The Green Olympic Movement: Beijing 20081
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# The Author 2006. Published by Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.
Advance Access publication 19 May 2006
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The Green Olympic
Movement: Beijing 20081
Stefanie Beyer
Abstract
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The paper investigates the capacity of the 2008 Olympiad in Beijing to catalyse
sustainable development reforms. The essence of green Games is examined and
the aptitude of Beijing’s ambitious Olympic Action Plan evaluated to provide
solutions to key environmental problems. It concludes by outlining improvements
and giving recommendations for long-term sustainable development which preserve
the legacy of green Olympic Games.
I. Introduction
In July 2001, the outgoing International Olympic Committee president, Juan Antonio
Samaranch, clinched China’s persevering efforts to host the Olympic Games by declaring
that the 29th Olympiad in 2008 was awarded to the city of Beijing. This announcement
sparked off celebrations with fireworks in China’s capital and numerous other cities through-
out the country. Most Chinese people considered that the most difficult hurdle to take was to
successfully convince the international community that the developing country of China was
able to host Olympic Games that could rival the mega events held in former years. However,
a closer look at the bidding process revealed that in order to secure the Games over other
serious contenders like Paris and Toronto, Beijing particularly had to draw its attention to
the emerging new pillar of the Olympic movement—the environment. In 1993, Beijing
had already been supplanted by Sydney, which had made sustainable development a
major component of its bid. After the widespread environmental damage caused by the
1992 Winter Olympic Games in the French Savoy Region, this strategy was the trump
card. Sydney was the first city to win an Olympic bid with a set of environmental protection
measures attached to its application. Learning from this strategy to green the Games, Beijing
Dr Stefanie Beyer, LL.M, works as a lawyer in Cologne, Germany (email: StefanieBeyer@hotmail.com). This
paper constitutes the second part of the master thesis Environmental Law and Policy in the PRC: Shaping an
Environmental Protection Regime for ‘‘Green Olympics’’ 2008 in Beijing, part one of which appeared in
5 Chinese JIL (2006), pp. 185 –211. The paper was completed on 4 December 2005.
1 ‘‘Environment like sports knows no frontiers, no territorial borders. It transcendends ideological cleavages. It does
not recognize artificial distinctions between North and South or East and West. It is one and indivisible’’ (Klaus
Töpfer, UNEP Executive Director).
....................................................................................................................................................................
Chinese Journal of International Law (2006), Vol. 5, No. 2, 423 –440 doi:10.1093/chinesejil/jml018424 Chinese JIL (2006)
again presented a bid backed by a comprehensive environmental plan applicable to all
segments of the Games, which are venue construction, transportation, pollution control
and waste management. Due to China’s rapid economic growth, the country in fact faces
serious environmental problems. A dramatically increased demand for energy, water and
land has led to a depletion of natural resources, triggering a range of secondary impacts,
such as desertification, flooding and species loss. Pollution levels in China’s major cities
are among the highest on earth. Beijing has the dubious distinction of competing with
Mexico City for the ‘‘honour’’ of the world’s most polluted capital.2 The energy-derived
air pollution caused by poorly regulated industries and household emissions constitutes
the greatest environmental challenge in Beijing. Besides coal combustion, vehicles contribute
a large share to air pollution. Moreover, northern China, where Beijing is located, suffers
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from water shortage, aggravated by high pollution levels.3
The Olympics, although intended as a showcase for athletic achievements, generally give
a strong impetus to reforms and therefore have the potential to function as a catalyst for
environmental, social and political change. As the world will turn its attention to the
Olympic Games, this mega event provides an opportunity for the host city to place
itself on the global stage. Especially in a world market that is increasingly aware of ecologi-
cal degradation, green Games offer countries and companies the opportunity to cultivate an
image as environmentally friendly players. However, will the environment itself benefit?
Will the impact last after the last athlete has left the Olympic Village? As with other
mega events, the Olympic Games pose themselves numerous environmental problems,
including resources consumption, waste accumulation and shortages in transportation
capacities. Thus, the crucial question is: what actually makes the Olympics green?
Besides, green has many shades. Since the Olympic Games are highly mobile events that
are staged in different locations, the adopting and implementing of universal standards is
a challenging task due to varying cross-cultural interpretation of the newly created environ-
mental protection pillar.
Sustainable sport is a relatively new concept in both environmental and sport circles and
the detrimental impact of sporting activities on the environment as well as the negative
impacts of a degraded environment on sport participants are complex. Sustainable develop-
ment in sports as now supported by the Olympic movement4 is one aspect of the Olympics’
holistic approach. According to the Olympic Charter, the goal of Olympism is to ‘‘place
sport at the service of the harmonious development of man, with a view to encouraging
the establishment of a peaceful society concerned with the preservation of human
dignity’’.5 Olympism is a philosophy of life calling for the holistic development of body,
will and mind. It is a fusion of sports, culture and education within the acceptance of uni-
versal ethical principles. Its aim is to contribute to the world’s peace through sporting
2 Vaclav Smil, China’s Energy and Resource Uses: Continuity and Change, 156 China Quart. (1998), 940.
3 Eric W. Orts, Environmental Law with Chinese Characteristics, 11 Wm. and Mary Bill of Rts J (2003), 551.
4 Olympic Charter, Chapter I, rule 2, no.13.
5 Olympic Charter, Fundamental Principles of Olympism.Beyer, The Green Olympic Movement 425
competition that is non-discriminatory and participated in in a spirit of friendship, solidarity
and fair play. With a view to China, the Olympics offer the chance for sustainable reform,
especially by providing the impetus for a wide-reaching technical influx. In general, sports
serve as a terrific vehicle to develop environmental consciousness and to combat social
exclusion. Particularly, China has both a long tradition of sports and a history of ecological
philosophy. Chinese people are sports enthusiasts. The nation’s athletic verve is evident in
the wide participation in sports activities and in the achievements of Chinese athletes at
previous Olympic Games. China is also famous for its traditional mass sports activities.
Every morning, crowds of people can be seen in parks practising various kinds of sports
and martial arts. China’s history of sport activities dates back more than 3,000 years.
Already, by the time of the Zhou Dynasty (1066–1771 BC), archery and cauldron lifting
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had appeared as sports activities. The origin and development of sport in China are
closely linked to Chinese outdoor life and to the appreciation of nature.6 The traditional
Chinese philosophy of Confucianism and Taoism considers humans to be part of nature,
which they ought to respect and establish a harmonious relationship with.7 Even today,
typical Chinese sports activities such as martial arts, but also the design of buildings as
well as gardens and the traditional Chinese medicine, reflect this philosophy.
The Olympics provide a unique opportunity for sustainable development. The Games are
much more than a sporting contest; they are also a test of will for the host country. The
environmental record of the last Summer Olympiad in Athens was rather poor. It remains
to be seen whether Beijing recommends itself for winning the ‘‘green medal’’.
II. The importance of being green
II.A. Beijing’s Olympic bid
The impetus to China’s green Games was due to a national defeat. In the early 1990s, backed
by its enormous economical growth, China was confident that its bid to host the 2000
Summer Games could beat the bid of Sydney, Australia. However, Sydney held a trump
card. In response to the emerging international development in the official policy of the
International Olympic Committee, that environment would join sport and culture as the
third pillar of the Olympic movement, Australia made sustainable development and plann-
ing a major component of its bid. After consultation with various environmental experts
and non-governmental organizations (NGOs), guidelines were published covering the
fields of energy and water conservation, waste avoidance and clean transportation. The
Olympic Village was a model of environmental awareness in regard to architectural
design. It addressed the problems of global warming, ozone depletion, biodiversity, air,
soil and water pollution as well as resource depletion. Solar power was used for lighting,
6 Ru-song Wang, The Eco-Origins, Actions and Demonstration Roles of Beijing Green Olympics, 13 JESci
(2001), 514.
7 Robert P. Weller and Peter K. Bol, From Heaven and Earth to Nature: Chinese Concepts of the Environment and
their Influence on Policy Implementation, in: M. McElroy and C. Nielsen (eds), Energizing China (1998), 473.426 Chinese JIL (2006)
water heating and air conditioning, and water was to be treated on-site for re-use.8 In the end,
Sydney was two votes ahead. Sydney was the first city to win an Olympic bid with a set of
coherent environmental criteria attached to its application.
Learning from Sydney’s strategy to green the Games, China again presented a bid to host
the summer Games in 2008. In order to beat other serious contenders like Paris and
Toronto, China paid particular attention to the newly created third pillar of the Olympic
movement and supported its bid with a massive environmental campaign.9 The Beijing
bid committee presented a comprehensive plan on sustainable development covering the
areas of venue construction, transportation, pollution control and waste management. The
bid revealed frankly Beijing’s pre-existing environmental problems, especially the city’s
air-quality challenges caused by considerably high levels of sulphur dioxide and nitrogen
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oxide resulting from the city’s dependence on coal use and increasing number of vehicles.
Also, the above average concentrations of total suspended particulates directly linked to
the desertification of northeast China were addressed. At the same time, the commitment
to resolving these problems was emphasized as well as improvements presented that
Beijing had already achieved, most notably in the field of coal combustion. Since 1998,
the city had successfully converted around 44,000 small coal facilities to natural gas and
some 8,600 coal boilers to cleaner burning fuel. Moreover, higher-quality coal has been pro-
moted to limit sulphur dioxide. In order to tackle vehicle emission, 1,900 natural gas buses
have been in use, leaded gasoline banned since 1997 and higher vehicle emission standards
adopted. As a result, sulphur dioxide had dropped 44 per cent in 2000 and levels of nitrogen
dioxide and total suspended particulates had decreased by 13.7 and 14.5 per cent, respect-
ively.10 However, Beijing’s average levels still exceeded the World Health Organization
standards considerably, with concentrations of total suspended particulates up to almost
400 per cent over.11 Nevertheless, Beijing had demonstrated significant efforts to improving
its environment for future Olympic Games. In July 2001, the Games of the 29th Olympiad
were awarded to the city of Beijing, which was welcomed enthusiastically with celebrations
and fireworks throughout China.
II.B. Environmental policy as the third dimension
of the Olympic movement
China entered the contest to present the winning bid for the 2000 Olympic Games at a time
when a clearly articulated environmental policy had not yet been adopted by the International
Olympic Committee. It was not until the 1998 Winter Olympics at Nagano in Japan that
8 Environmental Guidelines for the Summer Olympic Games (www.nccnsw.org/au/member/ggw/reference/
guidelines.pdf ).
9 Andres Ness, Blue Skies for the Beijing Olympics, 29 China Bus.R (2002), 48; Yunakai Tang, Green Beijing,
Green Olympics, 44 Beijing R (2001), 16.
10 Victor Brajer and Robert Mead, Blue Skies in Beijing? Looking at the Olympic Effect, 12 JEDev (2003), 240;
Timothy Hildebrandt and Jennifer L. Turner, Green Olympic Roundtable: Insights for Beijing 2008, 6 China
Envir Series (2002), 164.
11 Brajer and Mead, ibid., 239.Beyer, The Green Olympic Movement 427
alongside sport and culture, environmental protection had officially become the third
dimension of the Olympic movement. The historical benchmarks for the development of
this policy were the widespread environmental damage caused by the Winter Olympic
Games 1992 in Albertville in the Savoy Region of France and the subsequent environmen-
tally conscious Games of Lillehammer, Norway in 1994 that had urged the International
Olympic Committee to respond and present a strategy for repelling the adverse impacts of
the mega event. The Olympic Games in the French Savoy Region were in several aspects
unique: never before had Olympic Games be so regionalized, with competition sites
located in 13 Alpine communities spread over 1,657 square kilometres and never had a
landscape been that dramatically and irreparably marred by this mega event. Especially,
the clearing of land for the construction of facilities was extensive. In order to build the
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Olympic high-speed downhill course, aerial cableways, access roads, parking lots and moun-
tain sides were blasted away and long stretches of woodland were rigorously stubbed out. The
bobsled course, built on unstable ground in an avalanche zone, had to be equipped with a
pipeline carrying 45 tons of volatile ammonia in order to cool the track.12
The severe damage revealing the lack of any environmental policy and guidelines for
bidding and hosting cities had a long-term impact on the global mandate of the International
Olympic Committee. It had become obvious that environmental concerns raised by the
Olympics could not be confined to the suitability and accessibility of locations for athletes,
the international media and sponsors or to merely aesthetic improvements of tourist, cultural
and industrial projects being tied to the economic development of the region. Just two years
after the Winter Olympics in Albertville, due to the coincidence of the International
Olympic Committee decision to change the Winter and Summer Games sequence, Lille-
hammer was the host city of the 1994 Winter Games. Lillehammer was the first city to
add the sustainable environmental policy to the already existing pillars of the Olympic
movement—sports and culture. These Games, introducing the environment as the third
dimension and in a collective effort, involving the government, environmental agencies
and environmental groups in the planning process, should later be referred to as the
Olympic environmental showcase.13 About 20 environmentally concerned projects were
initiated and a four-point plan for the environment was drawn up, focusing on the harmo-
nious integration of facilities into the landscape, on the use of natural and local materials and
on measures addressing energy conservation and recycling.
The environmental impact of the Olympic Games in Albertville and the advanced local
initiatives of the Norwegian Games had significant implications for environmental protection
in future Olympic Games bids. They evoked global awareness of the environment and activity
within the International Olympic Committee at the time, when due to the United Nations
Earth Summit Conference in Rio de Janeiro, the environment had emerged as an issue of
global social policy. In 1994, the Centennial Olympic Congress held in Paris recommended
12 Hart Cantelon and Michael Letters, The Making of the IOC Environmental Policy as the Third Dimension of
the Olympic Movement, 34 IR Sociol Sports (2000), 294.
13 Cantelon and Letters, ibid., 303.428 Chinese JIL (2006)
amendments to the Olympic Charter to accommodate environment as the third dimension of
the Games. Subsequently, in 1996, the following paragraph was included into Chapter 1
of the Olympic Charter: ‘‘(. . .) the mission and role of the International Olympic Commission
is (. . .) to encourage and support a reasonable concern for environmental issues, to promote
sustainable development in sport and to require that the Olympic Games are held accord-
ingly.’’14 Henceforth, the environment was adopted as one of the fundamental objectives
of the Olympic movement and the Olympics’ potential to play an active part in the promotion
of sustainable development was officially recognized. The IOC Sport and Environment
Commission was created which, in close affiliation with the United Nations, elaborated a
framework for the sustainable development of future Olympic Games. In 1999, an Agenda
was developed setting out basic concepts for the formalization of the environment policy in
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order to provide guidelines for both governing bodies and individuals.15 It covers measures
for the improvement of socio-economic conditions, for the conservation and management
of resources and for strengthening the role of groups in order to explore the host city’s
maximum environmental potential and to ensure that the policy of sustainable development
is integrated into the Olympic movement’s actions.
III. Solutions to Beijing’s environmental key problems
III.A. Beijing’s Olympic action plan
The Beijing Organizing Committee for the Olympic Games, established in 2001 under the
State Council, announced the 2008 Games as the ‘‘Green, High-tech and People’s Olym-
pics’’.16 Motivated by the Olympics, Beijing will develop around 25 million square
metres of property in the 2002–08 period. This not only includes the 37 competition
venues and additional 59 training facilities, but also the construction of a number of com-
mercial projects as mega-malls, the redevelopment of city areas and numerous cultural and
tourism-related issues. The Olympic Park in which the Olympic Village and 13 venues are
located will occupy 12 square kilometres and provide the city with a major new central
park—the desperately needed green lung in central Beijing.17 The hosting of the 2008
Olympic Games will thus—after the construction of the Three Georges Dam—be the
second largest public works project ever undertaken in China.18 Of the estimated $25
billion devoted to the Olympic preparations, nearly half has been designated for environ-
mental improvement projects. A total of $12.2 billion is earmarked to be spent on projects
that range from changing energy policies, retrofitting high-polluting enterprises, and moving
14 Olympic Charter, Chapter I, rule 2, no.13 (www.multimedia.olympic.org/pdf/en_report_122.pdf ).
15 Olympic Movement Agenda 21 (www.un.org/esa/sustdev/agenda21.htm).
16 Beijing Olympic Action Plan, I. 1. Overall Strategic Concept (http://210.75.208.159/new_olympic/eolympic/
plan.htm).
17 Beijing Olympic Action Plan, II. 2. Plan and Design of the Olympic Green, ibid. Five competition venues will be
located in Shanghai, Tianjin, Qingdao, Qinhiangdao and Shenyang. Qingdao will host the sailboat race
competitions while the four other cities will host the soccer matches.
18 Ness, ibid., 50.Beyer, The Green Olympic Movement 429
factories to improving infrastructure, reducing auto emissions and solid waste control.19 In
order to improve the environmental conditions in preparation to host the summer Games,
the ‘‘Beijing Olympic Action Plan’’ and supplementary specific sub-plans for environmental
protection, for structural adjustments of the energy sector and for infrastructure development
were released by the Olympic Organizing Committee in 2002. Those plans lay out an ambi-
tious timeline dividing the remaining period until the opening of the Games into different
operational stages. Within the development stage ending in June 2006, all Olympic venues
and key projects for environmental protection and infrastructure ought to be completed.
Time for the examination and improvement of projects as well as for the testing of venues
and facilities shall be reserved until the opening ceremony in July 2008.20 The provisions
dealing with the environmental development of Beijing target the construction of a ‘‘favour-
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able ecological city that features green hills, clear water, grass-covered ground and blue sky
by means of afforestation, rational utilization of water resources and by the promotion of
ecological agriculture’’.21 They primarily focus on the reorganization of Beijing’s energy
structure as well as on air, water, noise pollution and solid waste control.
III.B. Reorganization of Beijing’s energy structure
The energy-derived air pollution constitutes the greatest environmental problem in Beijing.
The growing energy demand that has been mostly provided by coal is primarily responsible
for this situation since coal combustion introduces large quantities of carbon dioxide and
sulphur dioxide into the atmosphere.22 China’s disproportionate reliance on coal is striking.
Coal accounts for almost two-thirds of China’s total primary energy, followed by oil, natural
gas and hydropower.23 The expected coal demand in 2008 was projected to reach 31.60
million tons, calling for a drastic energy mix reorganization.24 In this context, Beijing’s
plan to significantly reduce coal consumption and to replace coal with clean energy sources
has to be seen as the centrepiece of the Olympic Action Plan. According to the Plan, ‘‘the
coal-dominated energy mix must be overhauled to establish a market-based quality energy
supply system, so as to ensure the sustainable development of Beijing’s social economy’’.25
Under this Plan, coal will provide less than 20 per cent of the terminal energy structure
and be of higher quality with a lower sulphur content.26 In order to keep coal use at less
than 15 million tons in 2008, major changes have been planned. This includes the
19 Ness, ibid., 48.
20 Beijing Olympic Action Plan, I. 4. Strategic Phases, ibid.
21 Beijing Olympic Action Plan, III. 2. Ecological Development, ibid.
22 Guojian Han, We Don’t Want a ‘‘Foggy London’’, 42 Beijing R (1999), 12.
23 Chris P. Nielsen and Michael B. McElroy, Energizing China, Reconciling Environmental Protection and
Economic Growth (1998), 10.
24 Beijing Olympic Action Plan, Sub-plan on Energy Development and Energy Mix Readjustment 2.1 Reducing
Coal Use (http://210.75.208.159/new_olympic/eolympic/0920_e/1l.htm).
25 Beijing Olympic Action Plan, Sub-plan on Energy Development and Energy Mix Readjustment 1. Guidelines
and Primary Objectives, ibid.
26 Beijing Olympic Action Plan, III. 1. Environmental Pollution Control; Sub-plan on Energy Development and
Energy Mix Readjustment, 1.2 Primary Objectives, ibid.430 Chinese JIL (2006)
re-engineering of the power structure supply, the limitation of the energy consumption
growth rate and the employment of new technologies in order to increase the efficiency of
energy resources. According to the Plan, several coke plants and mills will stop coke
production and power plants will switch fuels.27 The expansion of the centralized urban
heating system aims to reduce coal consumption. New energy resources such as natural
gas, geothermal, solar, wind and biological energy shall be employed as alternatives to
coal.28 For instance, the Plan calls for the building of 160 geothermal wells by 2008 to
heat 0.40 million square metres of the stadiums and gymnasiums located in the Olympic
Park. Furthermore, 90 per cent of hot water used in the Olympic Park will be provided
by solar energy. Wind power, with a potential capacity of 50 megawatts, is proposed to
supply 20 per cent of the Olympic Park’s electricity needs.29 Neither nuclear power nor
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hydroelectric power is specifically mentioned in the Olympic Action Plan as long-term
alternatives to Beijing’s energy supply, although China plans to expand its nuclear and
hydroelectric power-generating capacities. The number of nuclear reactors is scheduled to
increase from the current seven to 30 by the year 2012.30 This is very likely to be due to
the unequal distribution of hydroelectric power resources throughout the country and the
decision to set up nuclear power plants in inland regions. Also, none of these energy
sources is free of environmental concern. For instance, the Three Gorges Dam turned out
to be extremely controversial as the flooding caused by the dam submerged many villages,
towns and wildlife preservation areas.
III.C. Air pollution and transportation solutions
Besides coal combustion, vehicles contribute a large share to air pollution by emitting carbon
monoxide and particulate matters such as lead and sulphur. The relatively high particle
concentration causes severe problems especially. Today, about 2.3 million vehicles drive on
Beijing’s roads. The capital’s motorization rate increases by more than 10 per cent annually,
reaching a number between approximately 3 and 4 million vehicles by the time of the
Olympics in 2008.31 Moreover, China’s number of vehicles grows nearly twice as fast as
the extension of road construction. Beijing’s population has continuously been rising and
is expected to reach the total of 15 million in 2008.32 Poor road conditions and lower
average driving speeds increase congestion and accidents. After lung cancer, the second
leading cause of deaths in China is traffic accidents.33 The urban railway network provides
27 Beijing Olympic Action Plan, Sub-plan on Energy Development and Energy Mix Readjustment 2.1 Reducing
Coal Use, ibid.
28 Beijing Olympic Action Plan, III. 1. Environmental Pollution Control, ibid.
29 Beijing Olympic Action Plan, Sub-plan on Energy Development and Energy Mix Readjustment 3.4 New Energy,
ibid.
30 Frankf. Allg. Zeitung, Deutsche Hilfe für Atomendlager in China (18 May 2005), 1.
31 Han, ibid., 12; Keith Ho, China ‘‘Going Green’’ ahead of 2008 Olympics, 13 World Refining (2003), 10.
32 Quanshi Chen, How to fulfil the commitments on green Olympics, 1 (www.en.ce.cn/Insight/
t20040511_821675.shtml); The World Bank, Clear Water, Blue Skies: China’s Environment in the new
Century (1997), 74.
33 Petra Kolonko, Mörder auf der Straße, Frankf Allg Zeitung (28 February 2005), 8.Beyer, The Green Olympic Movement 431
only an inadequate service, especially to the city’s northern and southern areas. Beijing is also
home to numerous polluting factories in the inner ring of the city. Moreover, Beijing suffers
from severe dust storms that blanket the city with around 26,000 tons of dust each spring.
Roughly $5.4 billion have been earmarked to resolve the air pollution problem. The
ambitious aim is to meet the World Health Organization standards of sulphur dioxide
and nitrogen dioxide as well as to achieve levels of particles comparable to those in developed
countries.34 To tackle the causes of pollution, various measures are put forward, such as the
adoption of stricter emission standards, the improvement of industrial layouts and cleaner
production processes. Some 200 polluting factories primarily serving the chemical industry
which are situated inside the city will be relocated outside the fourth ring road by 2008.35 In
an attempt to control sandstorms in Beijing, major forestation will be undertaken. A 125-
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kilometre greenbelt is about to be planted, increasing the forested area surrounding the
central city by 50 per cent. Urban forestation and beautification projects shall be
implemented throughout the city with the goal of greening half of Beijing in 2007.36
In order to reduce high emissions due to less fuel-efficient engines and a high number of
vehicles using diesel, the Olympic Action Plan includes measures to enforce more stringent
standards. Leaded gas will be banned and 90 per cent of Beijing’s 20,000 public busses and
70 per cent of Beijing’s taxis shall be converted to cleaner energy by 2007.37 However, the
Olympic Action Plan gives the main priority to public transportation. By modernization of
the rail transport and road networks, up to 60 per cent of the daily commuters shall be
carried by public transportation.38 A new urban railway system consisting of 154.5 kilo-
metres shall carry approximately 2 billion passengers a year. In order to achieve this goal,
rail transportation, both for the subway system and trains, is planned to be expanded.
According to the Olympic Action Plan, eight new subway lines will be built with a total
length of 114 kilometres. Also, 650 bus transit lines shall be available, carrying 19.5
million passengers a day.39 Beijing also plans to increase the average auto speed to enable
transportation from the centres of suburban counties to the downtown area within one
hour. For the convenience of the participating athletes, the competition venues shall be
reachable within 30 minutes’ drive from the Olympic Village.40 In an effort to implement
such changes, Beijing will have to undertake major road construction. Newly built and
34 Beijing Olympic Action Plan, Sub-plan for Environmental Protection, 2 Ambient Air Quality (www.
210 – 75 –208.150/new_olympic/eolympic/0905_e/1.htm).
35 Beijing Olympic Action Plan, III. 1. Environmental Pollution Control, Sub-plan for Environmental Protection,
2(2) Industrial Pollution, ibid.
36 Beijing Olympic Action Plan, III. 2. Ecological Environmental Development, ibid.
37 Beijing Olympic Action Plan, Sub-plan for Environmental Protection, 3(1) Prevention and Control of Air
Pollution, ibid.
38 Beijing Olympic Action Plan, Sub-plan for Transport Construction and Traffic Management, 1.2 Urban
Transportation Development Objectives (www.beijing-2008.org/new_olympic/eolympic/1201_e/1.htm).
39 Beijing Olympic Action Plan, III. 3. Urban Transport Development and Management, Sub-plan for Transport
Construction and Traffic Management, 2.2 Buses, ibid.
40 Beijing Olympic Action Plan, Sub-plan for Transport Construction and Traffic Management, 1.2 Urban
Transportation Development Objectives, ibid.432 Chinese JIL (2006)
rebuilt urban roads will total 318 kilometres, including 54.1 kilometres of urban expressway,
86.7 kilometres of main roads and 96 kilometres of roads in the central area. In order to
reduce commuting between counties by 2008, an extensive system of highways and express-
ways shall be constructed.41
III.D. Water solutions
According to the provisions of the Olympic Action Plan focusing on sustainable water util-
ization, the resourcing of water constitutes the core of a healthy ecosystem. Any utilization
and development of water resources should consider the water cycle and avoid pollution.42
In fact, besides flooding, which has occurred more frequently and caused more damage in
recent years, water shortage and water pollution have stressed China’s water system. Water
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shortage affects more than half of Chinas cities, including Beijing, annually and almost
one-third of urban rivers cannot be used as irrigation water.43 Northern China, where
Beijing is located, has only one-fifth of the per-capita water resources of southern China,
causing water extraction to exceed sustainable levels.44 The water shortage amplifies the pol-
lution. Water mismanagement has worsened the situation. Water has neither been allocated
nor used sustainably. Currently, only 60 per cent of water used for agriculture passes through
ditch irrigation systems.45 Pollution has not been prevented efficiently and recycling options
have hardly been pursued.46 China’s industries recycle water at a rate of about 40 per cent
whereas OECD47 countries show a rate of about 70 per cent.48
In an effort to curb Beijing’s water-related problems, especially to protect groundwater
sources and to restore reservoirs, the Olympic Action Plan provides preventive measures
such as the construction of sewage-treating and recycling systems. More than 90 per cent
of the sewage in Beijing’s urban area shall be treated by 2008 and half of the treated
sewage water recycled.49 Although industries are responsible for more than half of the waste-
water discharges, municipal wastewater is rising. Beijing aims to extract and treat sewage
directly through wastewater treatment facilities in order to provide water for environmental,
municipal and production purposes. Eventually, Beijing’s main water resources—the Miyun
and Guanting reservoirs—shall again become sources of potable water.50 Interestingly,
China’s ambitious South –North Water Transfer Project, which aims to alleviate water
41 Beijing Olympic Action Plan, III. 3. Urban Transport Development and Management, Sub-plan, 2.1 Road
System, ibid.
42 Beijing Olympic Action Plan, Sub-plan for Environmental Protection, 3(2) Prevention and Control of Water
Pollution, ibid.
43 The World Bank, ibid., 2, 87.
44 The World Bank, ibid., 88.
45 The World Bank, ibid., 88.
46 The World Bank, ibid., 86.
47 Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development.
48 The World Bank, ibid., 89.
49 Beijing Olympic Action Plan, III. 1. Environmental Pollution Control; III. 2. Ecological Environment
Development; Sub-plan for Environmental Protection, 3(2) Prevention and Control of Water Pollution, ibid.
50 Beijing Olympic Action Plan, III. 1. Environmental Pollution Control, ibid.Beyer, The Green Olympic Movement 433
shortages in northern China by diverting water from southern rivers of the country, is not
mentioned in Beijing’s Action Plan. This is surprising, since the Middle Route Canal
Project that diverts water from the Danjiangkou Reservoir to Beijing was specifically accel-
erated in order to be completed before the Olympics in 2008. In total, a system of three
south-to-north cannels, stretching across 1300-kilometre distances in eastern, middle and
western parts of China, shall provide Beijing, the Tianjin municipality and the province
Hebei with water.51
III.E. Solid waste control and noise control solutions
The Olympic Action Plan also puts forward solid waste and noise control management
policies. In order to reduce industrial, commercial and domestic solid waste at their
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source, measures for treatment, separate collection and recycling shall be introduced and pro-
moted. A total of 80 per cent of industrial solid waste ought to be reused by 2005 and a strict
management system for hazardous waste be adopted to realize 100 per cent safe treatment
and disposal. A number of facilities shall be constructed with a capacity to treat all domestic
refuse in both the urban and satellite towns until 2005. By the end of 2007, 80 per cent of
the central towns should be provided with their own treatment facilities.52 Noise abatement
shall give priority to controlling noise pollution caused by vehicles, construction sites and
social activities. Especially large automobiles will be restricted to certain routes and
speeds. Advanced techniques such as noise-deafening structures shall be employed to
decrease traffic noise. Noise levels in urbanized areas shall meet national standards by 2008.53
IV. The Olympic Games as a catalyst for China’s sustainable
development
IV.A. The essence of green Olympic Games
As the entire world will turn its attention to Beijing for the weeks of the Olympic Games in
2008, this event has the capacity to function as a catalyst for environmental, social and
political change. Clearly, the business community will profit from Beijing’s massive effort
to host the green Olympics. In a world market that is increasingly aware of ecological
degradation, green Games will certainly offer companies the chance to cultivate an image
as environmentally friendly players. However, as with other mega events, the Olympic
Games pose themselves numerous environmental problems, including resource consump-
tion, waste accumulation and shortages in transportation capacities. Therefore, the question
has to be raised of whether the environment will actually benefit. Moreover, can this com-
mercialization be used to promote sustainable development that will continue after the last
51 Frankf Allg Zeitung, Zu weit vom Wasser gebaut (17 January 2004), 7.
52 Beijing Olympic Action Plan, III. 1. Environmental Pollution Control; III. 1. Solid Waste Control, Sub-plan for
Environmental Protection, 3(3) Solid Waste Management, ibid.
53 Beijing Olympic Action Plan, III. 1. Environmental Pollution Control; III. 1. Noise Control, Sub-plan for
Environmental Protection, 3(5) Noise Management, ibid.434 Chinese JIL (2006)
athlete has left the Olympic Village? Generally, environmental commitments are difficult to
uphold, since the Olympic Games are a multibillion-dollar business with a lot of competing
interests involved. Thus, the crucial question is: what truly does make the Olympics green?
The third pillar of the Olympic movement leaves ample room for interpretations, implying
that measuring the ‘‘greenness’’ of the Games is not a simple task. Since the Olympic Games
are highly mobile affairs that are staged in different locations, difficulties arise in the adoption
and implementation of universal standards due to varying cross-cultural interpretations of
the environmental protection policy. Therefore, the concept of green Games has to be
placed in its broader context of sustainable development. Sustainable sport is a relatively
new concept in both environmental and sport circles and the detrimental impact of sporting
activities on the environment as well as the negative impacts of a degraded environment on
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sport participants are complex.
The term ‘‘sustainable development’’ is generally considered to have been coined by the
1987 Brundtland Report, which defines this principle as a ‘‘development that meets the
needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to
satisfy theirs’’.54 Clearly, sustainable development goes beyond environmental conservation.
Environmental, economical and social issues are interlinked, implying that sustainable
actions must take into account the interplay between these three dimensions. Sustainable
development calls for long-term structural change to achieve ecological balance, economical
security and social equity.55 This demonstrates that the concept of green Games surpasses the
bare common interest of athletes and spectators in basic air and water quality standards.
Spoken in general terms, the planning of large-scale sports events requires prior impact
studies which ensure the objective of sustainable development by means of presenting pro-
tective measures, provisions for the minimization and compensation of damages in cases of
irreversible change as well as by stipulating strategies for restoring sites after the dismantling
of temporary structures. As a holistic approach, this concept covers measures for the ecologi-
cal conservation and management of resources, for strengthening the role of major groups
and for the improvement of socio-economic conditions in general.56
One of the prominent examples of green Olympic ideals and perhaps the longest lasting
reminder of the three-week event are the Olympic sports facilities. Any sustainable planning
has to lay its focus on the construction, use and maintenance of the development as well as on
its re-use, recycling and deconstruction. Particularly with regard to post-Olympic usage of
sports facilities, multi-purpose buildings will very likely enjoy preference. In general, the
use of existing sports facilities will have priority whereas the creation of new sports facilities
ought to be confined to cases in which the demand cannot be satisfied by conversion or reno-
vation. Moreover, sustainable development requires that sports facilities are harmoniously
integrated into their environment, involving the preservation of existing ecosystems and
54 World Commission on Environment and Development, Our Common Future (1987), 43.
55 Phillipe Sands, 1 Principles of International and Environmental Law (1995), 198.
56 Olympic Movement’s Agenda 21, 3 The Olympic Movement’s Action Programme for Sustainable Development,
ibid.Beyer, The Green Olympic Movement 435
are in accordance with considerate planning of land use. Therefore, the selection of building
sites constitutes an important assessment category. In addition, the design of the building
and its orientation have the potential to achieve significant energy savings. Natural
ventilation and lighting, as used in ancient Chinese buildings, could become an important
feature of the green Olympic structure. With regard to infrastructure, the preference lies in
the use of durable, renewable and local materials as well as on the application of techniques
which facilitate the economical use of resources and efficient water and energy management.
By exerting hydrogen energy, natural gas, solar power, water recycling and rainwater
collection, the Olympic Village and venues may become role models as net zero consumers
of energy and fresh water. Similar demands apply to the selection of sports equipment.
Renewable, non-toxic and local products ought to be given preference to minimize the
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expenditure of energy and transport.
In order to guarantee the efficient implementation of these measures, all suppliers and
vendors should be audited by independent institutions according to prescribed standards.
One option would be to issue credits for specific categories such as material efficiency and
rational use of resources and require a certain minimum to be attained for certification.
Such an assessment procedure could avoid environmental concerns being displaced and
therefore contribute to the legitimacy of sustainable projects in the eyes of the international
community. Frameworks such as ISO 14001—a certification standard for environmental
management planning—can be referred to and become an adaptable model for future
Olympics. With regard to transport facilitating the mobility required for the successful
hosting of Olympic Games, non-polluting means of locomotion should be encouraged to
avoid exhaust gas and excessive land use for road networks, especially for highways and
parking areas. For short distances, types of travelling employing muscular strength typically
associated with sports such as walking and cycling ought to enjoy priority. More than merely
encouraging advanced technologies and facilities to reduce immoderate energy consumption,
the staging of Olympic events shall also be conceived as a catalyst for providing access to
renewable and non-polluting energy sources for areas lacking adequate power supplies.
Similarly, the Olympic movement should support activities to preserve water resources,
avoid practices which aggravate existing supply shortages or pollution levels and ensure
that waste water is processed. Furthermore, measures to minimize waste and community pro-
grammes for the management and recycling of waste are important features of sustainable
development. Particularly, the remediation of contaminated sites located in the development
area combined with afforestation efforts can be taken as an example. In addition, strengthe-
ning the role of major groups and of international co-operation as well as raising ecological
awareness and education are important factors for meeting the socio-economic aspects of
green Olympic Games.57 Sports in general serve as a terrific vehicle to encourage people,
especially the youth, to develop environmental consciousness and to combat social exclusion.
This presupposes access to information as regards the development and its environmental,
57 Olympic Movement’s Agenda 21, 3.3, ibid.436 Chinese JIL (2006)
social and economical implications as well as co-operation through joint activities such as the
creation of regional sporting activities centres which also can serve as educational centres.
IV.B. Evaluation of Beijing’s Olympic Action Plan
The provisions set forth in the Olympic Action Plan are quite ambitious and demonstrate
great efforts in the preparation of Beijing’s environment for the Olympic Games in 2008.
The Plan openly acknowledges most of the city’s key problems and provides strategies and
long-term solutions. However, the massive infrastructure projects involved in the preparation
for the 2008 Games have the potential for new environmental problems. Of the 37 sport
venues planned, 19 need to be newly built and 13 expanded. Moreover, the city will con-
struct 59 training venues, a media village, news centres and an Olympic Village of 70,000
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square kilometres in size. The area of the Olympic-related construction site will be
2,160,000 square kilometres in total, over one-tenth of Beijing’s construction area.58 Ironi-
cally, the green look for the Games might intensify existing environmental problems. The
greenery of Beijing and the new artificial lake located in the ‘‘Olympic Green’’ will use up
tremendous amounts of groundwater, further deplete aquifers and therefore very likely
exacerbate the water shortage. Besides, the Beijing Olympic Action Plan does not specify
any market-based measure to reduce the overexploitation of water; it solely stipulates that
‘‘a more reasonable water pricing system’’ shall be adopted.59 With regard to air pollution,
merely moving factories out of the city may save the capital but threatens the environment of
surrounding areas. Furthermore, the plan does not restrict coal use for urban heating in spite
of the fact that around 15 per cent of the inner city’s residents still heat their homes with
coal-burning stoves. One major obstacle to the readjustment of China’s energy mix will
likely be the lack of infrastructure and transportation facilities for alternative energy
resources. The necessary infrastructure for Beijing’s energy supply still has to be built. The
existing Shaanxi –Beijing natural gas pipeline is limited in its capacities, implying that
the construction of a second pipeline is mandatory, being able to transport the additional
2.6 billion cubic metres of natural gas provided for in the Olympic Action Plan.60
Nevertheless, despite these flaws, Beijing has made environmental issues an integral part of
the overall management structure of the Olympics and has, on the whole, set itself specific,
measurable and publicly available goals. This especially applies to the adoption of more
stringent vehicle emission standards, to the improvement of the public transportation
system and to the introduction of renewable and non-polluting energy resources.61 Also,
the layout of the principal Olympic site—the Olympic Green, with its multi-functional
public centre containing sports venues, accommodation and commercial as well as cultural
facilities—includes numerous implementation details of this holistic approach, considers the
long-term development of the city and provides measures for resources and energy-saving
58 Beijing Olympic Action Plan, II. Development of Olympic Venues and Related Facilities, ibid.
59 Beijing Olympic Action Plan, 2 Rational Use of Water Resources, ibid.
60 Beijing Olympic Action Plan, Sub-plan on Energy Development and Energy Mix Readjustment, 3.1 Natural
Gas, ibid.
61 Beijing Olympic Action Plan, 3 Prevention and Control of Environmental Pollution, ibid.Beyer, The Green Olympic Movement 437
techniques.62 Particularly in comparison with Sydney’s Environmental Guidelines for the
Olympic Games, Beijing’s Olympic Action Plan is rather comprehensive and presents a
variety of features which the Australian Plan lacked. In Sydney, the principal focus was
laid on remediation the toxic waste of the contaminated main site for the Olympic
activities—a former industrial area selected for urban renewal.63 However, in the end, the
intention to extend the clean-up activity to the surrounding area of the Olympic site went
unfulfilled, leaving this location as one of the most toxic waterways in the world. Nonethe-
less, with the world’s largest solar suburb, the phase-out of toxic plastic material, successful
habitat protection and public transportation access, the 2000 Olympics in Sydney were the
‘‘greenest’’ Summer Games ever, although more could have been achieved.64 This clearly
demonstrates that any plan for sustainable development lacks teeth unless measures for
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comprehensive and publicly accountable independent auditing and monitoring exist.
In order to evaluate the potential of Beijing’s Olympic Action Plan to green the Games,
the city’s commitment to public involvement has to be looked at. Taking into account the
time before the Games were awarded to Beijing, it has to be noted that the city has already
sought to encourage ecological awareness of its citizens by issuing weekly reports on the levels
of certain air pollutants since 1998, which have proven to be so popular that they are now
published daily.65 China had also begun to open the political space for domestic and inter-
national environmental NGOs prior to the decision in 2001. Although this political change
was obviously more induced by the need for assistance in dealing with pressing environ-
mental issues than by an indication of an increasing liberal power structure and despite
the fact that a transparent legal framework was and still is not available, the Chinese govern-
ment was willing to put old protectionist policies aside to meet its environmental goals.
Similarly, the Chinese government opened the market for foreign companies with expertise
on environmental matters. Particularly high-tech environmental devices such as advanced
energy-efficient heating and cooling systems, recycling and processing facilities for safe dis-
posal of waste have been invited to participate in the modernization process.66 However,
the increased importance of business corporation has also come at the expense of NGOs
which have originally been included in the bidding process. The auditing and monitoring
measures stipulated by the Olympic Action Plan reserve the external supervision over
major activities concerning construction projects, funds, goods and personnel recruitment
to ‘‘specialists’’ being generally comprehended as environmental consultants from large
multinational corporations whereas the involvement of NGOs is limited to urban beautifica-
tion and education projects.67 It remains to be seen whether Beijing’s Olympic supervision
institution meets the strict requirements of an independent auditing and monitoring body.
62 Beijing Olympic Action Plan, II. Development of Olympic Venues and Related Facilities, ibid.
63 Environmental Guidelines for the Summer Olympic Games, Soil Quality, 18, ibid.
64 Hellen J. Lenskyj, Sport and Corporate Environmentalism, 33 IR Sociol Sports (1998), 341.
65 Yunakai Tang, Green Beijing, Green Olympics, 44 Beijing R (2001), 16.
66 Marc Brody and Michael Letters, The Green Olympics and CSR, 30 China Bus R (2003), 26; Scott Kronick and
Dalton Dorne, Going for an Olympic Marketing Gold, 32 China Bus R (2005), 8.
67 Beijing Olympic Action Plan, 6 Setting up Supervision and Auditing Mechanisms, ibid; Hildebrand (2003), 21.438 Chinese JIL (2006)
No doubt, China will definitely make significant improvements in order to host
green Olympic Games. The Olympic Games have clearly been a catalyst for sustainable
reform in Beijing and provided the impetus for a wide-reaching technological influx.
However, these changes should not be limited solely to improvements of the capital but
should spread to other cities. Beijing is not the most polluted of China’s cities and
the environmental problems of the rest of the country must also be addressed. So as to
provide the required long-term sustainable development, measures will need to be extended
beyond the year 2008. In the end, it is the broader legacy of the Games, not solely the
three weeks themselves, that will have a lasting impact on the environment, locally
and globally.
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IV.C. Recommendations
In order to secure an impact of Beijing’s green Olympics that lasts beyond the three weeks of
the mega event, incentive-based measures ought to be specified and newly developed to
address overexploitation of resources and excessive consumption. Therefore, regulations
generally should be complemented by market-based measures which provide incentives
for environmentally friendly behaviour.
This involves reforms in the pricing system for natural resources and raw materials.
Especially, the increase in prices both for industries and consumers would encourage
more sustainable resource management and enable Beijing to break the cycle of resource
shortage and pollution. For instance, Beijing ought to introduce means to support the effec-
tive lowering of air pollution and energy consumption such as surcharges and consumption-
based taxes for high-polluting vehicles. In addition, Beijing could encourage the retirement
of old vehicles lacking fuel-efficiency motors and expelling high emissions by creating a
programme for the purchase of such vehicles.
Moreover, co-operation with the industry should be sought, particularly in the field of
recycling and the development of water-efficient technologies. An important issue is the
completion of China’s environmental law regime. As particularly historical contamination
constitutes a major problem for Olympic sites, this issue should be addressed by introducing
remediation obligations and clean-up standards.
Since the Olympics represent an opportunity to encourage physical exercise, short-
distance travelling by means of muscular strength and awareness of its ecological impact
should be promoted. Particularly in Beijing, where pedestrians, bicycles and rickshaws
have coined the city’s historical image for decades, these forms of locomotion should
enjoy priority for short-distance travelling. Therefore, besides promoting the public trans-
portation sector, the attention ought also to be directed to the construction of safe sidewalks
and cycle paths. Besides, programmes could be institutionalized to encourage open-air sport
activities aiming to strengthen people’s estimation of an intact environment. As, in Beijing,
crowds of sports enthusiasts can be seen in parks and on community sports grounds, the
Olympics offer a promising vehicle to promote ecological consciousness.
Considering the fact that for most Chinese people, the Olympic Games will solely be a
television event, the media presence as a very influential force should be used to increaseYou can also read
