EVANSTON - 15 STORIES 150 YEARS - EVANSTON ROUNDTABLE
←
→
Page content transcription
If your browser does not render page correctly, please read the page content below
Evanston
15 Stories • 150 Years
A
A RoundTable
RoundTable MAGAZINE
MAGAZINE
15 STORIES • 150 YEARS 1
Happy 150 th
Birthday Evanston!
The Original Fountain Square–1946 by Walter Burt Adams Courtesy of the Evanston Historical Society
Other Banks May Have Branches Here…
But We Have Our Roots™.
We put community first.™
820 Church Street Evanston 847-733-7400 • 2925 Central Street Evanston 847-733-9600 • 824 Emerson Street Evanston 847-328-1974
741 Main Street Evanston 847-328-4639 • Corner of Green Bay Road & Winnetka Avenue Winnetka 847-784-8888
8047 Skokie Boulevard Skokie 847-329-0400 • 4007 Dempster Street (at Crawford Avenue) Skokie 847-763-1626
1250 N. Arlington Heights Road Itasca 630-250-3510 • 55 Shuman Boulevard Naperville 630-348-2300
www.firstbt.com Member FDIC
2 15 STORIES • 150 YEARS
Evanston
Early Days
15 Stories, 150 Years
page 3: Native American Traces
By Mary Helt Gavin
page 4: Pioneers Settle on the Ridge
By Anne Bodine
page 9: Evanston’s Dazzling Start
By Janet G. Messenger
Three
Groundbreaking
Evanstonians
page 12: Frances Willard, Evanston Activist
By Natalie Wainwright
page 22: Charles G. Dawes, The 30th
Vice President of the United States
By Larry Gavin and Victoria Scott
page 36: Edwin B. Jourdain Jr.,
Evanston’s First African American Alderman The Importance of Education
By Shawn Jones 15: School District 65:
page
From a Log Cabin to a Global Mission
By Larry Gavin
21: Built for the Ages:
page
Evanston Township High School
By Victoria Scott
page 26: Literacy, Learning and Libraries
By Mary Helt Gavin
Charting Community Health
page 30: The Practice of Medicine
By Mary Helt Gavin
page 31: Evanston Hospital
By Judy Chiss and Larry Gavin
page 33: St. Francis Hospital
By Larry Gavin and Mary Helt Gavin
page 35: The Evanston Sanitarium
By Morris “Dino” Robinson
y parade
gons in the Fourth of Jul
Top photo: Flags and wa
celebrating the country’s
centen nia l. Beacons and Monuments
76.
Ga the rin g at Fountain Square, 18 44: Grosse Point Lighthouse
Bottom photo: der n and
page
turn of the centur y, mo
On the cover: Near the ati on at Fou nta in Squ are. By Judy Chiss
nsport
traditional modes of tra
dios Inc. page 46: Fire and Water: Fountain Square
nston Photographic Stu
Photos by/courtesy of Eva By Mary Helt Gavin
15 STORIES • 150 YEARS 1
Wresting the Land
15 Stories for 150 Years By the time traders and explorers came to
this area, the Pottowatomie occupied most of the
The RoundTable turns 15 with a salute to our town on shores of Lake Michigan, including what is now
its Sesquicentennial. This magazine presents some stories Evanston.
about early Evanston: traces left by the Pottawatomie near
the lakeshore, the early white settlers on The Ridge, some of The portage afforded to the Des Plaines River,
Evanston’s first institutions and some who helped shape them. and thus to the Mississippi River, from Gross Point
attracted traders and explorers to this area. Father
This is not a compendium, nor even a real history, and all
the events are abbreviated, much more than Evanston’s rich- Jacques Marquette and explorer/trader Louis
ness deserves. Joliet are believed by some to have set foot here
in 1663 or 1664.
These stories show how ideals built this community, and
while they reveal that some of those ideals were heedless French traders adopted many Native American
of the rights of women and minorities, they also show that customs and some married Native American
some of our early leaders did not embrace the status quo. The wives. Many tribes sided with the French in their
Women’s Christian Temperance Union territorial war against the British, over which of
was as much pro-family as anti-liquor. Too many husbands these European nations would “own” the land
and fathers spent too much of their money at local saloons, in the Midwest and other parts of this country.
dragging their families into poverty. This led to internecine conflict among some of the
The cause of womens’ rights – a source of derision in Midwestern tribes, who sided variously with
many places – took root here, in what Frances Willard called the French of the British.
“Parnassus” and Orrington Lunt, a “woman’s paradise.” But
The Treaty of Paris in 1763 officially ended the
even paradise on earth can have its limits, and many of those
French and Indian War with a “Christian, universal,
limits were imposed on the community’s minority population.
Restrictive covenants and institutional racism kept most of the and perpetual peace, as well by sea as by land.”
community’s black population confined geographically and The treaty gave the British most of the Midwest.
socially. From this enforced isolation grew some of Evanston’s After the Revolutionary War, the United
strong, though segregated, institutions, notably Community States wrested the land from the Native
Hospital, the Emerson Street YMCA and Foster School. Americans through a series of treaties. In the
Concerns for public safety and health led to the formation 1820s and early 1830s, the U.S. government
of our police force, fire-fighting teams and our two remaining pressured the tribes to cede or sell their land
– and stellar – hospitals. to the government in a series of treaties.
Public schools and a free library – ideas so fine and so This forced the Native Americans westward
ingrained in our culture that we just take them for granted and opened the territory here to permanent
in this country today – came to Evanston within just a few settlement by white settlers.
decades of its founding. And the genesis of it all was our
world-class Northwestern University.
We hope these stories give a flavor of the spectrum that Editors
is our Evanston’s 150 years of trying to forge a community Mary Helt Gavin, Larry Gavin
of beauty and harmony from disparate – often deliberately Project Managers
so – populations, cultures and dreams. We believe it will give Mary De Jong, Mary Mumbrue
readers a chance to delight again in what they already know
and encourage them to learn more about what seems new.
Writers
Anne Bodine, Judy Chiss, Larry Gavin
We plan to cover additional topics, such as Evanston’s Mary Helt Gavin, Shawn Jones,
businesses and churches and its committment to civic issues Janet G. Messenger, Morris “Dino” Robinson
and the arts, in subsequent magazines.
Victoria Scott and Natalie Wainwright
We would like to acknowledge the extraordinary help of
Advertising Sales
Genie and Steve Lemieux-Jordan of Evanston Photographic
Studios and Morris “Dino” Robinson of Shorefront Legacy
Greg Clarke, Dorothy Laudati
Center. Their willingness to dig into their troves allowed us Graphic Design/Production
for a few months to live in and study Evanston’s innovative Kathy Ade
and exciting but sometimes painful past. Evanston RoundTable, LLC
At Northwestern University, Kevin B. Leonard, University 1124 Florence Ave. Suite 3
archivist, Janet C. Olson, assistant University archivist, and Evanston, IL 60202
Yvonne Spura, archive assistant, generously shared their Ph 847-864-7741, Fax 847-864-7749
knowledge and their photos. www.evanstonroundtable.com
All of us look forward to this sesquicentennial year, which info@evanstonroundtable.com
will afford us more time to synthesize our future from the sales@evanstonroundtable.com
past and the present.
From the writers and editors Published January 2013
© Evanston RoundTable, LLC
All rights reserved as to entire content.
2 15 STORIES • 150 YEARS
Native American Traces
by mary helt gavin
There are still traces of hunting
Indian trails along the shores of Lake
and fishing encampments, chipping
Michigan and on the ridges west of
the lake and its swamps were marked stations (where arrowheads and axe
by bent trees and worn deep into the heads were created from flint or other
ground by bare feet and moccasins. local stones) and stories of voyagers
The lower limbs of the marker trees and scouts who used the portage at
were bent to grow parallel to the
Grosse Pointe for their trips inland
ground. White oaks were used as
marker trees in the Evanston area, from points on the Great Lakes.
but farther north, the markers were
white elms.
The Pottowatomie appear to be the
last tribe in the Evanston area. They
were hunters and were called by early
Evanston writers “prairie Indians,” Artist’s conception: Archange
as distinguished from their eastern Ouilmette by George Lusk.
brethren, the “Pottowatomies of the Painting is in Wilmette
Woods.” Historical Museum.
Through a series of treaties government granted land in
between Native Americans – including what is now Wilmette and
the Pottowatomies – and the U.S. the north part of Evanston
government, the land in what is to Archange Ouilmette,
now Evanston was ceded to the the Pottowatomie wife of
government. The final treaty was Home of Antoine Ouilmette (1828-44).
Antoine Ouilmette. Mr. Ouilmette, a From a water-color drawing by
signed in 1834. French trader and one of the earliest Charles P. Westerfield. Photo source:
In gratitude for the help of the settlers of Chicago, moved to this area “Evanston: Its Land and People”
Pottowatomie chief in bringing at some time between 1826 and 1829.
about the 1829 treaty, the federal Their wedding – the first North Shore Archange Ouilmette and other
wedding of which there is any history Pottowatomie were sent to Iowa,
– took place in 1796 or 1797 in and Antoine Ouilmette accompanied
what is now Wilmette. them. The treaty allowed the sale of
The Evanston part of the her land only by permission of the
Ouilmette land was the site President of the United States, so in
of at least two Pottowatomie 1844, seven of the eight Ouilmette
chipping stations: One is said to children petitioned to allow the land
have been on the Northwestern to be sold. Since few or none of the
campus, where in the 1880s family members resided in the area
the Dearborn Observatory and since the trees – the main asset
stood. A second is marked by of the land – were being cut down
a plaque on a boulder near (stolen), the family requested the U.S.
Evanston Hospital. The chipping government to repurchase the land
station was abandoned in for $1.25 per acre. The government
1835, when by treaty the bought the reservation and resold
Pottowatomie were relocated it in several parts, the Evanston
from the Evanston area north to portion bringing $1.50 per acre. This
Wilmette and beyond. repurchase allowed white settlers to
populate what is now the northern
part of Evanston.
Historical marker on Sheridan
Road near the Grosse Point The Daughters of the American
Lighthouse marks the southeast Colonists erected a plaque along
corner of land given by the Sheridan Road in front of the Grosse
federal government to Point Lighthouse, describing the treaty
Archange Ouilmette. and the gift of lands to Archange
RoundTable photo Ouilmette and her descendants.
15 STORIES • 150 YEARS 3
Pioneers Settle on the Ridge
Before the Town
of Evanston was
incorporated in
1863, most of what is
Evanston today was
waterlogged. However,
about a mile inland
from Lake Michigan
the land rose up to 615
feet above sea level.
This high, dry ground
was known to settlers
as “the ridge” but has
since been named by
the National Register
of Historic Places as the
Evanston Ridge Historic
District.
Source: “Evanston: Its Land and People”
Evanston’s Annexations/Organization
In accordance with the Township Act of 1849, In 1872, Evanston was incorporated as a “village”
the male settlers of “Township 41” (in which by a vote of 104-37. In 1873, South Evanston and
Evanston is located) met in April 1850 and North Evanston were both incorporated as villages.
chose the name “Ridgeville” for their township. After it incorporated as a village, Evanston was
The State Legislature subsequently changed the no longer subject to the one-square-mile limit, and
name to Evanston Township in February 1857 it made many annexations. The two largest were
and simultaneously expanded its boundaries. North Evanston in 1874 and South Evanston in 1892.
Evanston then existed under a loose form of The residents in the annexed territories benefited
county and township government until 1863. by having a source of water provided by Evanston’s
In that year, the residents decided that water works plant as well as other governmental
Evanston should be incorporated as a “town,” services. Evanston benefited by increasing its tax
which by law could only include one square base.
mile of land. The boundaries at the time were In 1892, the residents of Evanston voted to
roughly Foster Street, the lake, Dempster Street become a “city” by a vote of 784 to 26. Evanston
and Wesley Avenue. has remained a city since that time.
4 15 STORIES • 150 YEARS
by anne bodine
A drive down Evanston’s narrow and bumpy Ridge
Avenue can be a daunting task, especially during rush
hour, but a glance to the east and west offers commuters
a glimpse into Evanston’s rich past. Distinguished homes
of varying architectural styles tower over Ridge Avenue,
enhanced by deep lots, well-maintained lawns, mature
trees and parkways adorned with ornamental street lights
designed by noted architect Thomas Eddy Tallmadge.
These impressive homes harken back to a time when the
highest and driest land in the area, once known as “the
ridge,” attracted early pioneers to settle and develop the
property, building the foundation for what is the City of
Evanston.
Before the Town of Evanston was incorporated in 1863,
most of what is Evanston today was waterlogged. However,
about a mile inland from Lake Michigan the land rose up to Mulford’s Tavern served as the first courthouse in Cook County
615 feet above sea level. This high, dry ground was known and the first post office in Evanston. Photo courtesy Northwestern
to settlers as “the ridge” but has since been named by the University Archives
National Register of Historic Places as the Evanston Ridge
Historic District. It attracted pioneers in the 1830s and 40s The first permanent settlers on “the ridge” were Major
and later merchants and professionals who made their Edward H. Mulford (1806-78) and his wife, Rebecca. He had
fortunes during the Industrial Revolution. These determined come west from New York in 1833 to establish a jewelry
men and women built homes, raised families and ultimately business with his sons. In 1836 he bought 160 acres of
prospered there, setting the stage for what is today the government land for $1.25 an acre in what was known as
vibrant City of Evanston. the Grosse Pointe Territory. He built a rough board cabin in
order to establish his claim.
Pioneers Make Their Way to “The Ridge”
In about 1840, Maj. Mulford, known as the “gentleman
“The ridge” was formed along the shoreline of geologic
pioneer,” also built a large log tavern, The Ten-Mile House,
Lake Chicago during the Calumet Stage as the melting
where travelers on the Green Bay Road stopped overnight.
glaciers retreated. This area of high ground determined
Appointed Justice of the Peace, Maj. Mulford held the first
s
the pattern of settlement, for between “the ridge” and
what was known as the “high bluff”(where Northwestern
University sits today) lay lower, wetter areas that often had
to be negotiated by boat.
Things That Go ‘Hoot’ in the Night
Arunah Hill, visiting the Mulfords in 1836,
Foster Farm ???? describes in his “Reminiscences” the night
the BIG WOODS noises around the Mulford house: “Large forest
In the 1840s, the land west of the Ridge (Ridge trees stood near the house, and as soon as the
Avenue) was prairie land, and a little farther west was sun went down, the wolves, which were very
timberland as far south as Rose Hill; it was referred to as numerous, would commence to howl. As the
the Big Woods. Logs were cut from the Big Woods and darkness deepened, the sounds would indicate
the nearer approach of the animals, and often in
prepared for hauling when the ground to the east froze,
the midst of the howls of the wolves there would
since it was impossible to haul the logs over the marshy
be heard the piercing cries of lynx and wildcats.
ground in other seasons. The logs were made into rafts, Owls hooted from the trees and added to the
put into Lake Michigan and navigated to the mouth of nocturnal chorus, which filled the family with
the Chicago River by a tow line fastened to a yoke of fears, until they became accustomed to these
oxen. Oak wood sold for 75 cents a cord. After the land voices of the night.”
was cleared of the oak trees, the stumps were put in
piles and burned in a way that generated charcoal.
15 STORIES • 150 YEARS 5
court in Cook County in his tavern. Although his house and streets for the Depot and the right-of-way of the Chicago
tavern sat south of today’s Ridge Historic District, it was & Milwaukee Railroad. The first train between Chicago and
nonetheless important as a social and political center of the Waukegan came through Evanston on December 19, 1854.
growing settlement as others built cabins along “the ridge” The trains became the vital transportation link that brought
in the ensuing years. In 1846, the first post office in Evanston wealthy Chicago entrepreneurs north to live with easy access
was established there. to their workplaces in the city.
A Schoolhouse, a Cemetery Growth and Prosperity Ensue
And a Train Depot By the time the Town of Evanston was incorporated
According to the 1840 Census, 154 of the 330 people on Dec. 29, 1863, “the ridge” had begun to develop in a
living in Grosse Pointe were under the age of 15. So the homogenous fashion. Soon the high ground that attracted
pioneers built a school. professionals as well as employees of the newly formed
University would become distinguished by fine residential
In 1842 Henry Clarke gave a half-acre of land on the west
architecture designed by important builders and architects
side of “the ridge,” where Ridge Avenue and Greenleaf
such as Daniel Burnham, Dwight Perkins and Thomas
Street would later intersect, for the site of the school as well
Tallmadge.
as a burial ground situated just west of the one-room log
schoolhouse. The schoolhouse and cemetery might seem As the original settlers sold and subdivided their lands, the
an odd combination, but burial lots were sold in advance, prime property on the west ridge (as the west side of Ridge
providing ready money to help pay for the land, the Avenue came to be called) formed large estates that often
schoolhouse, its furnishings and teacher salaries. covered entire blocks.
Students made their way to the schoolhouse by foot or Today, homes of varying architectural styles sit on
horse-pulled wagons except during the wet seasons, when relatively large, deep lots. It is not unusual to find a Queen
they required rowboats, canoes or rafts to navigate the low- Anne style house next door to an Italianate house next door
lying, swampy areas between today’s Ridge and Chicago to a Prairie style house because of the way in which blocks
avenues. developed. Those who bought entire blocks at a time would
After the school closed around 1860 (actual date is often select the center of the block to build their home,
unclear), it continued to be used for several years as a leaving the corners for those who might pay a premium to
church and community center. The cemetery provided a final build their own houses.
resting place for Evanston families until 1871. It took another Thus, much of the unique character of today’s Ridge
20 years before the cemetery was removed from the area’s Historic District is the result of the development by those
wealthiest neighborhood. Eventually all the bodies buried who made their fortunes from the advances of the Industrial
there were moved to Rosehill Cemetery in Chicago. The Revolution. However, Evanston’s very own prominent social
site of the school and cemetery has been designated with reformer Frances E. Willard may have said it best when she
a historical marker since 1960. gave credit to the resourceful pioneers who first settled on
As the pioneer community grew, the original settlers were the highest land among murky waters in her book, “A Classic
joined and sometimes displaced by merchants, lawyers, Town” (1892):
manufacturers and other professionals who established “On the ridge they have lived anywhere between forty
homes here after the installation of Evanston’s first train and fifty years, having at an early day drawn up their feet out
depot in 1854. of the swamps on either side, by which less hardy pioneers
Andrew J. Brown, one of the incorporators of had been discouraged, and planted them upon the firm
Northwestern University in 1850, helped shape the town’s vantage-ground of what later comers have developed into
future by donating the land between Dempster and Church Evanston’s most aristocratic street.” n
MULFORD DRAINAGE DITCH
The land between the ridges in Evanston was for the college campus and the site of the first Biblical Institute
most part low, swampy ground, and at times impassible building, Dempster Hall.
without a raft or boat. East ridge ran along Chicago Another early ditch, the “Big Ditch,” was built to
Avenue. A larger ridge running along Ridge Avenue was drain the land west of Ridge Avenue, and was con-
to the west. Dutch Ridge was still further west. nected with the North Branch of the Chicago River and
In the 1840s, several settlers made the first attempt the lake near the harbor in Wilmette. The ditch was
to drain the swamp by constructing “Mulford’s ditch” about four miles long and six or seven feet deep.
between Chicago and Ridge avenues. The ditch, a A Drainage Commission was formed in 1855 to drain
wooden box drain, drew water north and east and the wet lands. Over time, the low areas were filled with
emptied into the lake through a ravine between the dirt to bring them to the levels that they are today.
6 15 STORIES • 150 YEARS
Celebrate dance in 2
013
!
All Volunteer
Community Animal Rescue Effort
A Unique Shelter Matching Pets With People Since 1987
Transforming Evanston’s unwanted dogs and cats into
treasured companions with love, training and socialization
Offering pre-adoption guidance, affordable adoption fees
and post-adoption support
Emphasizing best practices in animal sheltering
C.A.R.E., P.O. Box 1964, Evanston, Illinois 60204
phone 847–705–2653 web care-evanston.org facebook.com/CAREevanston
15 STORIES • 150 YEARS 7
the real snail mail
Before there was Twitter, people wrote letters. The first
post office in what is now Evanston was established at
Mulford’s Tavern in 1846, relieving folks of the trip to
either Chicago or Niles (Dutchman’s Point) to find out
news from friends and family. The “e”s were dropped from
Grosse Pointe, and the new facility was the Gross Point
Post Office.
The first postmaster, George M. Huntoon, served for two
and a half years. He was one of the six (or so) children of
George Washington and Lucinda Huntoon, who moved to
Grosse Pointe in 1841.
Postman Tranis delivers mail to the Lunt Library on Another early postmaster was Edwin A. Clifford, who
the Northwestern campus in 1916. Photo courtesy was appointed in 1865 and served until 1877. Following
Northwestern University Archives him were Orlando Merwin and then John A. Childs.
George Huntoon’s During that time the post office, which had been located
house, one of the on Chicago Avenue near Davis Street, was moved to 617
first clapboard Davis St. (1874); to 810 Davis St. (1889) and finally to “the
houses in the area, government building” in 1906.
was built in 1843
on the Ridge. House numbers no doubt facilitated the delivery of
Photo courtesy mail, but in Evanston free mail delivery preceded home
Northwestern addresses. In 1881, the village trustees took on the idea of
University assigning a number to every house, but the project was not
Archives completed until after 1886. By that time mail delivery was
free and George W. Hess was postmaster.
Mr. Childs was twice reappointed postmaster: in 1889
and again in 1897.
Evanston’s
In “A Classic Town,” Frances Willard reports that by
First Telephones 1891 there were “five authorized stamp agencies … in
In about 1891, the first telephone various parts of the village.” Mail delivered that year
station was erected in Evanston at 612 included 1,190 registered letters, 649,572 letters and
Davis Street. By 1898 there were 554 103,609 postcards. More than 12,000 post cards,
telephones in Evanston, mostly in 187,263 mail letters and 26,840 post cards were collected,
businesses, where the telephone became Miss Willard wrote.
regarded as a necessity. Two years later
the number of telephones installed had
nearly doubled.
early Railroad Trains
The first railroad train passed through
Evanston on its way to Waukegan in 1854;
it was the Chicago and Milwaukee Railroad,
which merged with the Chicago and North
Western in 1866. In 1874, the cost to ride from
Chicago to Evanston was 14 cents on a 100-
ride ticket. At first, there was only one train in
the morning and one in the evening; and there
was only a single track. In 1882, a double track
was completed. Even though Evanston was the
first station north of Chicago, one commuter
reported he had to leave his home at 4 a.m. to Evanston station of the Chicago,
Milwaukee & St. Paul Railroad,
arrive at his office in Chicago by 7 a.m. 1887. Photo courtesy Northwestern
University Archives
8 15 STORIES • 150 YEARS1855 –
evanston’s
dazzling
start
Within a few years of
1855, Evanston got its
name, the first passenger
trains stopped here,
the first black resident
by Janet G. Messenger
arrived and three In the almost five years since NU
Perhaps the most important year was chartered in January 1851,
colleges started classes. in all Evanston history was 1855. Its its Methodist founders had been
One of these, North pivotal events still shape the City of methodically laying the groundwork for
Western University, Evanston today. success, acquiring hundreds of acres
of land and using their political clout
pushed through two North Western University – its name
not officially changed to Northwestern to gain advantageous legal rulings.
amendments to its state Classes did not begin until Nov. 5,
until 1863 – was not the first or even
charter, one keeping the second institution of higher 1855, in a new three-story building
Evanston dry until 1972 education to open its doors here. with six classrooms, a museum, a
First was Garrett Biblical Institute, chapel and a bell tower.
and the other preventing
which began classes on the new NU It stood at the northwest corner of
it from taxing university campus in January 1855. Next came Hinman Avenue and Davis Street. Back
land, which still holds North-Western Female College which then, the west end of Davis Street was
today. opened in the fall, offering classes over called College Street, only one of the
Colvin’s store while it waited for its ways the University put its stamp on
elegant new building to be dedicated the future Evanston.
in December at the northwest corner Until 1855, Evanston had had two
of Greenwood and Chicago. names – Gross Point and Ridgeville –
North Western University trustees both owing to distinctive geological
were eager to see the town grow, but formations. It was first called Gross
they certainly did not cotton to this Point in 1846 when the new post
new female seminary – disliking its office needed a name. Gross Point
Photo above from 1874 shows name, which implied an NU connection referred to the eyebrow or point
Northwestern University’s first that did not exist, its grand structure, jutting out at the lakeshore where the
building, dedicated in 1855. It was lighthouse is today. This name was first
which put the University’s simple frame
originally at the northwest corner
building in the shade, and its rush out used in the 1600s by Father Jacques
of Hinman Avenue and Davis
of the starting gate. The “fem sem” Marquette, who beached canoes there
Street and was later moved to the
campus. It was used for many not only began classes before NU, it in 1864, a year after he and his French
years as a preparatory academy boasted eight times the enrollment: 84 countryman, fur trader Louis Joliet,
for the University. Photo courtesy coeds in 1855 compared to only four were the first white men to explore
Northwestern University Archives students at Garrett and 10 at NU. the Mississippi River valley.
s
15 STORIES • 150 YEARS 9The name lasted only until Trustees had originally of the Methodist church. Maria Murray
1849, when both the post intended to locate NU in (1840-1900) became the first African
office and newly created Chicago, but the University’s American resident of Evanston when
Township #41 were named first president, Clark T. she arrived in 1855 with newcomers
Ridgeville, in recognition of Hinman (1817-1854), urged Mr. and Mrs. Allen Vane. Maria Murray
the two ridges (along Ridge Clark Hinman them to forge a new identity (later Mrs. George Robinson) came
Avenue. and Chicago Avenue.) outside the city, where they here as a maid for Mary Vane, who had
that ran parallel to Lake could buy cheaper farmland, bought her out of slavery and arranged
Michigan. lay out a town and then sell for her freedom.
While these ridges may lots to support the institution. The first African American baby
not seem impressive today – Although Pres. Hinman born in Evanston was Mary Louise
partly because of improved died before Northwestern Scott Fields (1869-1934), daughter of
drainage and because tons ever enrolled a student, the Andrew (1841-1924) and Susan Scott
of landfill have raised the trustees took his advice and
grade in between them – began buying up farmland
Orrington Lunt north of Chicago.
they once influenced daily JOHN EVANS
life enormously, as residents Their first purchase, the In 1855,
lived on the dry ridges but swampy 379-acre Foster Dr. John Evans
still had to negotiate the low farm, stretched from what settled into
swampland in between to today would be Milburn Evanston, in a
reach stores, blacksmiths, to Dempster and the lake “Gothic cottage”
church, school, the post office to Orrington or, in some which by the
and each other. Every fall and places, all the way to Maple. 1890s had been
spring, the lowlands turned They bought it for $25,000 moved to 1317 John Evans
Chicago Ave.
wet, with some residents Philo Judson in 1853, and that was just Photo courtesy
While in the Northwestern
resorting to paddling boats Photos courtesy the beginning. In 1854 they
Midwest, he University Archives
and some critics scoffing Northwestern bought another 248 acres left the field of
that Evanston land should be University Archives just west of the Foster farm. medicine for
bought by the gallon. Today, that property would be commerce, helping to build the
The name Ridgeville lasted until the bounded roughly by Church Chicago and Fort Wayne Railroad.
post office was renamed Evanston. and Dempster, Chicago and Asbury. One of the founders of
University trustees had already That same year they bought the Billings Northwestern University, he
submitted an 1854 downtown plat farm south of Central Street and in served as president of its board for
for registration under the name 1855 added the Robinson farm, not 42 years, many of them while he
Evanston. They had briefly considered the last they would acquire. lived out of state.
Evans, Lakewood and University During 1854, Northwestern trustee President Abraham Lincoln
Place, Luntville and Simpson and then and business agent Philo Judson appointed him governor of the
chose Orrington for their colleague (1836-99) laid out the town, giving it a Colorado Territory, an office he
held from 1862 until 1865.
Orrington Lunt (1815-1897), who had systematic north-south, east-west grid
found the campus site after months except for the projected downtown, The Sand Creek Massacre of
of searching, but Mr. Lunt deflected which he twisted slightly so its 14 Cheyenne Indians on Nov. 29,
1864, essentially ruined Gov.
the honor. Instead, he proposed that blocks tip to the northeast. After the
Evans’ political career. He was
the town be named for his brother- plat was accepted by county officials, sanctioned and removed from
in-law and fellow trustee, John Evans he began selling lots in July 1854. office after a Congressional
(1814-1897), a physician, a Methodist John Evans and Grant Goodrich, investigation. Colonel John
minister and a real estate mogul whose co-founders of both Northwestern Chivington, Gov. Evans’ right-
know-how helped create a firm financial and Garrett, moved here, occupying hand man, essentially engineered
foundation for the fledgling institution. two of the area’s 40 houses. Philo the massacre, which occurred
It could have been Evansville, Evanshire during a series of peace talks.
Judson started a store, over which the
or Evanstown, but some say the name Methodists held their meetings. Gov. Evans and Col. Chivington
Evanston salutes both Northwestern later established Denver Seminary,
Evanston’s growing population soon now Denver University.
founders with its final syllable a little
reflected the stalwart abolitionist stance
nod to OrringTON.
10 15 STORIES • 150 YEARS(18??-1912), who came here during vinous, or fermented liquor … within passed its own temperance law in a
the Civil War. By 1882, Evanston had four miles“ of the University except for November 1934 referendum. Evanston
enough black residents to fill two medicinal, mechanical or sacramental remained dry until 1972.
churches of their own. uses. The four miles – measured from The University charter’s second
Another legacy of 1855 was the the Hinman-Davis intersection where amendment still stands. It gave
arrival of the Chicago and Milwaukee the college building stood – reached NU a tax-free status for as many as
Railroad, which ran its first passenger all the way to Devon Avenue in 2,000 acres of Illinois land. It reads,
trains through the village mid-year. Chicago. Evanston never managed to “all property of whatever kind or
It was NU’s John Evans who made close down all the blind pigs inside description, belonging to or owned
sure the train came but did not the four-mile limit. With a puny $25 by said corporation, shall be forever
despoil the lakefront; he arranged penalty for any infractions written right free from taxation for any and all
track right-of-way through town and into the amendment, Evanston officials purposes.”
persuaded trustee Andrew J. Brown were often ridiculed when they tried
In every decade Evanston has
(1820-1906) to deed land for the Davis to close saloons beyond Evanston
undergone changes, including this last
Street depot. This foresightedness borders.
10 years with the continuing departure
made Evanston an attractive place to Nonetheless, this ban stood in of manufacturers and other for-profit
live because of its easy commute to force in Evanston proper for almost 80 enterprises while increasingly relaxed
Chicago and also helped nurture its years. After national prohibition ended zoning allows much greater residential
role as a cultural and retail hub of the in 1933, when the 21st amendment density, pushing the city’s skyline into
North Shore. to the U.S. Constitution repealed the clouds. But it is doubtful that any
A more important change came the 18th amendment, the repeal decade, let alone single year, made
on Valentine’s Day 1855, when the was construed to apply to all state such important and lasting changes as
state legislature granted two crucial prohibitions as well. Evanston, home that of Evanston’s stunning inaugural
amendments to NU’s 1851 charter. to the national Women’s Christian year of 1855. n
The first banned the sale of “spiritous, Temperance Union since 1900, quickly
Creating smiles for 60 Years!
Anything But Ordinary
EBSA 1953-2013
Register today for the 2013 season at
hand made in evanston
www.evanstonbaseball.com www.christopherduquet.com 847-733-0656
15 STORIES • 150 YEARS 11Frances Willard
Evanston Activist This photo, dates from
of her leadership in the around 1874, when
“Four years after the village Frances E. Willard was
was named and platted, and mid-to-late 1800s of
the first dean of women at
the Woman’s Christian
when it numbered hardly Northwestern University.
Temperance Union (WCTU)
more than 500 inhabitants, and its successful lobbying
Photo courtesy of the
Frances E. Willard
my parents came here for the 18th Amendment Memorial Library &
to live: here their three to the United States Archives.
children were graduated, Constitution. But Miss
and from here three of the Willard was also a force for change in Starting in May 1860, Miss Willard
other areas of American life and was taught in a variety of women’s colleges
five who constituted our a person, as well, the product of her in Illinois and in Pittsburgh. She was
family have been laid to upbringing and of her time. briefly engaged to Charles Fowler,
rest in Rosehill Cemetery. That which most made her a a divinity student, but broke it off
… I speak as one of the true Evanstonian was not that she herself.
earliest pioneers who yet made her home here, was an early Evanston continued to be the home
survive in Evanston.” proponent of women’s education here she returned to, as she did from
or became the first dean of women at Pittsburgh in 1863, when General
(From “Evanston, Northwestern University. It is that she Robert E. Lee and the Confederate
A Classic Town”) deeply loved Evanston, the City that Army crossed the Potomac. But she
grew up with her and that matured at was teaching again in Lima, N.Y., in
By Natalie Wainwright the same time as she did. Evanston 1866. Two years later, with a friend,
Most residents know that had something of her in its molding: Frances Willard travelled abroad,
Evanston is home to the Frances the demand for respect for one finally returning to Evanston in 1870.
Willard House Museum, and they another and equality of treatment for She took a job at the new Evanston
know what Frances Elizabeth all. Evanston accepted temperance College for Ladies, which then merged
Caroline Willard herself is most reform as integral to the production with Northwestern University – as an
known for today – for having been of a moral environment in which that instructor of aesthetics and as dean
a powerhouse behind the institution could happen. of women. She resigned, however, in
of Prohibition in 1920. Many know Frances Willard, who 1874, when it became clear that male
this was because came to be seen as such students and faculty – including Mr.
a daughter of Evanston, Fowler – were unable to accept her.
was not born here, nor That winter, at the age of 35,
even raised in the City. Frances Willard became serious about
The family moved here the Woman’s Christian Temperance
when Frances was 19, so Union and accepted the Chicago
This statue of that Oliver, the eldest at branch’s leadership role. She began
Frances E. Willard 24, could attend Garrett speaking at meetings about both
was given to the Biblical Institute, and temperance, suffrage and the right of
National Statuary Frances and her sister women to vote. She also talked about
Hall Collection by Mary could attend North related issues as she saw them: labor
Illinois in 1905. The Western Female College, organization, eight-hour workdays
State appropriated a seminary for women with and improvement of factory workers’
$9,000 for the Methodist connections. conditions. She urged the end of child
statue, by artist She became involved labor, raising the age of sexual consent
Helen Farnsworth
to some degree in the for females to 16 and establishing laws
Mears. Along with
temperance movement regarding rape. She was a rousing
that of James Fields,
during this time, signing speaker and spoke in towns and cities
the statue represents
an abstinence pledge as far away as Great Britain, where her
Illinois in the
herself in 1855. She ideas were very influential.
Collection in the U.S.
was valedictorian with a Frances Willard insisted on the
Capitol building.
“Laureatte of Science” importance of women’s suffrage
in 1859.
12 15 STORIES • 150 YEARSas critical to women’s lives and inextricable from
temperance in its importance. She earned the presidency Polio still cripples thousands of children around the world.
With your help, Evanston-based Rotary International
of the Illinois WCTU and then of the national WCTU, the and its partners can wipe this disease
country’s largest organization of women, and co-founded off the face of the earth forever.
the World WCTU in 1883. She joined in founding the To contribute or learn more, visit endpolio.org
Rotary
or stop by the End Polio Now exhibit at
National Council of Women in 1888 and served as its Rotary International headquarters,
1560 Sherman Avenue.
president its first year.
END POLIO NOW
On the occasion of the dedication of a marble bust of
Frances E. Willard at Northwestern University, speaker
Senator Albert J. Beveridge (1862-1927) said of her:
“Frances E. Willard was the conscience of the 19th
century incarnate. She proved that the most practical age
of the world can produce the most effective idealist of
history. She was like no other character, and yet like all
the mighty ones of earth. She was Savonarola or Lincoln
We Are ThisClose to Ending Polio.
or Gladstone or even Disraeli in her practical sense….”
Her famous slogan was “Do Everything.” She has been
called “the mother of grassroots organizing.” While she
was familiar with and a friend to people of national and
international celebrity, it was those from Evanston who
moved her to write extensively of them. Her “Evanston:
A Classic Town” is ultimately a biography of a City and a
work of love.
Miss Willard reportedly said of the town she favored
over all others, “When I get to Heaven, register me from
Jackie Chan
Evanston.” n
Chiaravalle Montessori
celebrates Evanston’s 150th year.
We are honored to be part of a
community that places a high value
on the education of children.
Since 1872, the northeast corner
of Dempster and Hinman has
been a school. This tradition of
eduational space continued with
the construction of the H.H.C.
Miller School in 1898. Chiaravalle
Montessori, founded in 1965,
began to call 425 Dempster
“home” in 1980.
Here’s to the next 150 years!
Parent/Infant · Parent/Child · Toddler · Early Childhood 3-6 · Elementary · Middle School
Come See What We Do
You’ll get a clear understanding of how the learning
process at Chiaravalle is designed to connect how
and what children learn.
425 Dempster, Evanston, IL 847.864.2190 www.chiaravalle.org
15 STORIES • 150 YEARS 13The Savor of a Community
After his term as president, social way is not to be found by
Benjamin Harrison gave a speech in position, wealth or even literary
Indianapolis in which he described accomplishment. There is no royal
how people assess a community. A road to the favor of Evanston people.
prospective resident, he said, “will They are reserved, self-contained –
want to know all about the homes, even indifferent. One might think it
the schools, the churches, the social caprice, whim, anything you like.
and literary clubs, whether it is a place “There is no explaining it. It
where domestic life is convenient cannot be explained or described,
and enjoyable, where the social life is but we may generalize. The ways
broad and hospitable, where vice is of Evanston society are past all
in restraint; where moral and physical finding out … It is not like anything
sanitation have due provision, where one has ever read in novels of
charity is broad and wise …” English society life. … Evanston
When Evanstonians of today pride has enemies. It also has critics. But
themselves on activism, innovation Evanston laughs with the critics and
and civic pride, they should know takes no notice of its enemies. The
that they did not invent these – they critics have plenty to criticize and
inherited them. Historian J. Seymour Evanston knows it and will not show
Currey quotes some remarks about the least vindictiveness on that
Evanston, made in the 1890s by “a score. … But its enemies! When
gentleman who has long been familiar you find them you don’t wonder
with Evanston society”: that Evanston despises them. You
“Evanston may not be won by will even say, ‘I love her for the
blandishments. Recognition in a enemies she has made.’”
Photo by/courtesy of Evanston Photographic Studios Inc.
EVANSTON TOWNSHIP HIGH SCHOOL
Home of the Wildkits
Established in 1883, Evanston Township High School has been an integral part of the Evanston community
for nearly 130 years. More than 67,000 Evanstonians have graduated from ETHS, one of the top-ranked
high schools in Illinois and in the nation. We are committed to working together with parents, community
members and business professionals to prepare our young people for multiple avenues of opportunity and
to continue to provide a world-class educational experience for generations to come.
Photo courtesy of Lynn Trautmann (LT Photo, Evanston)
1600 Dodge Avenue • Evanston, IL 60201 847-424-7000 • www.eths.k12.il.us
COMMUNITY
PA R T N E R
14 15 STORIES • 150 YEARSSchool District 65
From a log cabin to a global mission
by larry gavin Over the next 50 years, ten schools were built in what
The first school in Evanston operated out of a cooper shop became Evanston, all of which were either eventually
in the early 1840s near the intersection of Ridge Avenue and replaced with much larger school buildings on the same
Crain Street. A year later a one-room log school was built on site or abandoned. Seven were built east of Ridge Avenue:
the northeast corner of Ridge Avenue and Greenleaf Street. Benson Avenue School, 1860 (abandoned for a railroad
Historical sources give different years in which the log school right-of-way); North Ridge School, 1871 (site of Noyes
was built, ranging between 1842 and1845. Cultural Arts Center); Madison Street School,1871 (site
The log school, established 14 years before Illinois law of Central School, which was closed); the Dempster
authorized tax-supported schools, was operated on a Street School, 1871 (site of Chiaravalle Montessori
“subscription” basis; tuition ranged from three-fourths of 1 School); East Side School, 1886 (site of Lincoln School);
cent to 6 cents a day, depending on the number of students Haven School, 1888 (abandoned); Larimer School, 1894
and the teacher’s salary. The first teacher was paid $1.25 a (site of Larimer Park).
week. The log building also served as a church and meeting Three schools in that time frame were built west
place. A cemetery was in the back yard, and a marshy swamp of Ridge Avenue: Central Street School, 1870 (site of
was to the east. Independence Park); Wesley Avenue School, 1882 (site of
Children who lived along Chicago and Hinman avenues, Dewey School); and Washington School, 1902.
then known as East Ridge, could cross the marsh using a During this period Evanston was a national pioneer in
narrow bridge made of single planks; they could balance implementing many new ways to educate students. In
themselves while traversing the planks by using poles that 1873, the elementary schools were organized with grades
were left on either side of the bridge. At times children – previously students were often taught together in one
were required to use rafts or boats to cross the marsh to classroom. In 1875, over objections that the public should
get to school. not provide a free high school education, high school
In 1852, the first school districts were formed in Township classes were taught in a room on the third floor at the
No. 41 (which encompasses Evanston). The first school Benson Avenue School, until Evanston Township
established as a public school and funded with public bonds High School was established in 1883. In 1894, the first
was probably built in 1852. The one-room school was on the kindergarten was established at Wesley Avenue
north side of Church Street, just east of Maple Avenue. School, an outgrowth of a kindergarten class
established by the Women’s Christian Temperance
Movement. In 1897, one of the first mother’s
In 1881, the Hinman Avenue School was clubs in the nation, and a forerunner of the
built at Hinman Avenue and Dempster Street, PTAs, was started at Noyes School.
s
originally the site of the Dempster Street School.
The Dempster Street School building was moved
to Clark Street and Benson Avenue in 1881 and
used by the Second Baptist congregation until
it was destroyed by fire in 1889. Photo
source: “Evanston: Its Land and People”
15 STORIES • 150 YEARS 15In 1913, Evanston pioneered the concept of using the
departmental method of instruction in the seventh and
eighth grades. Five years later, an intermediate school was
established at Noyes School, bringing together seventh-
and eighth-graders from all schools in Evanston. When the
high school moved to a new building in 1924, Evanston’s
school districts bought and operated the old high school
building for use as an intermediate school. By this time, as
a result of consolidations, Evanston had two school districts,
District 75 and 76.
A few years later, in 1927, Haven Intermediate School was
built, and Nichols Intermediate School was built in1928.
In 1950, School Districts 75 and 76 were consolidated
and became District 65. After the consolidation, District 65
had the following K-6 schools: Central, College Hill, Dewey,
Haven Lower, Lincoln, Lincolnwood, Noyes, Miller, Oakton, After a fire destroyed Central School in March 1894, a state-of-the-art
Orrington, Washington and Willard. It had two junior high building, pictured above, was built to replace it at Main Street and
Elmwood Avenue. The new school opened in January 1895 and was
schools, Haven Upper and Nichols, and one K-8 school,
closed in the mid-1970s. School was in session during the 1894 fire,
Foster. but through heroic efforts of teachers and several local businessman,
At the time of the consolidation, District 65 had no lives were lost, although 10 persons were injured. Photo courtesy
approximately 5,000 students, and administrators Northwestern University Archives
projected the enrollment would grow to 10,000 students
by the mid-1960s. In the next 16 years, the District added 59% of the children who had previously attended Dewey
five new school buildings to accommodate the increased School were reassigned to new schools. Most of these
growth: Dawes (1954), Timber Ridge (now named Bessie children were assigned and bused to one of seven schools
Rhodes) (1957), Skiles Junior High (now Martin Luther King) on the District’s periphery as their attendance-area school.
(1956), Kingsley (1965) and Chute (1966). As a third part of the plan, all of the District’s school
Segregation and Desegregation attendance areas were redrawn so that the enrollment of
African American children in each school ranged from 17%
In 1920, Foster School, which was located in the west
to 25% of the student body at the school.
section of what is now the Fifth Ward, was almost exclusively
white. During the 1920s, Evanston’s downtown was While many people and organizations supported
redeveloped, and many African American families who were the desegregation plan, a number of neighborhood
forced from the downtown area settled in the west part of organizations were formed to oppose it. To give some
the Fifth Ward. In addition, the African American population perspective on the level of interest, a School Board election
in Evanston increased from 6,000 to 12,000, many of whom in April 1970 drew more than 26,000 voters, far in excess
settled in the Fifth Ward. By 1930 the student body at Foster of the 3,000 who typically turned out for such elections.
was almost entirely African American. It remained that way The election, which was closely split between two slates
until the mid-1960s. of School Board candidates, was viewed by many as a
referendum on the then-superintendent, who was viewed
In the early 1960s, the percentage of African American
by some as moving quickly to fully integrate all aspects of
students at Foster School was 99%, at Dewey School – 66%,
the schools and by others as abrasive.
at Noyes and Central Schools – 33%, and at Haven Lower,
Miller and Washington schools – 5% to 10%. Few or no Evanston was the first Northern city to desegregate all
African American students attended the District’s nine other of its elementary schools.
elementary schools. School Closings and Racially
Under pressure from local groups, the School Board Balancing the Schools
adopted a formal desegregation plan in 1966. Under the
Student enrollment dropped from 10,860 students in 1967
plan, Foster School was closed as a neighborhood school,
to 8,413 in 1976 and to 7,061 in 1979. Closing schools and
becoming instead a laboratory school offering innovative
simultaneously redrawing attendance areas in order to avoid
educational programs for grades K-5. The laboratory
overcrowding and maintain racial balance in the schools was
school, later named the Martin Luther King, Jr. Experimental
a major challenge.
Laboratory School, was open to the entire District and was
designed as a magnet to draw white children to the school In September 1976, the District implemented a plan under
and thereby desegregate it. which College Hill, Miller, and Noyes Schools were closed.
In addition, Skiles Middle School was closed as an attend-
As a second part of the desegregation plan, all of the
ance-area school and turned into a magnet school serving
children who had previously attended Foster School and
grades 6-8.
16 15 STORIES • 150 YEARSIn 1886, the four-room East Side School was built at Main Street the School Board adopted a guideline that “no defined
and Forest Avenue. Within ten years, parents clamored for more racial group shall exceed 60% of a school population.”
adequate space, and in 1896 Lincoln School, pictured below, For the next 22 years, the District attempted to adhere
was built with architecture similar to that of the new Central
to the 60% guideline by redrawing attendance areas, by
School. This building was used until 1960. Photo courtesy
reopening Timber Ridge (Bessie Rhodes) as a magnet
Northwestern University Archives
school and by taking race into account in deciding whether
to admit students to the magnet schools and in granting
permissive transfers.
In June 2007 the United States Supreme Court held
that a student’s race could not be taken into account in
deciding whether to admit the student to magnet schools,
even if the purpose was to promote integration. District 65
amended its policies to comply with this decision.
Valuing Education
The Evanston community has a long history of valuing
and supporting education. Since at least the 1960s, the
community has also valued diversity in the schools. In 1999
the student body was 45% white, 43% African American
and 8% Hispanic. This year the percentages are 44% white,
25% African American, 18% Hispanic and 7% multi-racial.
Many people have chosen Evanston as the place to raise
The District approved a second-school closing plan in their children because it offers a high quality, diverse
early 1979. (Under this plan, the Board closed Timber Ridge, education.
Central and Kingsley schools and transferred the King Lab Nonetheless, an achievement gap between white and
School program to Skiles (now known as King Lab.) Thus, African American and Hispanic students continues today.
the old Foster School building would no longer be used as The gap in District 65 is due in part to the very high levels
a magnet school. of achievement of white students, who on average score
During the debates on the school closings, many African at the 88th percentile on the Illinois Standard Achievement
American leaders urged that the old Foster School building Test. Another factor is that very high percentages of African
be used to reestablish a neighborhood school in the Fifth American and Hispanic students in the District are from
Ward. They said African American children had borne a dis- low-income households. African American and Hispanic
proportionate burden of desegregating the District’s schools: students in the District who are from non-low income
They lost their neighborhood school and were five times more households have in recent years performed at substantially
likely to be bused to school than white children. The School higher achievement levels than the statewide average for
Board denied their requests, saying that fewer children all students. Progress is being made.
would be bused under the school closing plan selected. Reflecting a broader world view, the School Board
In light of the school closings, District 65 was required adopted a new mission statement in 2009 as part of its five-
to redraw attendance areas. It did so in a way that would year strategic plan: “Educating each student to succeed
racially balance the schools in accordance with a rule in and contribute to our global community by cultivating
adopted by the Illinois State Board of Education. In 1985, creativity, compassion and the pursuit of excellence.” n
Addressing the Needs of a Diverse Student Body
Since the early 1960s, District 65 has implemented To accommodate an increased Hispanic population,
many programs to address the needs of a diverse student in 2001 the District implemented the Two-Way-
body, such as by implementing the Head Start program, Immersion Program, a bilingual program in which
offering academic interventions for students, adopting Spanish-speaking and English-speaking students are
a more culturally responsive curriculum, and training taught in the same classroom. To offer an option to
teachers to be culturally sensitive. The District has also African American and other students, in 2006 the
attempted, within budgetary constraints, to offer fine District began to offer the African American Curriculum
arts and foreign language as part of the curriculum. In which infuses African and African American culture
more recent years, the District has placed a major focus into the curriculum. To better address the needs
on meeting the needs of a diverse group of students in of students with a disability, in 2009 the District
the same classroom by differentiating instruction and implemented the Inclusion Program, a program whose
pushing supports into the classroom, rather than by goal is to move more students with a disability into the
pulling students out of the classroom for interventions. general education classrooms.
15 STORIES • 150 YEARS 17You can also read
