult conscription,
initial training (and often, later, most do not, proving that
traumatic war experiences) to Now that most states have recruiting children is not a
increase the prevalence of stress- moved to end the recruitment strategic necessity, but a policy
related disorders and violent of children by their armed convenience. Research has
behaviour. For example, research forces, a global ban is at least shown that all-adult armed forces
in the UK and US has found that foreseeable, if not within reach. are more viable: they benefit
young people are more likely It is striking that states which from recruits who are more
to commit violent offences after still rely on child recruits to staff mature and resilient, need fewer
they enlist than before. A popular their armed forces tend not to safeguarding arrangements,
belief that joining the army be the poorest, but the most are trained more quickly and
prevents anti-social behaviour is prosperous. The reluctance thus are less likely to drop out,
not supported by the available far of these powerful states to can be deployed immediately
research, which points in the embrace the straight-18 standard afterwards, and are more
other direction. themselves diminishes their financially cost-effective. If they
credibility when prescribing that ever used to recruit children, they
Another popular assumption is
same standard elsewhere, and do not regret that they no longer
that military employment is an
so frustrates efforts across the do so.
effective route out of poverty
world to eliminate the use of child
for disadvantaged young people,
soldiers.
but the long-term socioeconomic
prospects of enlisted personnel On the evidence in this report,
are relatively poor. Research in the view that child recruits in
the US has found that, since the affluent, democratic states
end of the Second World War, are protected from harm and
veterans have been worse off violations of their rights is widely
than non-veterans from mistaken. From the misleading
similar backgrounds. In the UK, marketing, cursory consent
the unemployment rate among arrangements and repressive
infantry veterans – the main contract, to the sustained stress
role group for child recruits of military training, multiple
– is substantially higher than risks of a military environment,
that among civilians, including and a high rate of attrition, the
civilians with the lowest level recruitment of children by state
of academic attainment. While armed forces is conspicuously
some veterans testify that military detrimental. The reality is that
employment has enhanced the fundamental rights of child
their socioeconomic status, the recruits are violated repeatedly
evidence indicates that this is throughout their engagement
the exception and, more often, with military institutions. 5. CRC art 29.
that joining the armed forces Adult-only armed forces are 6. For full quotation and source,
prematurely disrupts children’s see 'Sexual Violence, Assault and
slowly becoming the norm.
education and career prospects. Harassment', p. 37.
While some straight-18 states
Executive SummaryIntroduction Dutch army performing a drill in the Netherlands, © Ton Koene/Alamy
‘In all actions concerning children,
whether undertaken by public or
private social welfare institutions,
courts of law, administrative
authorities or legislative bodies, the
best interest of the child shall be a
primary consideration.’
Article 3 (1) Convention on the Rights of the Child
Concerted international efforts to widespread frustration that the Meanwhile, international efforts
end the recruitment of children Convention had not explicitly to end the military exploitation
for military purposes began outlawed the use of children for of children have narrowed to
after the publication of Graça military purposes (5). focus on the demobilisation and
Machel’s major report in 1996, reintegration of those involved
Adopted in 2000, OPAC
The impact of armed conflict on in armed conflict. This is clearly
prohibited the conscription and
children (2). The report focused justified by the severity of the
routine deployment of children,
on the plight of younger children impact on these children, but
and outlawed their recruitment
in poorer countries where they it has left neglected the harm
by non-state armed groups.
were widely used as participants caused by aspects of military
Nonetheless, by allowing states
in armed conflict. It found that employment other than combat,
to recruit from age 16, it stopped
exploiting children as participants including the psychological
short of an outright ban on the use
in war was killing, maiming and impact of military training, a
of children for military purposes.
psychiatrically injuring thousands common culture of bullying and
Despite strong support for the
of children every year.7 Further harassment, and the sweeping
so-called ‘straight-18’ standard
research has since shown that
from many states, the International suspension of fundamental rights.
children who survive such war
Committee of the Red Cross,
exposure suffer a radically
the International Labour Office,
increased risk of mental illness,
the Committee on the Rights of
behaviour problems, and 7. Since the Machel report, research
the Child, Graça Machel, NGOs has deepened understanding of
underdeveloped literacy and
and others (1, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10), this the effects of armed conflict on
numeracy, often leading to lasting
was prevented by a small but children. Psychiatric injury is very
poverty in adulthood (4).
influential group of states led common in children who have par-
While the Machel study was in by the UK and the US. At the ticipated in, or closely witnessed,
process, work was under way time, both states were routinely armed violence and other practices
on an Optional Protocol to the deploying military personnel associated with it, such as rape and
Convention on the Rights of under the age of 18, and 43 incarceration. Two-thirds of Pales-
the Child on the involvement of per cent of British army recruits tinian children who had frequently
witnessed military violence met the
children in armed conflict, known were minors at enlistment (11).
criteria for PTSD (4). It is now un-
as OPAC. The initiative began Consequently, many thousands of derstood that such military-induced
immediately after the adoption children continue to be recruited trauma damages the adolescent
of the Convention on the Rights and trained each year by state brain, retarding normal develop-
of the Child (CRC) in 1989, after armed forces across the globe. ment (ibid.).16,188 17-year-olds enlisted by US
armed forces during 2015
This report seeks to rekindle them into hostilities until they their domestic practice falls short
international attention to the harm reach 18, yet still the evidence of the same standard. Child
caused by premature enlistment shows that military recruitment recruitment anywhere is a risk to
and so help to reinvigorate efforts has a detrimental impact. children everywhere.
to achieve a universal straight-18
Specifically, the report Accordingly, affluent states
standard for the benefit of all
outlines the growing body of which recruit under the age of 18
children. It presents evidence to
evidence that the enlistment should consider both the direct
show why recruiting and training
of minors in relatively affluent impact on their child recruits
children for military purposes is
countries exploits adolescent and the indirect impact of their
inherently and disproportionately
susceptibilities; is unambiguously policy in other parts of the world.
harmful, including to those who
harmful to the health, wellbeing, States are required to cooperate
do not participate in hostilities.
and socioeconomic trajectories of towards achieving the universal
The report also argues that,
young people; and violates their implementation of OPAC8, and the
as currently conducted, the
legal rights as children under Sustainable Development Goals
recruitment of children by state
the CRC and OPAC. The report oblige them to take measures to
armed forces violates their rights
concludes by showing that states eliminate the recruitment and use
and may therefore be unlawful.
can – and most do – successfully of child soldiers.9
In so doing, the report challenges staff their armed forces entirely
the common assumption of a with adults; the recruitment of
double-standard: that the military children is a political choice,
recruitment of children in poorer not a military or demographic
states of the Global South is necessity.
harmful, but in economically
The continuing recruitment of
developed democracies is not.
children by some affluent states
Although the experiences of
has global consequences. The
children differ, this report will
practice blurs what should be
show that recruiting them is 8. OPAC art 7.
a red line around children’s
invariably harmful, regardless 9. Sustainable Development
involvement in military affairs, so
of economic or political context. Goal 8.7: ‘Take immediate and
creating legal and ethical latitude effective measures to eradicate
To make its case, the report
for others to exploit. Whereas forced labour, end modern slavery
focuses principally on affluent
the international community has and human trafficking and secure
states subject to the rule of law.
committed to the straight-18 the prohibition and elimination of
Almost all such countries have
principle in its efforts to end the worst forms of child labour,
committed in principle not to including recruitment and use of
the use of children in armed
recruit children without their child soldiers, and by 2025 end
conflict, states compromise their
consent or to routinely deploy child labour in all its forms.’
credibility as advocates whenWHY 18 MATTERS
1 Socioeconomically deprived
children, including in some
cases those from ethnic minority
7 Military training makes use
of harsh discipline includ-
ing humiliation and physical
13 Child recruits are more
likely than civilians of the
same age and background, and
or migrant backgrounds, are punishment, in order to secure more likely than older recruits, to
disproportionately targeted the unquestioning obedience of have problems with mental and
for recruitment. recruits and to ensure that physical health, and self-harm
they will kill on demand. (including suicide).
2 Recruitment marketing mis-
leads children by sanitising
warfare in their imagination, 8 Bullying and sexual miscon-
duct are substantially more 14 Education provided to
chidren in armed forces
glamorising military life, and common in military environments training is typically more basic
obscuring its many risks. than in civilian employment or and narrower in focus than main-
education. The youngest recruits stream provision in civilian life,
3 Young people are more
inclined in mid-adolescence
are at highest risk of victimisation. limiting the scope for essential
academic achievement.
than as adults to make choices
9 Alcohol and substance mis-
15
based on emotive appeal; the use are substantially more Military employment is
ability to weigh a major decision common in the military than in incompatible with leg-
against its long-term conse- civilian environments, including islation prohibiting minors from
quences is not yet developed. in the younger age group. hazardous labour (‘employment
that is likely to jeopardise health,
4 As generally practised, the
recruitment of children does 10 The military is com-
monly afforded exemp-
safety or morals’).
16
not ensure that they are fully tions from national legislation Despite many states’
informed of the risks and so is designed to safeguard the undertakings not to
not ‘genuinely voluntary’, welfare and fundamental rights use children in hostilities, some
as required by law. of children. reserve the right to do so. Even
when not deployed, as military
5 Parental consent is an inad-
equate safeguard when 11 Military instructors are
not normally qualified as
teachers or social workers and
personnel they may become
targets of hostile action.
the information provided to par-
17
ents is incomplete or misleading, often have no prior experience Socioeconomic outcomes
or where parents themselves of working with vulnerable for enlisted children tend
have habitually neglected their young people. to be poorer than outcomes for
child’s best interests. demographically matched peers
12 Research in the UK who did not enlist.
6 Restrictions on children’s and US has found that
18
right to leave the armed the rate of violent offending by Recruitment of children
forces before the age of 18 are young people increases after by state armed forc-
incompatible with the legal military enlistment. es anywhere, even if lawful,
requirement that their military weakens protection of children
employment be ‘genuinely everywhere against their unlaw-
voluntary’. ful recruitment and use.
IntroductionChild Recruitment
By State Armed
Forces: An
Overview
Canadian soldiers during a training scenario
© Cpl Jasper Schwartz/Canadian Forces‘The question at issue is not the
difference between 16, 17 and 18
years of age; the fundamental point is
the distinction between children and
adults. No child under 18 should be
recruited into armed forces,
voluntarily or otherwise.’
Mary Robinson, former UN High Commissioner for Human Rights (1)
EXTENT OF CHILD are Commonwealth countries, recruited for military purposes is
RECRUITMENT including Canada, India, Pakistan, unknown and difficult to estimate.
and the UK.10 Since a large minority of states
As of April 2018, 152 of the and at least 50 non-state armed
Child recruitment is particularly
177 states with armed forces groups are known to rely on child
common among economically
worldwide, have ratified OPAC. recruits, the number of children
developed states with substantial
Approximately two-thirds of drawn in to military organisations
military commitments. Perhaps
these have also committed to annually is likely to be in the high
counterintuitively, among
the straight-18 standard: the tens of thousands at minimum.
professional state armed
commitment not to enlist children The extent of the practice in
forces the most affluent and
at all. While some of these still some affluent states is shown in
technologically advanced tend
rely on conscripting adults to staff the table on the next page.
to rely the most on children to
their armed forces, most do not. make up recruit numbers. Four
Nonetheless, almost 50 states of the five Permanent Members
still rely on children to staff their of the UN Security Council still 10. As of April 2018, states
armed forces. Together these permit the enlistment of children. believed to have a minimum
(Although the fifth – Russia enlistment age in national law/
countries encompass two-thirds
policy of 16 years or below were
of the world’s children, since – does not enlist children, it
Bangladesh, Brazil, Canada, Cuba,
they include the three most prescribes extensive combat
Dominican Republic, Egypt, El
populous countries: China, India training in a network of militarised Salvador, Fiji, Guyana, India, Iran,
and the United States. Most schools.) Of the G7 states, only Mauritania, Mexico, Pakistan,
non-straight-18 states recruit two – Japan and Italy – no longer Papua New Guinea, Seychelles,
from age 17. Around 20 states rely on children to staff their Singapore, Tonga, Trinidad and
are believed to allow enlistment armed forces. Tobago, United Arab Emirates,
in law from age 16, of which ten United Kingdom, and Zambia. See
The total number of children www.childsoldiersworldindex.orgCHILD RECRUITMENT Convention on the Rights The right to a complete
AND THE LAW of the Child education that supports
Recognising the ‘inherent dignity’ children’s development to the
Several regional and international of the human person, and the ‘fullest potential’, and the right
treaties relate to the recruitment ‘special care and assistance’ to be prohibited from work if it
of children for military purposes. due to children under the age interferes with their education
Those most relevant to the of 18, the CRC has established or development.
issues raised in this report are legally-binding safeguards for The right not to be exploited
highlighted below and should their personal development, for any purpose ‘prejudicial
be considered in conjunction, education, and employment. to any aspects of the child’s
since rights are independent and The CRC is binding on all states welfare’.
indivisible; those enshrined in except the United States, which
one treaty cannot be ignored in has yet to ratify it. The right to the ‘highest
the implementation of another. attainable standard of health’.
Among the rights of children They must be safeguarded
Where provisions may appear recognised in the CRC are:12
to contradict each other the against undue injury, and from
higher standards of protection T
he right to have their best ‘physical or mental violence’,
should always take precedence. interests recognised as a including sexual harassment or
In the context of an armed primary consideration in all abuse.
conflict where both international actions concerning them, The right, when in conflict with
humanitarian law and human including legislation. the law, to a justice system
rights law are applicable, the The right to freedom of thought, designed specifically for
most developed standards conscience, expression, minors.
for protection of children peaceful assembly and
should apply. association, and the right to be
heard in ‘all matters affecting 12. CRC arts 3, 12, 13, 14, 18, 19, 24,
them’. 28, 29, 32, 34, 36, 37, 38, 40.
Extent of child recruitment for military purposes by
affluent states: illustrative examples (2013-2017)11
COUNTRY MIN AGE TOTAL INTAKE AGED UNDER 18 YEAR
INTAKE
(n) (%)
AUSTRALIA 17 6,428 427 7% 2015
AUSTRIA 17 22,223 220 1% 2013
FRANCE 17 13,756 405 3% 2013
GERMANY 17 23,385 2,128 9% 2017
NETHERLANDS 17 1,514 82 5% 2014
NEW ZEALAND 17 428 49 11% 2016
UK 16 11,980 2,410 20% 2016
US 17 246,154 16,188 7% 2015
11. Sources: Australia, Austria, France, Netherlands, New Zealand (Letters from states to Child Soldiers International);
Germany (155,233); UK (221); US (220).TYPES OF CHILD RECRUITMENT
Child recruitment by the state armed forces as their 16th birthday as full members of the armed
examined in this report can be divided into forces with a designated role, which they assume
four types: as soon as they finish training (158). Child recruits
to the British army have to give up to three months’
Recruitment by conscription notice to request discharge, cannot leave in the
Some states operating adult conscription systems first six weeks, and once they turn 18 lose their right
(from age 18) encourage or allow children to to leave for the next four years (158,159). A similar
start military service early. Austria, China, Cyprus system operates in the US, where children are
and Mexico are examples. Children often opt recruited from age 17 (125).
for this to complete the obligation early and so
Recruitment through military schools
minimise disruption to their education and career
development. In some cases, children are offered Military schools provide states with a further means
incentives, such as privileged access to further of recruiting children, including in states where the
education or a reduced minimum service period. enlistment age is ostensibly over 18 years. Children
in military schools (who may be under 16 years of
Recruitment for officer training age) are not usually recognised as ‘recruits’ but
A few states recruit children in small numbers the boundary is frequently blurred. For example,
for officer training and paid-for passage through children at military schools may undergo extensive
university, followed by an obligatory minimum military training, be classified in law or policy as
period of adult military service. Canada operates members of the armed forces, and be subject to
a scheme like this. These recruits are military military law. Upon graduation, they are usually
personnel, undergo military training, and are subject obliged to complete a minimum period of formal
to military law. Children recruited in this way tend to service in the armed forces, which may last several
be socioeconomically privileged by background. years. Schemes such as these operate in Israel,
Russia and Tajikistan.
Recruitment to the ranks
In whatever manner children are formally
Enlistment to the ranks is the most common child recruited, they all:
recruitment practice in affluent states (including
the larger Western military powers: France, the UK, A
re military personnel subject to military law,
and the US). Children recruited in this way typically which suspends fundamental rights and includes
come from socioeconomically disadvantaged obligations and offences that civilian law does not
backgrounds. recognise;
The practice varies between states. In the U
ndergo military training, which uses
Netherlands, a relatively small number of children psychologically coercive techniques to inculcate
aged 17 are enlisted as trainees; they can leave at obedience and remove instinctive barriers to
any time, cannot take up a formal role in the armed violence; and
forces until they turn 18, and do not continue in E
nter a military environment typically
service thereafter unless they agree in writing to do characterised by elevated rates of stress, physical
so (143). In contrast, children in the UK are actively and psychological bullying, sexual harassment,
targeted by recruiters and enlisted in large numbers and alcohol misuse.
(140, 63). They may apply aged 15 and join as early
Child Recruitment by State Armed Forces: An OverviewTherefore, the rights of children, the Child has suggested that the risks and consequences of
as guaranteed by the CRC, are military settings, which entail their enlistment. These include,
violated when their recruitment restrictions on rights and the for example: the psychological
for military purposes: prejudices promotion of violence as a tool, coercion of military training; the
mental or physical health; appear to be fundamentally suspension of certain civil rights;
interrupts the education in incompatible with children’s rights the risks and legally-binding
which civilians of the same age to an environment conducive to restrictions involved; and the
typically participate; entails an learning and development. (12) ethical quandaries inherent in
elevated risk of bullying or sexual military work. They must also
harassment, involves physical Optional Protocol on the endeavour to ensure that children
violence or is psychologically Involvement of Children are not involved in hostilities.
coercive; restricts the right to in Armed Conflict
leave at will; limits or suspends OPAC stipulates that children
many of the civil liberties or must not be recruited unless:
employment rights that civilian they are at least 16 years old; 13
it is their ‘genuinely voluntary’, 13. When states ratify or accede to
children enjoy; or denies them
OPAC they must submit a declara-
their right to a juvenile justice ‘fully informed’ choice; and their
tion specifying a minimum age for
system. parents or legal guardians have
enlistment into state armed forces,
given their ‘informed consent’. In which must be no less than 16
This report will show that,
addition, it requires states to ‘take years. The declaration is binding;
by these measures, military
all feasible measures’ to ensure enlistment practice is unlawful
employment violates the rights
child recruits do not participate if a state recruits below the age
of children set out in the CRC.
directly in hostilities until they specified. States may amend their
On this basis, child recruitment
turn 18.14 declaration to raise the minimum
as currently practised around the enlistment age, but not to lower it.
world may be generally unlawful. To meet these safeguards,
14. OPAC arts 1, 2, 3.
military employers must ensure
In its interpretation of the CRC, 15. ILO 138 art 3.
that potential recruits and their
the Committee on the Rights of 16. ILO 182 art 3.
parents fully understand allAs will be explored later, International Labour ILO 182 requires states to prohibit
information provided to child Organisation (ILO) and end the worst forms of
recruits and their parents Conventions 138 and 182 child labour, including ‘forced
typically presents military life ILO Conventions 138 (Minimum or compulsory recruitment of
in glamorous terms, omits Age Convention) and 182 (Worst children [under the age of 18]
its risks and difficulties, and Forms of Child Labour) also have for use in armed conflict’.16 Like
provides perfunctory details on implications for the legality of OPAC, ILO 182 does not prohibit
legal obligations. Sophisticated child recruitment. ‘voluntary’ recruitment of children
marketing techniques are used under 18, but it does reinforce
ILO 138 reserves for adulthood
to exploit vulnerabilities particular that this is only permitted insofar
only ‘any type of employment
to the adolescent psyche. Full as it is strictly voluntary. Where
or work which by its nature or
details of the recruit’s legal this is not the case, the practice
the circumstances in which it is
commitment are often provided violates the convention.
carried out is likely to jeopardise
only at the moment he or she
the health, safety or morals of
signs up, with no time to analyse
young persons’.15 It is left to states
and absorb their implications.
to determine which types of
Often, applicants have yet
employment are ‘hazardous’ for
to develop sufficient literacy
the purposes of the Convention,
or maturity to comprehend
which allows them to exempt
for themselves their complex
their armed forces. The principle
terms of service and their
remains, however, that those
lasting consequences. In these
under 18 should not be employed
circumstances, child recruits and
in hazardous work, and it is clear
their parents are denied their
that military employment carries
rights under OPAC to be ‘fully
several significant hazards to
informed’, and so their choice
the health and wellbeing of child
cannot be considered ‘genuinely
recruits.
voluntary’.
Child Recruitment by State Armed Forces: An OverviewThe Child
Recruit's Journey
Israeli youth dressed in army uniforms
during a boot-camp simulation,
© Sebastian Scheiner/AP‘The Committee expresses deep
concern about the fact that adolescent
boys and girls are being recruited,
including through the use of social
media, by State armed forces.’
CRC General Comment 20 on implementation of the rights of the
child during adolescence. (13)
TARGETING (15, 16, 17). The former head of adventure’ (21). In defence of
CHILDREN FOR recruitment for the British army this approach, a spokesperson
characterised his recruitment stated that ‘the German armed
RECRUITMENT
strategy as ‘drip, drip, drip’ from forces did not broach the issue
The preceding section has shown about the age of seven (18). The of overseas military missions
how military recruitment can be US Army’s ‘School Recruiting in their advertising just like
harmful to children and violate Program Handbook’, instructs advertising for chocolate does
their rights, even where it may recruiters to target children not mention the risk of getting
be lawful in principle. Since the below the minimum enlistment fat’ (21).18 Experts testifying
best interests of children must age because ‘if you wait until to the German parliamentary
be a primary consideration, they’re seniors, it’s probably too committee criticised this as ‘false
which includes regard for all late’ (234). In Australia, children advertising’:
their fundamental rights, states can register their details from
‘In view of what is involved
do not enjoy unlimited discretion the age of 10 with Defence in the military profession, the
in recruiting them for military Jobs Membership to receive
potential to be killed and all the
purposes. The Committee on the recruitment information and news dangers associated with this,
Rights of the Child has repeatedly from the armed forces (20). this is irresponsible to young
expressed concern to states Germany’s main newspaper people and in no way fulfills
which enlist large numbers of for schoolchildren runs the protective function and the
children, recommending they advertisements for the armed protection mandate which the
increase efforts to recruit adults forces in most editions. Armed Bundeswehr as a parliamentary
and/or raise their enlistment age forces ‘Adventure Camps’ for army ultimately has.’ (22)
to 18 (14).17 children aged 16 and above
In practice, however, many states are advertised in an online
target children as potential teen magazine for children
recruits long before they become aged from 10 years (21), while
17. CRC art 38 also imposes a legal
eligible to enlist. Research by UK online marketing is targeted at obligation on states which continue
and US armed forces finds that 14–17-year-olds, who are invited
to recruit children ‘to give priority
most recruits commit to signing to play online games linked to
to those who are oldest’ amongst
up before they are old enough recruitment (22). The advertising them.
to do so; and young people are does not mention risk, death or
18. In contrast, producers of
less likely to join up unless they injury, focusing instead on ‘good tobacco and alcohol are required
have become actively interested training, promotion prospects, to advertise their health risks, and
in military life by their mid-teens comradeship and plenty of nutritionists have called for this to
be extended to junk food.‘Furthermore, the Committee is
concerned that the ADF active
targeting of schools for recruits
through ‘work experience programs’
may unduly put pressure on young
persons, especially from marginalised
populations and from different
linguistic backgrounds to volunteer,
without full informed consent.’
CRC Concluding Observations: Australia 2012 (27)
SOCIOECONOMIC Concerns have been raised in them to enlist. The Israel Defense
TARGETING some countries about targeting Forces (IDF) are presented as
of ethnic minority children for ‘a major socialising framework
In seeking child applicants, it is recruitment. The Canadian for those who wish to stay and
usual for recruiters to focus on Coalition for the Rights of become citizens’, and includes
economically depressed areas Children has protested the inducements such as help with
where employment opportunities targeting of economically obtaining a high school diploma
are limited (23). Described as deprived aboriginal youth and driving licence (29). Practices
‘skilled salesmen’ by the former through advertising on aboriginal such as these disregard the
head of recruitment for the British and multilingual television clear recommendations of the
army (18), recruiters promote stations (28). The proportion Committee on the Rights of the
enlistment to disadvantaged of New Zealand armed forces Child to ensure that military
youth as a gateway to personal personnel who identify as Maori recruiting efforts do not exploit
power, social purpose, is double that in the general children from marginalised or
camaraderie, and socioeconomic population.19 In the US, about vulnerable groups.
mobility. The army promises to half of participants in the main
put money in children’s pockets: school cadet programme, the
‘Age 16? Earn over £1,000 a JROTC, are reportedly people
month while you train’ [$1,300] of colour (19). In Chicago, 93
– and congratulates its new per cent of JROTC cadets are
16-year-old recruits for earning African American or Latino, and 19. In 2012, 30 per cent of the New
more than their civilian friends more than 70 per cent of JROTC Zealand Defence Force identified
programmes are in high schools as Maori, versus 15 per cent in
who stay in college to enhance
the general population in 2013
their qualifications (24,25). The located in post code districts
(222,214).
2017 army recruitment drive, with predominantly African
20. As of 2014, 19 per cent of the
entitled ‘This is belonging’, was American or Latino populations
US armed forces intake identified
targeted specifically at 16-24 (236). Young African American
as black non-Hispanic, versus 16
year-olds from families with males are over-represented per cent in the general population;
an average annual income among new armed forces the greatest disparity was seen in
of £10,000 [$13,000] (26). In recruits, particularly in the army.20 the army (215).
Israel, an extracurricular military Reports indicate that some young 21. The significance of cadets’ use
training programme targets Latinos who enlist do so in the of military uniforms and insignia
socioeconomically deprived hope of helping relatives with should not be underestimated, as
children, promising social mobility irregular immigration status (19). under international humanitarian
and a better quality of life through Similarly, in Israel a programme law this is one of the factors distin-
skills acquired in military service specifically for unaccompanied guishing lawful combatants from
migrant children encourages civilians.
(29).German army at Gamescom, the world’s largest trade fair
for video and computer games, © Jochen Tack / Alamy
FANTASY
MARKETING
‘The Committee… recommends that
Recruiters frequently associate the State party… [p]rohibit all forms of
military life with the idealised
warrior-hero of action films and
advertising campaigns for the German
videogames. In the US, scenes armed forces targeting children.’
from Hollywood blockbusters CRC Concluding Observations: Germany 2014 (30)
(including Behind Enemy Lines
and X-Men: First Class) have been
spliced into military advertising. to assume that a soldier’s life is CADET FORCES
In Israel, the UK and the US, one of intense excitement with no
recruiters encourage children to moral ambiguity, gore or trauma. Military youth organisations
play officially scripted videogames such as cadet forces, many
Despite the fanciful nature of
which conflate a fantasy narrative of which are embedded in
action adventure films and
with real military life (31, 32). In the schools, step up the state’s
videogames, the British army’s
US, for example, young children engagement with children
research has found that they
are offered the chance to sit at once they reach adolescence.
inspire many younger recruits to
a drone operator’s console and With their participation usually
sign up (16). It is a striking irony
simulate attacks in Afghanistan, subsidised by the Ministry of
that the same children are barred
as if it were a game, and play the Defence children in cadet forces
from seeing graphic portrayals
army’s official 3D virtual reality typically wear military-style
of warfare in certain films and
videogame (33). In a similar vein, uniforms and many undertake
documentaries, which are rated
children aged 13–15 visiting a weapons training.21 The uniform
for adults only due to their
military training site in Germany is one of many ways in which
disturbingly realistic depictions of
were told that the shooting cadet systems immerse children
mass violence and the suffering it
simulator ‘was a thousand times in a simulacrum of military life,
causes. The Deer Hunter and the
better than any game on your in which the soldier’s role is
documentary Cry Freetown are
console at home’ (34). dissociated from its risks and
examples. Perhaps most strikingly
moral ambiguities. Despite this,
Conversely, a selling point of of all, in 2016 a British television
research has found that children’s
war-based videogames is the channel broadcast a four-part
repeated exposure to cadet
realism of their first-person- documentary series following
systems plays an important role
perspective. To reach the 16- and 17-year-old army recruits
in their later choice to enlist (16).
younger market, however, game through initial training. To watch
designers strip any graphic the series online, viewers had to Canadian and US cadet systems
brutality from the violence they tick a box confirming they were offer scholarships and other
depict. When military life is over 18 years of age as the content financial incentives. For example,
compared favourably to these was considered unsuitable for Canadian cadets can be awarded
games, children are encouraged younger viewers (241). a scholarship of up to $5,000 for
The Child Recruit's Journeypost-secondary education, and required 47,360 children to take training’ into the curriculum,
are offered small payments for the ASVAB (military aptitude) which entails a week of military
participating in marksmanship test, without seeking the child’s training for children aged 15–17
courses on summer camps (237). or parents’ consent (239). at a military site, including the
In the US, the Department of Recruiters, who have a legal right use of semiautomatic weapons
Defense encourages contact of access (39), are instructed to (29). There is also a wider,
between cadet instructors and be ‘so entrenched in the school compulsory school-based military
military recruiters (19). scene that the Army is in constant curriculum for children in years
demand’ (38). In some areas, 10 – 12, intended to prepare them
The ‘Follow Me’ (‘Aharai’) military
soldiers become a daily presence for conscription and promote a
training programme in Israel is
in the lives of American children, positive perception of the military.
run by a civilian organisation in
riding the school bus, turning up
collaboration with the Ministry of While most military visits are
at school dances, and coaching
Defence and high-ranking officers at secondary level, primary
sports teams after hours (37).
(29). The initiative is targeted at schools are also visited. In New
young people in underprivileged In the UK, the armed forces Zealand, the army takes assault
areas, promising to enhance make over 11,000 school visits rifles into primary schools and
participants’ social mobility (29). each year (40). The army’s main teaches children to assemble
schools presentation shows the weapons and hold them in
RECRUITING IN soldiers scuba-diving but not at the fire position (45). According
SCHOOLS war (41). The Ministry of Defence to one 11-year-old student,
provides teachers with curricular holding an assault rifle for the
The Paris Principles and aids presenting a glossy first time felt ‘amazing and cool
Guidelines on Children history of the wars in Iraq and … it’ll just be something that’s
Associated with Armed Forces or Afghanistan, and schools can win imprinted on your brain’ (45). A
Armed Groups state that: additional funding for adopting a corporal involved in one such visit
‘Measures must be taken to ‘military ethos’ or starting a cadet commented, ‘The kids just love
prevent propaganda or active group (41,42,43). the guns, you know what kids
recruitment taking place in are like… Most of the children’s
Similar arrangements apply
or around schools and to questions were about the kit, not
in Australia, where secondary
protect children in the school what the higher ideas are.’ (45)
schools receive visits from
environment.’ 22 armed forces career teams to Even kindergartens can become
Yet the education system ‘provide information to potential a site for soft recruitment, based
remains a major site for the candidates and influencers’ on symbolically militarised
direct and indirect recruitment (44), and in Canada, where high activities. In Israel, military
of children. Recruiters commonly school students are encouraged personnel can join kindergarten
visit schools with military to attend navy recruiting events ‘graduation’ ceremonies, which
hardware ranging from rifles to at their schools (238). include parades performed by
attack helicopters, and teachers the soldiers and children together
In Israel, military culture is
are encouraged to take their (29). Kindergarten children are
embedded in the education
class on free away-days with the also taken to visit military bases.
system. Uniformed soldiers are
armed forces (18, 21, 35, 36, 37). Sahar Vardi remembers:
present in state-run schools,
In some countries, such as often teaching classes even ‘In kindergarten you bring gifts
Germany and the US, the when they are not qualified to to soldiers. And then later there’s
armed forces have a legal do so (29). Conversely, many worksheets to teach children
right of access to all children’s teachers, and especially those how to count: you have on one
contact details, which are sent in management positions, are hand the numbers 1 to 10, and
automatically to recruiters (21, former ranking military officers, on the other different numbers
22, 39). Thereafter, all children and do not always have teaching of symbols like tanks and
nearing enlistment age receive qualifications. ‘Youth Guides’ aeroplanes. You have to join
military marketing materials. are stationed in schools by the them up.’ (46)
The US army describes schools armed forces to encourage
as the ‘cornerstone’ of its young people to enlist. Most
recruitment strategy (38). In high schools also incorporate
2015, 1,021 schools in the US compulsory ‘youth battalionsYou can also read
