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Commonwealth Games 2010 – The Media Journey
Submitted By:
Jasveen Kaur
PGPCM, 2009-11
Under the guidance of:
Prof. Arbind Sinha
February, 2011COMMONWEALTH GAMES 2010 – THE MEDIA JOURNEY
© Copyright Jasveen Kaur, 2011, and
Mudra Institute of Communications, Ahmedabad
2|PageCOMMONWEALTH GAMES 2010 – THE MEDIA JOURNEY Abstract There is a need to understand the changes in the pattern of content and tone of communication sent out by the mass media to the world. It has an influence on shaping public perception of the country to the world outside. During the Commonwealth Games held in Delhi in 2010, media through its communication reported and influenced the opinion surrounding the main stakeholders of the games namely the government, the organizing committee and the athletes. What was reported in the media at that time formed a cumulative identity of the nation within India and to the world outside. Therefore there is a need to look at the shifts in media bias – in terms of both tone and content during the Commonwealth Games, 2010, and transcend the journey it took before, during and after the games and compare the difference. There has been no study done so far on media transition during the games. For this research project, content analysis is used as a tool to map the media bias by analyzing the news articles collected from the print media on the CWG – pre, during and post event for a 60 days period. 104 articles reporting on Commonwealth Games were selected from The Times of India, Delhi edition from the date of 1 September 2010 to 30 October 2010, to conduct the analysis of media journey during CWG 2010. It was concluded from the research that the same media which raised doubts about the country‟s ability to host the games at first did not hesitate from praising the government and the organizing committee when the games commenced and also when the Indian players performed well, it was the media lauded them, especially since the foreign players were in the nation competing. But media also did not shy away later from asking questions as to what went wrong in the first place. It presented all the facts to the people of the country and played its role of an informer, at the same time influencing people mindset regarding their opinions on three major stakeholders: the government of India, the state government of New Delhi and the organizing committee. 3|Page
COMMONWEALTH GAMES 2010 – THE MEDIA JOURNEY Acknowledgement First of all I would like to thank Mudra Institute of Communications, Ahmedabad for spurring my interest in the field of media and communications and giving me an opportunity to conduct a study. I would like to extend my heartfelt gratitude to Prof. Arbind Sinha, my guide for helping me throughout and always appreciating my efforts and inspired me to delve deep in to the subject. 4|Page
COMMONWEALTH GAMES 2010 – THE MEDIA JOURNEY
Table of Contents
Abstract ................................................................................................................................................................ 3
Acknowledgement ................................................................................................................................................ 4
Introduction .......................................................................................................................................................... 6
Literature Review ................................................................................................................................................. 8
Mass Media and Effects ............................................................................................................................................8
Dimensions of media effects ..................................................................................................................................9
Agenda Setting ........................................................................................................................................................10
Agenda Setting as a Peripheral Effect ................................................................................................................11
Agenda Setting as a Cognitive-Transactional Effect ..........................................................................................12
News Framing .........................................................................................................................................................13
Media and Audience Perception .............................................................................................................................14
Media – Structural Functionalism ..........................................................................................................................16
Mass Communications during crisis .......................................................................................................................17
Some Cases..............................................................................................................................................................18
Knowledge Gap .................................................................................................................................................. 20
Research Problem Statement ............................................................................................................................. 22
Research Objective ............................................................................................................................................. 22
Research Methodology ....................................................................................................................................... 22
Data Text ............................................................................................................................................................ 24
Pre-CWG: 1 September 2010 to 3 October 2010 ....................................................................................................24
During CWG: 4 October 2010 to 13 October 2010 ................................................................................................43
Post-CWG: 14 October 2010 to 31 October 2010 ..................................................................................................47
Findings and Inference ....................................................................................................................................... 55
Pre-CWG: 1 September 2010 to 3 October 2010 ................................................................................................55
During CWG: 4 October 2010 to 13 October 2010 ................................................................................................56
Post-CWG: 14 October 2010 to 31 October 2010 ..................................................................................................57
Conclusion .......................................................................................................................................................... 59
Bibliography ....................................................................................................................................................... 61
5|PageCOMMONWEALTH GAMES 2010 – THE MEDIA JOURNEY
Introduction
“Whoever controls the media, controls the mind.” – Jim Morrison
Citizens of the world, till date, witness the “second-hand” reality, which is structured and edited
by the media about the events that happen in our country and the world outside. Although the
medium of the media has evolved over the years, first there was the telegraph, then the radio, the
newspaper, to television and now to the internet, the role of mass media till date still remains to
keep us informed about the latest events happening in the world outside, the world beyond our
immediate experience.
By the means of news, mass media attempts to focus our attention to the event and at the same
time influence our perception on the same. This role of media is referred to as the “agenda
setting role”.
The Mass Media and the Public Opinion, states that the media shapes public perception by
giving them cues – both subtle and overt (Combs, 2004). To elaborate, for instance, the
placement of the news article in the newspaper. Presence of the story on the front page implies
more importance to the news than to the news articles on the inside pages. Other cues for
importance in the newspapers can be the length of the headline and the length of the article. For
television news, the time spent on reporting a particular event signals the importance of the topic.
Also, presenting expert opinions on the bulletin and encouraging debate among opinion leaders
can be seen as cues for the viewers. Across all media, repetition of a topic implies its importance.
These cues from the media helps the public organize their own agenda and decide which issues
are the most important. In other words, mass media sets the public agenda. This forms the initial
stage in the formation of public opinion.
Through mobilizing of public opinions for major events like elections, political scams, crimes
and sporting events, media has the power to affect the identity of the nation. To cite an example,
the media coverage for the Commonwealth Games in Delhi, India in October, 2010, impacted
India‟s perception not only domestically but internationally as well.
Before the games started, the media left no stone unturned to exhibit how unequipped the Indian
government and the Organizing Committee for the Commonwealth Games were to conduct the
6|PageCOMMONWEALTH GAMES 2010 – THE MEDIA JOURNEY games in Delhi. The issues highlighted included corruption by officials in the organizing committee, delays in construction at various games‟ venues, poor condition of the games village, money laundering, poor ticket sales, etc. However, the tables turned once the games started as the inaugural ceremony was widely praised across the world. The concerns that were raised before the games were forgotten by the media as the games progressed smoothly and ended without a glitch on the 14th of October, 2010. During the games, the media was lauding the host country as India gave its best performance ever to finish second on the medal tally. After the games got over, the media coverage again went back to the allegations of corruption and mismanagement that clouded over the games even before they began. The media coverage of the CWG has had a strong impact on the public perception of the games, the government and more importantly on the brand called „India‟. By understanding and mapping the content of media coverage during the Commonwealth Games, 2010 and comparing it to the pre and post event coverage, one can understand the use of media as a communications tool. There is a need to identify the reasons and triggers for the changes observed in this communication pattern. The analysis of the same would help make inferences about the antecedents of communication, describe and make characteristics of a communication and make inference about the effects of communication and also exhibit the varying treatment of nationalism in media. 7|Page
COMMONWEALTH GAMES 2010 – THE MEDIA JOURNEY
Literature Review
In the words of Tony Schwartz, media is defined as the second God, for it is all knowing and
available everywhere in various forms. He goes on to say that media is a “door to the mind and a
window to the world”. Media has the god-like power to change the course of the war or de-
thrown the king and many other things by getting direct attention of the public. (Schwartz, 1981)
The mass media includes components like newspapers, magazines, television, films, radio and
recording. They cater to the society by collecting and producing information relevant to all for
the society to function properly.
Mass Media and Effects
It has been researched that mass media has different types of effects across different range of
contexts. McGuire concluded upon most commonly used media effects (McGuire, 1986),
a) “The effects of advertising on purchasing”
b) “The effects of political campaigns on voting”
c) “The effects of public service announcements (PSAs) on personal behavior and social
improvement”
d) “The effects of propaganda on ideology”
e) “The effects of media ritual on social control”
He also stated that the most commonly observed unintended media effects are:
a) “The effect of media violence on aggressive behavior”
b) “The impact of media images on the social construction of what is in real”
c) “The effects of media bias on stereotyping”
d) “The effects of erotic and sexual material on attitudes and objectionable behaviors”
e) “How media forms affect cognitive activity and style”
According to McQuail, there are a few identified and individually recognized areas of media
effects, namely (McQuail, 1994):
a) “Knowledge gain and distribution throughout the society”
b) “Diffusion of innovations”
c) “Socialization to societal norms”
d) “Institution and cultural adaptations and changes”
8|PageCOMMONWEALTH GAMES 2010 – THE MEDIA JOURNEY
Dimensions of media effects
Research over the years has concluded that it is a good practice to analyze media effects on the
basis of a set base of dimensions (Perse, 2001).
a) Cognitive Affective Behavioral Dimension
It marks the distinction between the acquisition of knowledge about a certain event or
action and the occurrence or performance of that event or action. It implies that
knowledge and attitudes need not always transform into a action. For example, it has
been concluded that during the world war two, all media content might have been
effective in catering to the information required by the people but not influenced their
attitude formation in any way nor gave them any motivation to act on that information. It
has been researched upon that social constraints come in the way to actual actions.
b) Micro Versus Macro Level
This dimension focuses on the level of media influence – micro or macro. It is a fallacy to
assume that macro impression is the sum of individual level impressions. Scholars in fact
believe that overt emphasis on individual impressions might ignore societal impressions
and inhibit macro learning.
c) Intentional Versus Unintentional
This dimension refers to the distinction between when the media effects are intentional to
the media effects that are unintentional, in other words, are the media actions planned or
accidental. An example of unintended media effect can be the depiction of violence on
television. It has the ability of affecting social perceptions of the viewers in an
unfavorable manner. However, study of unintended media effects can lead to increase in
the effectiveness of the media.
d) Content Dependent Versus Content Irrelevant
This dimension marks the distinction between the impact of the content of the media to
the impact of just media use. It has been concluded in various research that specific
content results in specific effects. For instance, one way to reduce aggressive behavior in
children would be to reduce the amount of violence in the media content that they are
exposed to.
e) Short Term Versus Long Term
9|PageCOMMONWEALTH GAMES 2010 – THE MEDIA JOURNEY
Media can result in both short term and long term effects. Both short term and long term
effects can have profound impact but it is researched that agenda setting lasts longer.
f) Reinforcement Versus Change
This dimension focuses on the premise as to how does media content changes the society
or the culture. There is evidence that the strongest effect of communication is
reinforcement and stabilization. This happens because selective exposure to the media
ensures that the pre-existing views are reinforced. In other words, the people interpret the
media such that it supports their previously held view points.
Agenda Setting
Agenda Setting is a theory describing the news media‟s ability to influence the importance of
political issues in the mind of the public. Simply put, according to the agenda setting theory, the
media has the power to select and highlight certain events, people, and issues. Media uses
repetition as a tool to make the public believe in its agenda and accept that these same events,
people, and issues are of extreme importance.
It has been researched that public attaches more importance and relevance to the issues reported
in news than to the real-world indicators (Perse, 2001). To put it simply, if there are two sets of
people A and B and set A is exposed to news A more and less to news B, set B of people is
exposed more to news B and less to news A, then set A will consider news A as more relevant
and important than news B and set B of people will consider news B to be more relevant and
important than news A.
Agenda setting requires multiple exposures to news and it is also with selective and repeated
coverage that the perception and opinion of the public gets shaped by the public. Also, agenda
setting can only work when the issue holds an important place in the minds of the public and not
otherwise.
10 | P a g eCOMMONWEALTH GAMES 2010 – THE MEDIA JOURNEY Agenda Setting as a Peripheral Effect It can be said that saliency of issues may not always be marked by news content but by a series of peripheral cues that are inherent in the news coverage. For instance, more important the story, the sooner it shall be placed in the newscast, or shall be placed on the front page of a newspaper, or take up the most space in the newspaper or the most time in newscast. These cues are extremely important and noticeable but are at the same time irrelevant to the news stories content. Agenda setting seems to be stronger for issues that are away from one‟s daily experience rather than the issues which are directly experienced by the people (D.M. Deemers, 1989). This is because, for example, say on issues such as inflation, which the public experiences directly in its everyday life, it does not need the news to exhibit the importance of inflation to them. On the other hand, if there is an issue, for example, an infiltration of a neighboring country‟s troops across our nation‟s border, which they lack information on, they would rely on the media to provide them the whole picture of the situation and update them on time to time with it. A research done by W. Wanta suggests that the effects of agenda setting might be short term. If there is no reinforcement of news by the media, then the issue fades in the minds of the public. Also, the degree of endurance varies by the different mediums of news reporting. For instance, newspapers enjoy a longer impact. As and when news brings new issues to prominence, the older one are dropped out of the public minds. (Wanta, 1997) According to Elizabeth, on studying the agenda setting, one is exposed to the power of the news media to highlight certain issue at the expense of coverage of other issues. For instance, during the Persian Gulf War, news coverage had drowned out the probability for some other news issue to reach the public, even when the other news was the massive increase in the costs required for the bail out of failed savings and loans. This issue might have attracted more media and attention of the public if they were not focused solely on the war. (Perse, 2001) Agenda setting might also provoke involvement and interest in political activities (Perse, 2001). The media coverage of the Ethiopian famine in 1984 is a good example of the impact of the 11 | P a g e
COMMONWEALTH GAMES 2010 – THE MEDIA JOURNEY media agenda on the development of public opinion and political action. A famine in a distant country on the African continent is usually a story relegated to the back pages of the international news section. But, a dramatic BBC story about the Ethiopian famine rebroadcast on the NBC started a massive relief effort across the western world. Agenda Setting as a Cognitive-Transactional Effect According to this model, there is another view point that media not only sets and shapes the priorities in the eyes of the public, but also at the same time, it establishes the criteria for the public to use to judge the effectiveness of that event. This means that the people judge the immediate future in light of the repeated and majorly highlighted news events of the past. For instance the nation shows support for the president in times of crisis, such as during a war for instance. (Perse, 2001) This model explains why media has certain effects in the minds of the public. When media chooses to highlight certain events and news to the public, these become salient issues and events for the public. Repeated exposure to the same news and accumulation of opinions from all over allows the news to gain weight in the public‟s mind. For this reason, people lay more emphasis on prime issues and news while making decisions and forming judgements. Such role of media has some interesting implications. The role of media in deciding prime issues explains the reason for rallying effects, for example support for president during international crisis. This might even be characterized by a peripheral effect. Priming could be a result of a response to stimuli to salient media content. However, to have the desired effect that is aimed at by the agenda setting on the people, conditions may make a difference. One of those conditions might be political interest and involvement. 12 | P a g e
COMMONWEALTH GAMES 2010 – THE MEDIA JOURNEY News Framing News framing research tries to establish and understand how the presentation of news has an impact on what people think about issues, people and events. News framing is concerned with the structural aspects of news stories – namely symbols that are used for the construction of the news story (Perse, 2001). “To frame is to select some aspects of a perceived reality and make them more salient in a communicating text, in such a way as to promote a particular problem definition, casual interpretation, moral evaluation, and/or treatment recommendation” (Entman, 1993). To frame news means to choose certain parameters of the event and present them as more important while communicating in a manner that it promotes a certain type of reaction. For instance, the news report about an alleged relationship between President Clinton and a former White House intern could be framed as a corruption story or as a moral corruption story or as a sex scandal. The selection of frames is totally dependent on the choice that the journalist makes based on his collection of information by various means. Framing has an effect on the interpretation that the people draw from viewing or reading news and the judgments that they make based on it. There are some news frames that are used predominantly – Episodic, Thematic and Protest (Perse, 2001). Episodic Framing lays emphasis on presenting the concrete examples. It relies more on visuals. An example for episodic framing can be highlights of war being fought in Kashmir during the Kargil War in India. Thematic Framing provides a context to the issue being presented. It focuses on collective experiences rather than individual examples. It‟s more abstract in form and not visually oriented. An example can be the discussion on existence of caste system in India over the years and the reasons for its existence. The Protest Paradigm is not thematic but more episodic. It frames protest stories such as dharnas, boycotts, etc. 13 | P a g e
COMMONWEALTH GAMES 2010 – THE MEDIA JOURNEY Different framing results in different effects. Researchers have found that different framing techniques used for reporting different news about education, crime and economic issues resulted in igniting different takes and thoughts on the issue (V. Prince, 1997). News stories using episodic and thematic framing encourage different cognitive reactions signaling different causes to the social problems and the recommendations to solve the same problems. For example, episodic framing of poverty in India would lead the viewers to believe that they themselves are responsible for their own sad plight because of their lack of education or character. Framing may also have an impact on the kinds of solution to a political problem that people endorse. During the 9/11 crisis in the United States of America, media all over in the country portrayed war on Iraq as the only solution to the situation. The public sentiment in the continent thus too was shaped accordingly. Also, news reports on the issue but framed differently can arouse different effects in the public. Research concludes that “the structure and content of the news stories” might result in “short term effects that may have long term implications” (Perse, 2001). The immediate response to a news cast helps framing a long term opinion on certain events. Media and Audience Perception There has been extensive research to understand the influence of media depiction of social reality on audience‟ perception of collective sentiment and the psychological mechanisms underlying such media effects. The research endeavors have identified three types of media messages which can convey information about societal-level opinion distribution: base-rate information, exemplars and slanted media coverage. (WANG) Exemplars It is common media practice to do man-on-the-street interviews and to quote ordinary citizens. Despite the fact that those citizens interviewed by mass media do not necessarily reflect a representative sample of the whole population, their opinions may nonetheless influence audiences‟ perceptions of collective-level opinion distribution through a process known as ember-to-category inference (Hastie, 1983). 14 | P a g e
COMMONWEALTH GAMES 2010 – THE MEDIA JOURNEY For the common man, the media is the only means to know an opinion other than his own. Therefore, no matter what the media reports, it is bound to have an impact on the perception of the general public and influence public opinion. Sometimes, however, the opinion expressed in the media is not representative of the general public and can be a biased view of a few. Base-rate information Base-rate information is factual information about societal-level opinion distribution, such as poll results and government report. Compared with the often-biased sample of exemplars portrayed by mass media, base-rate information provides more accurate and comprehensive information about actual societal-level opinion distribution. Slanted media coverage People are likely to believe that others are vulnerable to media influence. Therefore, such an inference process finally leads to a belief of public opinion that is congruent with the direction of the slanted coverage. Slanted media coverage is likely to lead to assessment of public opinion in the corresponding direction of the slant. Therefore, those who exposed to slanted coverage are more likely to expect a prevailing majority opinion group than those who are exposed to neutral and balanced news coverage, hence difference on perceived opinion diversity. (WANG) The media covers events, and in choosing what to report and how to report, it has a strong influence in shaping the consequences they follow. In 1959, Douglas Cater dubbed the pres as the “fourth branch of the government”. Forty years later, Timothy Cook expanded on Cater‟s notion, arguing that “the American news media today are not merely part of politics; they are s part of government”. The more important the role public opinion plays in the progression on a political conflict, the greater the potential of journalists‟ choices to move events. (Jamieson & Waldman, 2003) 15 | P a g e
COMMONWEALTH GAMES 2010 – THE MEDIA JOURNEY Media – Structural Functionalism According to Elizabeth M. Perse, one approach to analyze the relationship between society and mass media is “structural functionalism”. Functionalism based on a biological inference. Society can be understood as an integrated and interdependent system of particular activities that ensure its smooth functioning. These activities are called functions. If there is disequilibrium in these functions, society acts to ensure equilibrium. (Perse, 2001) Mass media affects both hidden and obvious functions of the society, be it individual, social or cultural. Four important functions of society fall under the scope of mass media, namely: surveillance, correlation, socialization and entertainment. The media effects on these can be both positive as well as negative. (Perse, 2001) Surveillance is the information function of mass communication. This is majorly accomplished with the help of news reports. The work of the mass media is to collect, summarize and report the information that is needed by all groups to continue with their work. Mass communication is also relied upon as a medium to alert society when the need be. It not only serves the purpose of increasing awareness but also helps the public form a point of view on issues and events. Surveillance also however, can be “dysfunctional”. “War nerves” is a phenomenon caused by the anxiety due to information overload during times of crisis. This can sometimes lead to panic due to fear. (Perse, 2001) Correlation is mass communication‟s editorial and explanation function. For example, the editorial pages in the newspapers. By the aid of correlation, mass communications deciphers the relevance of information and provides clarity on the same too. This function of media primarily explains what it meant by what it reported under surveillance. However, this too can be dysfunctional for the society for the readers rely too much on the interpretation of news by media such that they might lose their own ability to critically analyze things. (Perse, 2001) Socialization as a function deals with the social values and cultural heritage transmitted by the mass communications. It promotes the values of the society in which one lives in and spreads harmony. However, this too can be dysfunctional if the ethnic and regional diversity and differences are ignored by the media. This presents an incomplete picture of the society we live in and might built slanted preferences and incomplete knowledge. (Perse, 2001) 16 | P a g e
COMMONWEALTH GAMES 2010 – THE MEDIA JOURNEY Entertainment, serves the function for rest, respite and diversion. Entertainment for societies is a form of shared experience, for example, the Olympics. This function of media can be dysfunctional as well for this function is capable of replacing more important events and activities. (Perse, 2001) Understanding the relationship between media and society by the above framework helps us understand the role media plays and the effect it might have on the society. Mass Communications during crisis The role of media is probably of the utmost importance during the time of crisis. Graber defines crises as “natural or manmade events that pose an immediate and serious threat to the lives and property or to the peace of the mind of many”. (Grabar, 1989, p. 305) Initially on the discovery of the crisis there is highest uncertainty and there is least understanding of the event. The mass media here plays a pivotal role by sending sources to gather information and report it regularly to the public. The radio and television emerged as important sources of this information. For example, for 4 days in November, 1963, media covered without interruption on the assassination and funeral of President John F. Kennedy. The functional importance of mass media increases manifold during the time of crisis. The Persian Gulf Was is an example. The National Media Index, which tracks the news in three major networks, five major newspapers, and the three major news magazines, reports that during January 21, 1991, news increased to 130% of its normal volume, almost 93% of all the news was Gulf War related. Society in times like these relies on the interpretation of events by the media. Media is also viewed as a source of confirming details during a crisis event. On hearing of President Kennedy‟s assassination, five out of six people turned to media for further information. (Perse, 2001) Media also fulfills the function of building solidarity and reducing tension. During the Persian Gulf Was, news stories built on the “yellow ribbon” theme can serve as an example. Kaid, Hairvolle, Ballotti and Wawrzyniak‟s content analysis of newspaper coverage of the gulf was 17 | P a g e
COMMONWEALTH GAMES 2010 – THE MEDIA JOURNEY concluded that the U.S involvement in the war was portrayed negatively in only 3% of the stories. (L.L. Kaid, 1993) Live broadcasts of media events such as parades allow individuals to bond with each other. According to Katz, live broadcasts of media events ensures that viewers feel that they are a part of the real experience and are planned to have an ease of access and are intentionally dramatic and emotional in content. The idea is to symbolize viewing as participation in history. The idea of suspense is created to hold the audience attention and emphasis is laid to project people involved as symbols. (Katz, 1980) Some Cases Dr. Arbind Sinha conducted a study to highlight the media role, in particular newspapers, played in creating an environment of hope and friendship between the two neighboring countries – India and Pakistan, during the cricket tournament between the two countries in the spring of 2004. In his analysis he concluded that the chosen newspapers for study laid more emphasis on the tournament and prioritized more on the temperament of the citizens of the two countries rather than that of the government. The motto of the entire media coverage was, “Winning the hearts and not only the match” and pretty much the tone was said accordingly. This lead to citizens of India know more and more about the “food, culture, markets and hospitality of Pakistan” , which was in strike contrast to the otherwise prevalent sentiments related to Pakistan in the Indian press. (Arbind Sinha) The media coverage of 9/11 and its support in the build-up of public sentiments in favor of the war on Iraq is a classic example of how media moulds public sentiment, even if it is based on incomplete or false facts. The dominant story then was the “War on Terrorism”, morphing enemy Al-Qaeda into a country Iraq and justifying the war against it, even before US declared it. Many news channels while covering war in Iraq had the American flag on screen and played patriotic songs. The coverage was biased to the extent that the number of Iraqi casualties in war went unreported. The media had succeeded in harboring the feeling of „nationalism‟ such that even the war seemed justified. 18 | P a g e
COMMONWEALTH GAMES 2010 – THE MEDIA JOURNEY Regardless of political system, war or peace, the mass media have made it their preordained mission to engage in a constant reproduction of national identity, the protection of national interest and encouragement of ritual consumption. (Brinks, Rock, & Timms, 2006) At the level of visible content, striking examples of patriotic discourse are true to form and extremely easy to spot. If nations are virtual and imagined, then one central function of the mass media is to devote earnest energy to fill this imagination with concrete material. The fanfare surrounding the Chinese media‟s coverage of the recovery of Hong Kong to Chinese sovereignty was a clear case in point. (Pan & So, 2001) For the first time in China, during the Olympics, 2008, China declared that it had removed restrictions on media reporting and movement of journalists till the Olympic Games. Despite this brave declaration, the initial media coverage to the Olympics covered critical issues which did not favor the reputation of China as a nation. The issues reported included protests against China‟s human rights record during the global torch relay, the riots in Tibet and the charges against the Dalai Lama. It was the opening ceremony which put the ball in China‟s court. The international press covered the opening Olympic ceremony in its true spectacle and consequently the media tone was reset to lauding the arrangements and preparedness of China to host the Olympics. Mena Ning Wang has analyzed the effects of media use on perceptions of opinion diversity and the psychological mechanisms underlying such effects during the Beijing Olympics, 2008 in China. The author‟s main hypothesis is that perceived opinion diversity is positively related to exposure to media containing pluralistic viewpoints and negatively related to exposure to media presenting monopolistic viewpoint. Two psychological mechanisms are proposed to lead to such predictions. They are mediated opinion distribution mechanism (i.e., media messages directly influence one‟s perception of opinion climate) and social projection mechanism (i.e., media messages indirectly influence the perception of opinion climate through its influence on one‟s own opinion). Opinion extremity mediates the effects of media use on perceived opinion diversity. (WANG) 19 | P a g e
COMMONWEALTH GAMES 2010 – THE MEDIA JOURNEY Knowledge Gap India as a nation is trying to mark its presence internationally. Already reckoned as the next „superpower‟, it is one of the fastest growing economies of the world. Economists say that it shall soon surpass China in its GDP growth. Nations are now using international multi-sport events as a means of branding themselves and building a favorable public perception domestically as well as internationally. China did this by successfully hosting the Beijing Olympic, 2008 and now India made an initiative by hosting the Commonwealth Games, 2010 in Delhi. It is for the first time that India has hosted an international event of this big a scale, eclipsing the Asian Games in 1951 and 1982. A nation‟s ability to host an international multi-sport event like the CWG exhibits its internal capabilities like infrastructural development, political stability and economic well-being. A total of 6,081 athletes from 71 countries competed in 21 sports and 272 events in CWG, 2010. An event of this scale attracted media from the world over to India, and everyone was watching the games at close lens. India, unlike China, does not have a restrictive media policy. Indian media with more than 6000 daily newspapers, more than 300 radio stations and more than 200 registered news channels has the capability of informing the domestic audiences of every second of news making at the CWG, 2010. Domestic media was supplemented by international media houses which started covering the games even before the inaugural ceremony. Several concerns were raised in the media to the build-up of the games. Issues like excessive budget overruns, likelihood of floods in Delhi, infrastructural inadequacy, poor living conditions at the Commonwealth Games Village, delays in construction and withdrawal of prominent athletes marked the headlines and lead stories of many newspapers and news channels. One of the Australian newspapers reported a scathing article, headlined, "Games are running on empty: A poorly run event may spell the end of the contest". The Daily Telegraph, London, was running a mocking series, "What's wrong in Delhi today?”. The media coverage of CWG had an impact on what the world was thinking of India. 20 | P a g e
COMMONWEALTH GAMES 2010 – THE MEDIA JOURNEY There has been no study done so far in India, on the pattern of media coverage of the CWG, 2010, in exhibiting the brand called India, domestically as well as internationally with respect to the key stake holders like the Indian Government, the Delhi government and most importantly the Commonwealth Games Organizing Committee. 21 | P a g e
COMMONWEALTH GAMES 2010 – THE MEDIA JOURNEY Research Problem Statement There is a need to understand the changes in the pattern of content and tone of communication sent out by the mass media to the world. It has an influence on shaping public perception of the country to the world outside. During the Commonwealth Games held in Delhi in 2010, media through its communication reported and influenced the opinion surrounding the main stakeholders of the games namely the government, the organizing committee and the athletes. What was reported in the media at that time formed a cumulative identity of the nation within India and to the world outside. Therefore there is a need to look at the shifts in media bias – in terms of both tone and content during the Commonwealth Games, 2010, and transcend the journey it took before, during and after the games and compare the difference. Research Objective To understand the communication pattern of CWG media coverage To map the change in media bias for the CWG – before, during and after the event To understand media‟s attempt at shaping public perception Research Methodology For this research project, qualitative research was carried out by the means of a content analysis as a tool to map the media bias by analyzing the news articles collected from the print media on the CWG – pre, during and post event for a 60 days period. 104 articles reporting on Commonwealth Games were selected from The Times of India, Delhi edition from the date of 1 September 2010 to 30 October 2010, to conduct the analysis of media journey during CWG 2010. Research Design Qualitative Research In qualitative research, analysis is the process by which data is used to identify themes, construct hypotheses, and support these themes and hypotheses. Unlike in quantitative research, in qualitative research the researcher does not seek to prove a hypothesis; instead, the aim is to show that the hypothesis is plausible. Although it seems logical for data analysis to come at the 22 | P a g e
COMMONWEALTH GAMES 2010 – THE MEDIA JOURNEY end of the research, it is really an ongoing process starting from the time that fieldwork begins. Ideas are constructed, modified, and rejected throughout the investigation. However, it is at the end of the fieldwork phase that the researcher concentrates most on analyzing the findings (Bouma & Atkinson, 1997). Qualitative research offers a deeper and more subjective approach to social science research than quantitative approach. Although many of the rules are similar, for example, that careful preparation and wide reading are needed before approaching subjects, there are substantial differences. Thus, in qualitative research, hypotheses are usually developed as the investigation develops and not before the investigation. Also some of the data may be quantified, but the analysis is qualitative. (Bouma & Atkinson, 1997:206). Content Analysis Bernard Berelson defined Content Analysis as "a research technique for the objective, systematic, and quantitative description of manifest content of communications" (Berelson, 1952). Content analysis is a research tool based on “the actual content and internal features of media”. It is used to determine the presence of certain words, concepts, themes, phrases, characters, or sentences within texts or sets of texts and to quantify this presence in an objective manner. Texts can be defined broadly as books, book chapters, essays, interviews, discussions, newspaper headlines and articles, historical documents, speeches, conversations, advertising, theater, informal conversation, or really any occurrence of communicative language. To conduct a content analysis on a text, the text is coded or broken down, into manageable categories on a variety of levels--word, word sense, phrase, sentence, or theme--and then examined using one of content analysis' basic methods: conceptual analysis or relational analysis. The results are then used to make inferences about the messages within the text(s), the writer(s), the audience, and even the culture and time of which these are a part. (Berelson, 1952) 23 | P a g e
COMMONWEALTH GAMES 2010 – THE MEDIA JOURNEY Data Text For the ease of carrying out data interpretation, the 104 news paper articles were split into three periods: Pre-CWG: 1 September 2010 to 3 October 2010 During CWG: 4 October 2010 to 13 October 2010 Post-CWG: 14 October 2010 to 31 October 2010 Pre-CWG: 1 September 2010 to 3 October 2010 Article Headline: “Grappling for Gold - Wrestling is set to give India a bagful of medals at The CWG.” By Gaurav Kanthwal Date: 1 September 2010 The article talks about the resurgence of wrestling as a sport in India owing to the recent series of great performances in Olympics and the World Wrestling Championships. The general tone is that of optimism and hope with respect to India's performance in wrestling at the Commonwealth games. This was featured in the sports section of the newspaper implying that the media did not consider the preparation of players important enough to be reported on the front page a month before the games commence, but considered that only sports enthusiasts would want to know about India‟s prospects at securing a medal. Article Headline: “CWG venues won‟t be ready even if PM mops the floor: Modi” Date: 1 September 2010 The article covers Narendra Modi's remarks on the Commonwealth Games where he says that the venues won't be ready even if the Prime Minister works himself. The tone of the remarks is critical and it shows the inadeptness of the organizers and the government in getting the facilities ready for the games. This article appears on the front page, implying that the media at this point was more interested in the politics of the CWG. The article is also very critical of India‟s ability to conduct the games. 24 | P a g e
COMMONWEALTH GAMES 2010 – THE MEDIA JOURNEY Article Headline: “Miffed Rathore pulls out of CWG trials, hits out at New Selection Policy.” By Biju Babu Cyriac Date: 1 September 2010 This article reports star shooter Rajyavardhan Singh Rahore pulling out of the Commonwealth Games due to alleged unfair selection policies of the National Rifle Association of India (NRAI). The tone is critical of the state of affairs in the selection bodies of sports in India. This article was featured in the sports section and therefore was given moderate importance. Article Headline: “SHAME: Lure of money & medals trips up subcontinent sportspersons: 4 wrestlers, shot-putter in CWG squad fail dope test. In all, eight used banned stimulant. “ By V Narayan Swamy Date: 3 September 2010 This article talks about eight Indian sportspersons failing the drug test just before the start of the Commonwealth Games, which is termed as a major embarrassment to the country. Five of these athletes had been chosen to take part in the Commonwealth Games. The tone is critical, as well as expresses shame at the careless behavior shown by the eight individuals. Article Headline: “Costly Consultancy: NDMC transparency lasts a day.” By Durgesh Nandan Jha Date: 3 September 2010 This article talks about the removal of a document from the NDMC website which detailed the amount of money they had spent on consultancies over the last five years. The blocking of the article raises suspicions, according to the article, about the Games related expenditure being done by the civic agencies. The article conveys doubt over the honesty of dealings being done by the civic agencies. This article was covered on the front page of the newspaper thereby giving it high importance. It is observed here once again the role of a critic that the media was playing before the advent of CWG and it is the politics of it that was interesting them the most and was being projected in the same manner. 25 | P a g e
COMMONWEALTH GAMES 2010 – THE MEDIA JOURNEY Article Headline: “Rudisha blow for CWG: Kenyan star pulls out; Farah opts out too.” Date: 4 September 2010 The article reports the withdrawal from participation of two star athletes David Rudisha and Mohammed Farah, and emphasizes the continuation of high profile pullouts from the Commonwealth Games. The tone is that of disappointment and it hovers on the fact that many athletes aren't giving importance to the games either because the Commonwealth has lost its relevance or India is not a preferable venue. This article was featured in the sports section. Article Headline: “CWG getting negative publicity abroad.” Date: 4 September 2010 This article expresses concern that the organizers of the Commonwealth games are beginning to face flak in the foreign media as well, for the lackluster preparation and the dengue outbreak in the capital. The tone of the article expresses embarrassment at the lack of preparation and the focus on it by the foreign media. This article was of relatively lesser importance since it was featured in the city supplement of the newspaper, which can also because of the fact that the games were getting negative publicity even in the nation by indigenous newspapers. Article Headline: “Will The Games Be Worth It? It concerns us all whether or not CWG comes to mean little gain for a lot of pain.” By Gautam Bhatia Date: 4 September 2010 The article questions if the Commonwealth Games will be worth it given the huge amount of expenditure that has been made in getting the venues ready, which are still not complete. It also wonders if the profits made will be worth the amount being spent, and if the effort will yield results as expected. The tone expresses doubt over the organization of the games, and the chances of success. This was in the editorial section of the paper and according to the agenda- setting role of the media, might have more impact in shaping the opinion of the public. 26 | P a g e
COMMONWEALTH GAMES 2010 – THE MEDIA JOURNEY Article Headline: “CWG effect: Saffron dawn over DUS.” By Manash Pratim Gohain & Neha Pushkarna Date: 5 September 2010 The article reports the results of the student elections of Delhi University, where the youth wing of the opposition party, ABVP swept the polls. It mentions that the ruling parties' failures in getting the city ready for the Commonwealth Games might have played a role in helping ABVP win. This article was featured on the front page of the newspaper, and the tone is one which signifies a cause and effect relationship. Article Headline: “Trupti hurt by CWG „snub‟.” Date: 5 September 2010 This article reports the shock and disappointment of badminton player Trupti Murgunde after not being selected for the final team which would take part in the Commonwealth Games. Trupti was the winner of the National Championship, and therefore reportedly questions the importance of national tournaments. This article was featured in the sports section of the newspaper. Article Headline: “Now, delay puts CWG events at risk CGF CEO: Things are going to go down to the wire.” Date: 6 September 2010 This article is featured on the front page of the newspaper and given very high importance, and it talks about the Commonwealth Games Federation CEO Mike Hooper expressing serious doubt if the Games Village and other venues will be ready on time, and whether the venues are safe and secure. The tone of the article is highly critical and expresses serious concern about the level of preparation to host such a major event. The media at this time was bringing forth the lack of preparation of India to host the CWG and was critical of their ability to do the same. Being a front page news, media projected it as a major embarrassment for the nation and again expressed doubts of the country‟s ability to conduct the games. 27 | P a g e
COMMONWEALTH GAMES 2010 – THE MEDIA JOURNEY Article Headline: “Worst Foot Forward: A cost-benefit analysis must be the basis for hosting mega events like the CWG.” By Ronojoy Sen Date: 7 September 2010 This article is featured in the editorial section and expresses concern over the sheer relevance of such an event to a country like India. It says that any hopes of hosting a great show have been lost long back, and it questions if bidding for such an event was a great idea in the first place. The tone is highly critical and despondent. Article Headline: “PM admits to lapses, delays on CWG front.” Date: 7 September 2010 The article reports the admission by the Prime Minister Manmohan Singh where he accepts that there have been "lapses and delays" in the preparations leading up to the Commonwealth Games. There is a clear expression of helplessness on the part of the central government to intervene at such a late stage and get things right. The tone suggests despondency and the fact that the most one can do now is to salvage grace. This article was featured in the "Nation" section of the newspaper. Article Headline: “CWG BUZZ: OC hands over venue completion certificates.” Date: 7 September 2010 The article reports the handing over of 'Venue Completion' certificates by the Organizing Committee to the CGF CEO, Mike Hooper. It also reports Mr. Hooper commenting that he hoped the certificates were valid and legitimate. The tone is that of doubt over the validity of the certificates and lack of conviction at a piece of news which is encouraging. It was featured in the sports section. Article Headline: “IOA vice-president not in favor of vuvuzelas at CWG.” Date: 8 September 2010 The article talks about the IOA president discouraging the authorities to allow vuvuzelas at the Commonwealth Games venues because of the ruckus they cause, something which could disturb 28 | P a g e
COMMONWEALTH GAMES 2010 – THE MEDIA JOURNEY the athletes taking part in the games. The tone of the article is casual, and there is no particular undertone of positivity or negativity. This was also featured in the sports section of the paper. Article Headline: “Nirupama, Rebecca out of CWG squad? “ By Biju Babu Cyriac Date: 8 September 2010 This article covers the non-inclusion of Nirupama Sunderraj and Rebecca Jose in the athletics team for India at the Commonwealth Games. It also reported an official saying that the squads had yet to be finalized, so the tone is that of doubt and uncertainty. The article was featured in the sports section of the newspaper. Article Headline: “Asian Games and CWG cash awards doubled.” Date: 8 September 2010 The article reports the announcement that the cash awards for gold medal winners will be doubled for the upcoming Commonwealth Games for Indian sportspersons, to give them extra incentive to perform better. The Sports Minister also expresses optimisim when talking about hosting a successful event. The tone is slightly optimistic in this article when compared to the others before it. Article Headline: “CWG lane trials cause traffic chaos across Delhi, NCR and Noida expressway to shut daily for 4 hours from Sept 23.” Date: 9 September 2010 This article talks about the problems caused to normal commuters due to the trial run of CWG lanes in the capital. It also informs the general public about further disruptions which will be caused in the city due to trial runs which will continue. The tone of the article suggests helplessness and disappointment. It appeared on the front page of the paper. 29 | P a g e
COMMONWEALTH GAMES 2010 – THE MEDIA JOURNEY Article Headline: “ „We‟re going into CWG with new approach‟. Harendra: Hockey has changed and we‟ve to keep pace.” By Satya Siddharth Rath Date: 10 September 2010 The article carries a hopeful and optimistic tone and it talks about the chances of the Indian Hockey Team in the upcoming Commonwealth Games. It mentions India's brilliant past in hockey which is also the national sport of the country, and discusses a new approach which the Indian team might employ. This article was featured in the sports section. Article Headline: “Cops undergo task-specific CWG training.” By Dwaipayan Ghosh Date: 11 September 2010 The article reports about the special training that Delhi policemen are undergoing in wake of the preparation for the Commonwealth Games. It also mentions that the Delhi Police will utilize help from police forces of the neighboring states. The tone of the article is encouraging. It was featured in the "City" section of the newspaper. Article Headline: “Floral Shera to add colour to CWG.” Date: 11 September 2010 The article talks about a floral depiction of Shera, the mascot of the Commonwealth Games, at the Millennium Park in Delhi, which was visited by chief minister Sheila Dikshit. This article also has an encouraging and optimistic tone, and it was featured in the city section of the newspaper. Article Headline: “Salvage India‟s pride, postpone CWG to 2011.” By Rakesh Ahuja Date: 12 September 2010 This article urges the government to postpone the Commonwealth Games to 2011, and try to salvage the nation's pride. It takes the failure of the Games as a foregone conclusion, and points out that there is nothing sacrosanct about holding the events after exactly 4 years. The tone of the article is despondent and desperate. It appeared in the editorial section of the newspaper. 30 | P a g e
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